1
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Swan P, Johnson B, le Roux CW, Miras AD. Harnessing the melanocortin system in the control of food intake and glucose homeostasis. Peptides 2024; 179:171255. [PMID: 38834138 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2024.171255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
The central and peripheral melanocortin system, comprising of five receptors and their endogenous ligands, is responsible for a wide array of physiological functions such as skin pigmentation, sexual function and development, and inflammation. A growing body of both clinical and pre-clinical research is demonstrating the relevance of this system in metabolic health. Disruption of hypothalamic melanocortin signalling is the most common cause of monogenic obesity in humans. Setmelanotide, an FDA-approved analogue of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) that functions by restoring central melanocortin signalling, has proven to be a potent pharmacological tool in the treatment of syndromic obesity. As the first effective therapy targeting the melanocortin system to treat metabolic disorders, its approval has sparked research to further harness the links between these melanocortin receptors and metabolic processes. Here, we outline the structure of the central and peripheral melanocortin system, discuss its critical role in the regulation of food intake, and review promising targets that may hold potential to treat metabolic disorders in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Swan
- Diabetes Research Centre, Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Ulster University, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom; Diabetes Complications Research Centre, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
| | - Brett Johnson
- Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
| | - Carel W le Roux
- Diabetes Research Centre, Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Ulster University, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom; Diabetes Complications Research Centre, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Alexander D Miras
- Diabetes Research Centre, Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Ulster University, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom; Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
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2
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Ericson MD, Freeman KT, Larson CM, Bouchard JL, John K, Lunzer MM, Koerperich ZM, Haskell-Luevano C. Incorporation of Three Extracyclic Arginine Residues into a Melanocortin Macrocyclic Agonist (c[Pro-His-DPhe-Arg-Trp-Dap-Lys(Arg-Arg-Arg-Ac)-DPro]) Decreases Food Intake When Administered Intrathecally or Subcutaneously Compared to a Macrocyclic Ligand Lacking Extracyclic Arginine Residues (c[Pro-His-DPhe-Arg-Trp-Dap-Ala-DPro)]. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2024; 7:1114-1125. [PMID: 38633589 PMCID: PMC11020072 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.4c00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Of the three Food and Drug Administration-approved melanocortin peptide drugs, two possess a cyclic scaffold, demonstrating that cyclized melanocortin peptides have therapeutic relevance. An extracyclic Arg residue, critical for pharmacological activity in the approved melanocortin cyclic drug setmelanotide, has also been demonstrated to increase the signal when fluorescently labeled cell-penetrating cyclic peptides are incubated with HeLa cells, with the maximal signal observed with three extracyclic Arg amino acids. Herein, a branching Lys residue was substituted into two macrocyclic melanocortin peptide agonists to incorporate 0-3 extracyclic Arg amino acids. Incorporation of the Arg residues resulted in equipotent or increased agonist potency at the mouse melanocortin receptors in vitro, suggesting that these substitutions were tolerated in the macrocyclic scaffolds. Further in vivo evaluation of one parent ligand (c[Pro-His-DPhe-Arg-Trp-Dap-Ala-Pro]) and the three Arg derivative (c[Pro-His-DPhe-Arg-Trp-Dap-Lys(Ac-Arg-Arg-Arg)-Pro)] demonstrated that the three Arg derivative further decreased food intake compared to the parent macrocycle when the compounds were administered either via intrathecal injection or subcutaneous dosing. This suggests that three extracyclic Arg amino acids may be beneficial in the design of cyclic melanocortin ligands and that in vitro pharmacological profiling may not predict the in vivo efficacy of melanocortin ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D. Ericson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Katie T. Freeman
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Courtney M. Larson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Jacob L. Bouchard
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Kristen John
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Mary M. Lunzer
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Zoe M. Koerperich
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Carrie Haskell-Luevano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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3
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Gozen O, Aypar B, Ozturk Bintepe M, Tuzcu F, Balkan B, Koylu EO, Kanit L, Keser A. Chronic Nicotine Consumption and Withdrawal Regulate Melanocortin Receptor, CRF, and CRF Receptor mRNA Levels in the Rat Brain. Brain Sci 2024; 14:63. [PMID: 38248278 PMCID: PMC10813117 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14010063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Alterations in the various neuropeptide systems in the mesocorticolimbic circuitry have been implicated in negative effects associated with drug withdrawal. The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone are two peptides that may be involved. This study investigated the regulatory effects of chronic nicotine exposure and withdrawal on the mRNA levels of melanocortin receptors (MC3R, MC4R), CRF, and CRF receptors (CRFR1 and CRFR2) expressed in the mesocorticolimbic system. Rats were given drinking water with nicotine or without nicotine (control group) for 12 weeks, after which they continued receiving nicotine (chronic exposure) or were withdrawn from nicotine for 24 or 48 h. The animals were decapitated following behavioral testing for withdrawal signs. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis demonstrated that nicotine exposure (with or without withdrawal) increased levels of CRF and CRFR1 mRNA in the amygdala, CRF mRNA in the medial prefrontal cortex, and CRFR1 mRNA in the septum. Nicotine withdrawal also enhanced MC3R and MC4R mRNA levels in different brain regions, while chronic nicotine exposure was associated with increased MC4R mRNA levels in the nucleus accumbens. These results suggest that chronic nicotine exposure and withdrawal regulate CRF and melanocortin signaling in the mesocorticolimbic system, possibly contributing to negative affective state and nicotine addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oguz Gozen
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
- Center for Brain Research, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Buket Aypar
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
| | - Meliha Ozturk Bintepe
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
| | - Fulya Tuzcu
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
| | - Burcu Balkan
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
- Center for Brain Research, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Ersin O. Koylu
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
- Center for Brain Research, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Lutfiye Kanit
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
- Center for Brain Research, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Aysegul Keser
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
- Center for Brain Research, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
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4
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Gui Y, Dahir NS, Wu Y, Downing G, Sweeney P, Cone RD. Melanocortin-3 receptor expression in AgRP neurons is required for normal activation of the neurons in response to energy deficiency. Cell Rep 2023; 42:113188. [PMID: 37792535 PMCID: PMC10728878 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) is a negative regulator of the central melanocortin circuitry via presynaptic expression on agouti-related protein (AgRP) nerve terminals, from where it regulates GABA release onto secondary MC4R-expressing neurons. However, MC3R knockout (KO) mice also exhibit defective behavioral and neuroendocrine responses to fasting. Here, we demonstrate that MC3R KO mice exhibit defective activation of AgRP neurons in response to fasting, cold exposure, or ghrelin while exhibiting normal inhibition of AgRP neurons by sensory detection of food in the ad libitum-fed state. Using a conditional MC3R KO model, we show that the control of AgRP neuron activation by fasting and ghrelin requires the specific presence of MC3R within AgRP neurons. Thus, MC3R is a crucial player in the responsiveness of the AgRP soma to both hormonal and neuronal signals of energy need.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yijun Gui
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA; Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA
| | - Naima S Dahir
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA
| | - Yanan Wu
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA; Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA
| | - Griffin Downing
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA; Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA
| | - Patrick Sweeney
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL 61801-3633, USA
| | - Roger D Cone
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA; Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA.
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5
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Kim EM, Quinn JG, Reid RE, O'Hare E. Evidence for a feeding related association between melanocortin in the NTS and Neuropeptide-Y in the PVN. Appetite 2023; 188:106618. [PMID: 37257508 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2023.106618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Melanocortin and neuropeptide-Y (NPY) are both involved in feeding and energy regulation, and they have opposite effects in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). The present study examined an interaction between melanocortin in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) and NPY in the PVN. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were implanted with cannulae in the injection sites of interest. In Experiment 1, subjects received either the melanocortin 3/4-receptor (MC3/4) antagonist SHU9119 (0, 10, 50 and 100 pmol/0.5 μl) or the MC3/4 agonist MTII (0, 10, 50, 100 and 200 pmol/0.5 μl) into the NTS. Food intake was measured at 1, 2, 4, 6 and 24-h post-injection. Administration of SHU9119 into the NTS significantly and dose-dependently increased food intake at 1, 2, 4, 6 and 6-24-h, and administration of MTII into the NTS significantly and dose-dependently decreased 24-h free feeding. In Experiment 2, subjects received the MC3/4 agonist MTII (0, 10, 50, 100 and 200 pmol/0.5 μl) into the NTS just prior to NPY (0 and 1μg/0.5 μl) in the PVN. PVN injection of NPY stimulated feeding, and administration of MTII (50, 100 and 200 pmol) into the NTS significantly and dose-dependently decreased NPY-induced feeding at 2, 4, 6 and 6-24-h. These data suggest that there could be a neuronal association between melanocortin in the NTS and NPY in the PVN, and that the melanocortin system in the NTS has an antagonistic effect on NPY-induced feeding in the PVN.
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Affiliation(s)
- E-M Kim
- School of Psychology, Ulster University, Cromore Road, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK.
| | - J G Quinn
- School of Medicine, Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - R E Reid
- School of Psychology, Dublin Business School, Ireland
| | - E O'Hare
- School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
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6
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Sweeney P, Gimenez LE, Hernandez CC, Cone RD. Targeting the central melanocortin system for the treatment of metabolic disorders. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2023; 19:507-519. [PMID: 37365323 DOI: 10.1038/s41574-023-00855-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
A large body of preclinical and clinical data shows that the central melanocortin system is a promising therapeutic target for treating various metabolic disorders such as obesity and cachexia, as well as anorexia nervosa. Setmelanotide, which functions by engaging the central melanocortin circuitry, was approved by the FDA in 2020 for use in certain forms of syndromic obesity. Furthermore, the FDA approvals in 2019 of two peptide drugs targeting melanocortin receptors for the treatment of generalized hypoactive sexual desire disorder (bremelanotide) and erythropoietic protoporphyria-associated phototoxicity (afamelanotide) demonstrate the safety of this class of peptides. These approvals have also renewed excitement in the development of therapeutics targeting the melanocortin system. Here, we review the anatomy and function of the melanocortin system, discuss progress and challenges in developing melanocortin receptor-based therapeutics, and outline potential metabolic and behavioural disorders that could be addressed using pharmacological agents targeting these receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Sweeney
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Luis E Gimenez
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Roger D Cone
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, College of Literature Science and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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7
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Gebrie A. The melanocortin receptor signaling system and its role in neuroprotection against neurodegeneration: Therapeutic insights. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2023; 1527:30-41. [PMID: 37526975 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.15048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
The melanocortin signaling system consists of the melanocortin peptides, their distinctive receptors, accessory proteins, and endogenous antagonists. Melanocortin peptides are small peptide hormones that have been studied in a variety of physiological and pathological conditions. There are five types of melanocortin receptors, and they are distributed within the central nervous system and in several tissues of the periphery. The G protein-coupled melanocortin receptors typically signal through adenylyl cyclase and other downstream signaling pathways. Depending on the ligand, surface expression of melanocortin receptor, receptor occupancy period, related proteins, the type of cell, and other parameters, the signaling pathways are complicated and pleiotropic. While it is known that all five melanocortin receptors are coupled to Gs, they can also occasionally couple to Gq or Gi. Both direct and indirect neuroprotection are induced by the melanocortin signaling system. Targeting several of the components of the melanocortin signaling system (ligands, receptors, accessory proteins, signaling effectors, and regulators) may provide therapeutic opportunities. Activation of the melanocortin system improves different functional traits in neurodegenerative diseases. There is a potential for additional melanocortin system interventions by interfering with dimerization or dissociation. This review aims to discuss the melanocortin receptor signaling system and its role in neuroprotection, as well as its therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alemu Gebrie
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, Debre Markos University, Debre Markos, Ethiopia
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8
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Feng W, Zhou Q, Chen X, Dai A, Cai X, Liu X, Zhao F, Chen Y, Ye C, Xu Y, Cong Z, Li H, Lin S, Yang D, Wang MW. Structural insights into ligand recognition and subtype selectivity of the human melanocortin-3 and melanocortin-5 receptors. Cell Discov 2023; 9:81. [PMID: 37524700 PMCID: PMC10390531 DOI: 10.1038/s41421-023-00586-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Members of the melanocortin receptor (MCR) family that recognize different melanocortin peptides mediate a broad spectrum of cellular processes including energy homeostasis, inflammation and skin pigmentation through five MCR subtypes (MC1R-MC5R). The structural basis of subtype selectivity of the endogenous agonist γ-MSH and non-selectivity of agonist α-MSH remains elusive, as the two agonists are highly similar with a conserved HFRW motif. Here, we report three cryo-electron microscopy structures of MC3R-Gs in complex with γ-MSH and MC5R-Gs in the presence of α-MSH or a potent synthetic agonist PG-901. The structures reveal that α-MSH and γ-MSH adopt a "U-shape" conformation, penetrate into the wide-open orthosteric pocket and form massive common contacts with MCRs via the HFRW motif. The C-terminus of γ-MSH occupies an MC3R-specific complementary binding groove likely conferring subtype selectivity, whereas that of α-MSH distances itself from the receptor with neglectable contacts. PG-901 achieves the same potency as α-MSH with a shorter length by rebalancing the recognition site and mimicking the intra-peptide salt bridge in α-MSH by cyclization. Solid density confirmed the calcium ion binding in MC3R and MC5R, and the distinct modulation effects of divalent ions were demonstrated. Our results provide insights into ligand recognition and subtype selectivity among MCRs, and expand the knowledge of signal transduction among MCR family members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbo Feng
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingtong Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xianyue Chen
- Research Center for Deepsea Bioresources, Sanya, Hainan, China
| | - Antao Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- The National Center for Drug Screening, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoqing Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- The National Center for Drug Screening, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiao Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fenghui Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- The National Center for Drug Screening, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chenyu Ye
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yingna Xu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhaotong Cong
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hao Li
- Research Center for Deepsea Bioresources, Sanya, Hainan, China
| | - Shi Lin
- Research Center for Deepsea Bioresources, Sanya, Hainan, China
| | - Dehua Yang
- Research Center for Deepsea Bioresources, Sanya, Hainan, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.
- The National Center for Drug Screening, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Ming-Wei Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
- Research Center for Deepsea Bioresources, Sanya, Hainan, China.
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
- School of Pharmacy, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan, China.
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9
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Gui Y, Dahir NS, Downing G, Sweeney P, Cone RD. Cell autonomous regulation of the activation of AgRP neurons by the melanocortin-3 receptor. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.28.546874. [PMID: 37425887 PMCID: PMC10327035 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.28.546874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
The melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) is a negative regulator of the central melanocortin circuitry via presynaptic expression on AgRP nerve terminals, from where it regulates GABA release onto secondary MC4R-expressing neurons. Hence, animals lacking MC3R (MC3R KO) exhibit hypersensitivity to MC4R agonists. However, MC3R KO mice also exhibit defective behavioral and neuroendocrine responses to fasting. Here, we demonstrate that MC3R KO mice exhibit defective activation of AgRP neurons in response to fasting and cold exposure, while exhibiting normal inhibition of AgRP neurons by sensory detection of food. Further, using an AgRP-specific MC3R knockout model, we show that the control of AgRP neuron activation by MC3R is cell-autonomous. One mechanism underlying this involves the response to ghrelin, which is also blunted in mice with AgRP-specific deletion of the MC3R. Thus, MC3R is a crucial player in the control of energy homeostasis by the central melanocortin system, not only acting presynaptically on AgRP neurons, but via AgRP cell-autonomous regulation of fasting- and cold-induced neuronal activation as well.
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10
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Ericson MD, Tran LT, Mathre SS, Freeman KT, Holdaway K, John K, Lunzer MM, Bouchard JL, Haskell-Luevano C. Discovery of a Pan-Melanocortin Receptor Antagonist [Ac-DPhe(pI)-Arg-Nal(2')-Orn-NH 2] at the MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, and MC5R that Mediates an Increased Feeding Response in Mice and a 40-Fold Selective MC1R Antagonist [Ac-DPhe(pI)-DArg-Nal(2')-Arg-NH 2]. J Med Chem 2023; 66:8103-8117. [PMID: 37307241 PMCID: PMC10631449 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c00432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Discovery of pan-antagonist ligands for the melanocortin receptors will help identify the physiological activities controlled by these receptors. The previously reported MC3R/MC4R antagonist Ac-DPhe(pI)-Arg-Nal(2')-Arg-NH2 was identified herein, for the first time, to possess MC1R and MC5R antagonist activity. Further structure-activity relationship studies probing the second and fourth positions were performed toward the goal of identifying potent melanocortin antagonists. Of the 21 tetrapeptides synthesized, 13 possessed MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, and MC5R antagonist activity. Three tetrapeptides were more than 10-fold selective for the mMC1R, including 8 (LTT1-44, Ac-DPhe(pI)-DArg-Nal(2')-Arg-NH2) that possessed 80 nM mMC1R antagonist potency and was at least 40-fold selective over the mMC3R, mMC4R, and mMC5R. Nine tetrapeptides were selective for the mMC4R, including 14 [SSM1-8, Ac-DPhe(pI)-Arg-Nal(2')-Orn-NH2] with an mMC4R antagonist potency of 1.6 nM. This compound was administered IT into mice, resulting in a dose-dependent increase in the food intake and demonstrating the in vivo utility of this compound series.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Ericson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Linh T Tran
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Sarah S Mathre
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Katie T Freeman
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Kelsey Holdaway
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Kristen John
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Mary M Lunzer
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Jacob L Bouchard
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Carrie Haskell-Luevano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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11
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Ericson MD, Freeman KT, LaVoi TM, Donow HM, Santos RG, Giulianotti MA, Pinilla C, Houghten RA, Haskell-Luevano C. The Parallel Structure-Activity Relationship Screening of Three Compounds Identifies the Common Agonist Pharmacophore of Pyrrolidine Bis-Cyclic Guanidine Melanocortin-3 Receptor (MC3R) Small-Molecule Ligands. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10145. [PMID: 37373293 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2023] [Revised: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The melanocortin receptors are involved in numerous physiological pathways, including appetite, skin and hair pigmentation, and steroidogenesis. In particular, the melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) is involved in fat storage, food intake, and energy homeostasis. Small-molecule ligands developed for the MC3R may serve as therapeutic lead compounds for treating disease states of energy disequilibrium. Herein, three previously reported pyrrolidine bis-cyclic guanidine compounds with five sites for molecular diversity (R1-R5) were subjected to parallel structure-activity relationship studies to identify the common pharmacophore of this scaffold series required for full agonism at the MC3R. The R2, R3, and R5 positions were required for full MC3R efficacy, while truncation of either the R1 or R4 positions in all three compounds resulted in full MC3R agonists. Two additional fragments, featuring molecular weights below 300 Da, were also identified that possessed full agonist efficacy and micromolar potencies at the mMC5R. These SAR experiments may be useful in generating new small-molecule ligands and chemical probes for the melanocortin receptors to help elucidate their roles in vivo and as therapeutic lead compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Ericson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Katie T Freeman
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Travis M LaVoi
- Center for Translational Science, Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, FL 34987, USA
| | - Haley M Donow
- Center for Translational Science, Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, FL 34987, USA
| | - Radleigh G Santos
- Department of Mathematics, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314, USA
| | - Marc A Giulianotti
- Center for Translational Science, Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, FL 34987, USA
| | - Clemencia Pinilla
- Center for Translational Science, Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, FL 34987, USA
| | - Richard A Houghten
- Center for Translational Science, Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, FL 34987, USA
| | - Carrie Haskell-Luevano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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12
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Argiolas A, Argiolas FM, Argiolas G, Melis MR. Erectile Dysfunction: Treatments, Advances and New Therapeutic Strategies. Brain Sci 2023; 13:802. [PMID: 37239274 PMCID: PMC10216368 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13050802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Erectile dysfunction (ED) is the inability to get and maintain an adequate penile erection for satisfactory sexual intercourse. Due to its negative impacts on men's life quality and increase during aging (40% of men between 40 and 70 years), ED has always attracted researchers of different disciplines, from urology, andrology and neuropharmacology to regenerative medicine, and vascular and prosthesis implant surgery. Locally and/or centrally acting drugs are used to treat ED, e.g., phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors (first in the list) given orally, and phentolamine, prostaglandin E1 and papaverine injected intracavernously. Preclinical data also show that dopamine D4 receptor agonists, oxytocin and α-MSH analogues may have a role in ED treatment. However, since pro-erectile drugs are given on demand and are not always efficacious, new strategies are being tested for long lasting cures of ED. These include regenerative therapies, e.g., stem cells, plasma-enriched platelets and extracorporeal shock wave treatments to cure damaged erectile tissues. Although fascinating, these therapies are laborious, expensive and not easily reproducible. This leaves old vacuum erection devices and penile prostheses as the only way to get an artificial erection and sexual intercourse with intractable ED, with penile prosthesis used only by accurately selected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Argiolas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (F.M.A.); (M.R.M.)
| | - Francesco Mario Argiolas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (F.M.A.); (M.R.M.)
| | - Giacomo Argiolas
- General Medicine Unit, Hospital San Michele, ARNAS“G. Brotzu”, Piazzale Ricchi 1, 09100 Cagliari, Italy;
| | - Maria Rosaria Melis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (F.M.A.); (M.R.M.)
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13
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Markov DD, Dolotov OV, Grivennikov IA. The Melanocortin System: A Promising Target for the Development of New Antidepressant Drugs. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076664. [PMID: 37047638 PMCID: PMC10094937 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Major depression is one of the most prevalent mental disorders, causing significant human suffering and socioeconomic loss. Since conventional antidepressants are not sufficiently effective, there is an urgent need to develop new antidepressant medications. Despite marked advances in the neurobiology of depression, the etiology and pathophysiology of this disease remain poorly understood. Classical and newer hypotheses of depression suggest that an imbalance of brain monoamines, dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA) and immune system, or impaired hippocampal neurogenesis and neurotrophic factors pathways are cause of depression. It is assumed that conventional antidepressants improve these closely related disturbances. The purpose of this review was to discuss the possibility of affecting these disturbances by targeting the melanocortin system, which includes adrenocorticotropic hormone-activated receptors and their peptide ligands (melanocortins). The melanocortin system is involved in the regulation of various processes in the brain and periphery. Melanocortins, including peripherally administered non-corticotropic agonists, regulate HPAA activity, exhibit anti-inflammatory effects, stimulate the levels of neurotrophic factors, and enhance hippocampal neurogenesis and neurotransmission. Therefore, endogenous melanocortins and their analogs are able to complexly affect the functioning of those body’s systems that are closely related to depression and the effects of antidepressants, thereby demonstrating a promising antidepressant potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitrii D. Markov
- National Research Center “Kurchatov Institute”, Kurchatov Sq. 2, 123182 Moscow, Russia
| | - Oleg V. Dolotov
- National Research Center “Kurchatov Institute”, Kurchatov Sq. 2, 123182 Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia
| | - Igor A. Grivennikov
- National Research Center “Kurchatov Institute”, Kurchatov Sq. 2, 123182 Moscow, Russia
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14
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Yanik T, Durhan ST. Specific Functions of Melanocortin 3 Receptor (MC3R). J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol 2023; 15:1-6. [PMID: 36053086 PMCID: PMC9976164 DOI: 10.4274/jcrpe.galenos.2022.2022-5-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanocortin 3 receptor (MC3R) is a G-protein coupled receptor which has been defined mostly as a regulator of the appetite/hunger balance mechanisms to date. In addition to its function regarding the weight gain and appetite control mechanisms of MC3R, recent studies have shown that MC3R controls growth, puberty, and circadian rhythms as well. Despite the drastic effects of MC3R deficiency in humans and other mammals, its cellular mechanisms are still under investigation. In this review paper, we aimed to point out the importance of MC3R regulations in three main areas: 1) its impact on weight and appetite control, 2) its role in the control of growth, puberty, and the circadian rhythm, and, 3) its protein-protein interactions and cellular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tulin Yanik
- Middle East Technical University, Department of Biological Sciences, Ankara, Turkey,* Address for Correspondence: Middle East Technical University, Department of Biological Sciences, Ankara, Turkey Phone: +90 312 210 64 65 E-mail:
| | - Seyda Tugce Durhan
- Middle East Technical University, Department of Biochemistry, Ankara, Turkey
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15
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Hall MAL, Kohut-Jackson AL, Peyla AC, Friedman GD, Simco NJ, Borland JM, Meisel RL. Melanocortin receptor 3 and 4 mRNA expression in the adult female Syrian hamster brain. Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 16:1038341. [PMID: 36910260 PMCID: PMC9995703 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2023.1038341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Melanocortin 3 receptors (MC3R) and melanocortin 4 receptors (MC4R) are vital in regulating a variety of functions across many species. For example, the dysregulation of these receptors results in obesity and dysfunction in sexual behaviors. Only a handful of studies have mapped the expression of MC3R and MC4R mRNA across the central nervous system, with the primary focus on mice and rats. Because Syrian hamsters are valuable models for functions regulated by melanocortin receptors, our current study maps the distribution of MC3R and MC4R mRNA in the Syrian hamster telencephalon, diencephalon, and midbrain using RNAscope. We found that the expression of MC3R mRNA was lowest in the telencephalon and greatest in the diencephalon, whereas the expression of MC4R mRNA was greatest in the midbrain. A comparison of these findings to previous studies found that MC3R and MC4R expression is similar in some brain regions across species and divergent in others. In addition, our study identifies novel brain regions for the expression of MC3Rs and MC4Rs, and identifies cells that co-express bothMC3 and MC4 receptors within certain brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan A. L. Hall
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
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16
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Mo H, Yu H, Li Y, Ezeorba TPC, Zhang Z, Yao M, Yu J, Xiong D, Liu H, Wang L. Molecular cloning and functional characterization of melanocortin-3 receptor in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2023; 49:155-167. [PMID: 36547499 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-022-01164-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The melanocortin-3-receptor (MC3R) plays an important role in mammals' food intake and energy homeostasis. However, its physiological role in bony fishes, such as grass carp, has not been well understood. This study reports the molecular cloning, tissue distribution, and pharmacological characterization of grass carp melanocortin-3-receptor (ciMC3R). Phylogenetic and chromosomal synteny analyses indicated that ciMC3R was closest to cyprinid fishes in evolution. Quantitative PCR experiments revealed that the mRNA of ciMC3R was highly expressed in the brain of grass carp. The cytological function of ciMC3R was investigated by the co-transfection of pcDNA3.1-ciMC3R and the signal-pathway-specific luciferase into the HEK293T cells. Results revealed that the four agonists, α-MSH, β-MSH, ACTH, and NDP-MSH, potentiate the activation of ciMC3R and further increase the production of cAMP and upregulate the MAPK/ERK signaling, respectively. Our study will provide basic data for exploring the physiological functions of grass carp MC3R, especially in energy homeostasis and food intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haolin Mo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Huixia Yu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yang Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Timothy P C Ezeorba
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Nigeria, Ihe Nsukka, Nsukka, 41001, Nigeria
| | - Zhihao Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Mingxin Yao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiajia Yu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Dongmei Xiong
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Haixia Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Lixin Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
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17
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Du YY, Yao MX, Yu HX, Mo HL, Yang QY, Yu JJ, Wang LX, Zhou JS, Li Y. Molecular cloning, tissue distribution, and pharmacologic function of melanocortin-3 receptor in common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Gen Comp Endocrinol 2023; 330:114149. [PMID: 36336108 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2022.114149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) not only regulates energy homeostasis in animals, but also is an important regulator of inflammation. As one of the most widely farmed freshwater fish, common carp has attracted great interest for its feeding and inflammation regulation. In this study, we cloned the coding sequence (CDS) of common carp Mc3r (ccMc3r), examined its tissue expression profile, and investigated the function of this receptor in mediating downstream signaling pathways. The results showed that the CDS of ccMc3r was 975 bp, encoding a putative protein of 324 amino acids. Homology, phylogeny, and chromosomal synteny analyses revealed that ccMc3r is evolutionarily close to the orthologs of cyprinids. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) indicated that ccMc3r was highly expressed in the brain and intestine. The luciferase reporter systems showed that four ligands, ACTH (1-24), α-MSH, β-MSH, and NDP-MSH, were able to activate the cAMP and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways downstream of ccMc3r with different potencies. For the cAMP signaling pathway, ACTH (1-24) had the highest activation potency; while for the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway, β-MSH had the greatest activation effect. In addition, we found that the four agonists were able to inhibit TNF-α-induced NF-κB signaling in approximately the same order of potency as cAMP signaling activation. This study may facilitate future studies on the role of Mc3r in common carp feed efficiency and immune regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-You Du
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Ming-Xing Yao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Hui-Xia Yu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Hao-Lin Mo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Qi-Yuan Yang
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Jia-Jia Yu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Li-Xin Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Ji-Shu Zhou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yang Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China.
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18
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Micioni Di Bonaventura E, Botticelli L, Del Bello F, Giorgioni G, Piergentili A, Quaglia W, Romano A, Gaetani S, Micioni Di Bonaventura MV, Cifani C. Investigating the role of the central melanocortin system in stress and stress-related disorders. Pharmacol Res 2022; 185:106521. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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19
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Bedenbaugh MN, Brener SC, Maldonado J, Lippert RN, Sweeney P, Cone RD, Simerly RB. Organization of neural systems expressing melanocortin-3 receptors in the mouse brain: Evidence for sexual dimorphism. J Comp Neurol 2022; 530:2835-2851. [PMID: 35770983 PMCID: PMC9724692 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The central melanocortin system is fundamentally important for controlling food intake and energy homeostasis. Melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) is one of two major receptors of the melanocortin system found in the brain. In contrast to the well-characterized melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), little is known regarding the organization of MC3R-expressing neural circuits. To increase our understanding of the intrinsic organization of MC3R neural circuits, identify specific differences between males and females, and gain a neural systems level perspective of this circuitry, we conducted a brain-wide mapping of neurons labeled for MC3R and characterized the distribution of their projections. Analysis revealed MC3R neuronal and terminal labeling in multiple brain regions that control a diverse range of physiological functions and behavioral processes. Notably, dense labeling was observed in the hypothalamus, as well as areas that share considerable connections with the hypothalamus, including the cortex, amygdala, thalamus, and brainstem. Additionally, MC3R neuronal labeling was sexually dimorphic in several areas, including the anteroventral periventricular area, arcuate nucleus, principal nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and ventral premammillary region. Altogether, anatomical evidence reported here suggests that MC3R has the potential to influence several different classes of motivated behavior that are essential for survival, including ingestive, reproductive, defensive, and arousal behaviors, and is likely to modulate these behaviors differently in males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle N. Bedenbaugh
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Samantha C. Brener
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jose Maldonado
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Rachel N. Lippert
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbruecke, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Patrick Sweeney
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Roger D. Cone
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Richard B. Simerly
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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20
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Ji RL, Jiang SS, Tao YX. Modulation of Canine Melanocortin-3 and -4 Receptors by Melanocortin-2 Receptor Accessory Protein 1 and 2. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12111608. [PMID: 36358958 PMCID: PMC9687446 DOI: 10.3390/biom12111608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural melanocortin receptors (MCRs), melanocortin-3 and -4 receptors (MC3R and MC4R), have crucial roles in regulating energy homeostasis. The melanocortin-2 receptor accessory proteins (MRAPs, MRAP1 and MRAP2) have been shown to regulate neural MCRs in a species-specific manner. The potential effects of MRAP1 and MRAP2 on canine neural MCRs have not been investigated before. Herein, we cloned canine (c) MC3R and identified one canine MRAP2 splice variant, MRAP2b, with N-terminal extension of cMRAP2a. Canine MC3R showed higher maximal responses to five agonists than those of human MC3R. We further investigated the modulation of cMRAP1, cMRAP2a, and cMRAP2b, on cMC3R and cMC4R pharmacology. For the cMC3R, all MRAPs had no effect on trafficking; cMRAP1 significantly decreased Bmax whereas cMRAP2a and cMRAP2b significantly increased Bmax. Both MRAP1 and MRAP2a decreased Rmaxs in response to α-MSH and ACTH; MRAP2b only decreased α-MSH-stimulated cAMP generation. For the MC4R, MRAP1 and MRAP2a increased cell surface expression, and MRAP1 and MRAP2a increased Bmaxs. All MRAPs had increased affinities to α-MSH and ACTH. MRAP2a increased ACTH-induced cAMP levels, whereas MRAP2b decreased α-MSH- and ACTH-stimulated cAMP production. These findings may lead to a better understanding of the regulation of neural MCRs by MRAP1 and MRAP2s.
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21
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Yuan XC, Tao YX. Ligands for Melanocortin Receptors: Beyond Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormones and Adrenocorticotropin. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12101407. [PMID: 36291616 PMCID: PMC9599618 DOI: 10.3390/biom12101407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of melanocortins in 1916 has resulted in more than 100 years of research focused on these peptides. Extensive studies have elucidated well-established functions of melanocortins mediated by cell surface receptors, including MSHR (melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor) and ACTHR (adrenocorticotropin receptor). Subsequently, three additional melanocortin receptors (MCRs) were identified. Among these five MCRs, MC3R and MC4R are expressed primarily in the central nervous system, and are therefore referred to as the neural MCRs. Since the central melanocortin system plays important roles in regulating energy homeostasis, targeting neural MCRs is emerging as a therapeutic approach for treating metabolic conditions such as obesity and cachexia. Early efforts modifying endogenous ligands resulted in the development of many potent and selective ligands. This review focuses on the ligands for neural MCRs, including classical ligands (MSH and agouti-related peptide), nonclassical ligands (lipocalin 2, β-defensin, small molecules, and pharmacoperones), and clinically approved ligands (ACTH, setmelanotide, bremelanotide, and several repurposed drugs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Chen Yuan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230061, China
| | - Ya-Xiong Tao
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Correspondence:
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22
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Ericson MD, Larson CM, Freeman KT, Nicke L, Geyer A, Haskell-Luevano C. Incorporation of Indoylated Phenylalanine Yields a Sub-Micromolar Selective Melanocortin-4 Receptor Antagonist Tetrapeptide. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:27656-27663. [PMID: 35967074 PMCID: PMC9366794 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c03307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The melanocortin family is involved in many physiological functions, including pigmentation, steroidogenesis, and appetite. The centrally expressed melanocortin-3 and melanocortin-4 receptors (MC3R and MC4R) possess overlapping but distinct roles in energy homeostasis. Herein, the third and fourth positions of a tetrapeptide lead compound [Ac-Arg-Arg-(pI)DPhe-Tic-NH2], previously reported to possess MC3R agonist and MC4R antagonist activities, were substituted with indoylated phenylalanine (Wsf/Wrf) residues in an attempt to generate receptor subtype selective compounds. At the third position, d-amino acids were required for melanocortin agonist activity, while both l- and d-residues resulted in MC4R antagonist activity. These results indicate that l-indoylated phenylalanine residues at the third position of the scaffold can generate MC4R over MC3R selective antagonist ligands, resulting in a substitution pattern that may be exploited for novel MC4R ligands that can be used to probe the in vivo activity of the MC4R without involvement of the MC3R.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D. Ericson
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Courtney M. Larson
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Katie T. Freeman
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Lennart Nicke
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Philipps-University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4, Marburg 35032, Germany
| | - Armin Geyer
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Philipps-University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4, Marburg 35032, Germany
| | - Carrie Haskell-Luevano
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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23
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Melanocortin-5 Receptor: Pharmacology and Its Regulation of Energy Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158727. [PMID: 35955857 PMCID: PMC9369360 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Revised: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
As the most recent melanocortin receptor (MCR) identified, melanocortin-5 receptor (MC5R) has unique tissue expression patterns, pharmacological properties, and physiological functions. Different from the other four MCR subtypes, MC5R is widely distributed in both the central nervous system and peripheral tissues and is associated with multiple functions. MC5R in sebaceous and preputial glands regulates lipid production and sexual behavior, respectively. MC5R expressed in immune cells is involved in immunomodulation. Among the five MCRs, MC5R is the predominant subtype expressed in skeletal muscle and white adipose tissue, tissues critical for energy metabolism. Activated MC5R triggers lipid mobilization in adipocytes and glucose uptake in skeletal muscle. Therefore, MC5R is a potential target for treating patients with obesity and diabetes mellitus. Melanocortin-2 receptor accessory proteins can modulate the cell surface expression, dimerization, and pharmacology of MC5R. This minireview summarizes the molecular and pharmacological properties of MC5R and highlights the progress made on MC5R in energy metabolism. We poInt. out knowledge gaps that need to be explored in the future.
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Dunigan AI, Roseberry AG. Actions of feeding-related peptides on the mesolimbic dopamine system in regulation of natural and drug rewards. ADDICTION NEUROSCIENCE 2022; 2:100011. [PMID: 37220637 PMCID: PMC10201992 DOI: 10.1016/j.addicn.2022.100011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The mesolimbic dopamine system is the primary neural circuit mediating motivation, reinforcement, and reward-related behavior. The activity of this system and multiple behaviors controlled by it are affected by changes in feeding and body weight, such as fasting, food restriction, or the development of obesity. Multiple different peptides and hormones that have been implicated in the control of feeding and body weight interact with the mesolimbic dopamine system to regulate many different dopamine-dependent, reward-related behaviors. In this review, we summarize the effects of a selected set of feeding-related peptides and hormones acting within the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens to alter feeding, as well as food, drug, and social reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna I. Dunigan
- Department of Biology and Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Aaron G. Roseberry
- Department of Biology and Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
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Tao YX. Mutations in melanocortin-4 receptor: From fish to men. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2022; 189:215-257. [PMID: 35595350 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2022.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), expressed abundantly in the hypothalamus, is a critical regulator of energy homeostasis, including both food intake and energy expenditure. Shortly after the publication in 1997 of the Mc4r knockout phenotypes in mice, including increased food intake and severe obesity, the first mutations in MC4R were reported in humans in 1998. Studies in the subsequent two decades have established MC4R mutation as the most common monogenic form of obesity, especially in early-onset severe obesity. Studies in animals, from fish to mammals, have established the conserved physiological roles of MC4R in all vertebrates in regulating energy balance. Drug targeting MC4R has been recently approved for treating morbid genetic obesity. How the MC4R can be exploited for animal production is highly worthy of active investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Xiong Tao
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States.
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Gimenez LE, Noblin TA, Williams SY, Mullick Bagchi S, Ji RL, Tao YX, Jeppesen CB, Conde-Frieboes KW, Sawyer TK, Grieco P, Cone RD. Demonstration of a Common DPhe 7 to DNal(2') 7 Peptide Ligand Antagonist Switch for Melanocortin-3 and Melanocortin-4 Receptors Identifies the Systematic Mischaracterization of the Pharmacological Properties of Melanocortin Peptides. J Med Chem 2022; 65:5990-6000. [PMID: 35404053 PMCID: PMC9059122 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Melanocortin peptides containing a 3-(2-naphthyl)-d-alanine residue in position 7 (DNal(2')7), reported as melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) subtype-specific agonists in two separate publications, were found to lack significant MC3R agonist activity. The cell lines used at the University of Arizona for pharmacological characterization of these peptides, consisting of HEK293 cells stably transfected with human melanocortin receptor subtypes MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, or MC5R, were then obtained and characterized by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). While the MC1R cell line correctly expressed only hMCR1, the three other cell lines were mischaracterized with regard to receptor subtype expression. The demonstration that a 3-(2-naphthyl)-d-alanine residue in position 7, irrespective of the melanocortin peptide template, results primarily in the antagonism of MC3R and MC4R then allowed us to search the published literature for additional errors. The erroneously characterized DNal(2')7-containing peptides date back to 2003; thus, our analysis suggests that systematic mischaracterization of the pharmacological properties of melanocortin peptides occurred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis E. Gimenez
- Life
Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States,
| | - Terry A. Noblin
- Life
Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Savannah Y. Williams
- Life
Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | | | - Ren-Lei Ji
- Department
of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, United States
| | - Ya-Xiong Tao
- Department
of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, United States
| | | | | | - Tomi K. Sawyer
- Courage
Therapeutics, 64 Homer
Street, Newton, Massachusetts 02459, United States
| | - Paolo Grieco
- #Department of Pharmacy and ∇CIRPEB, Centro Interuniversitario
di Ricerca sui
Peptidi Bioattivi, University of Naples,
Federico II, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Roger D. Cone
- Life
Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States,Department
of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States,
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Goit RK, Taylor AW, Yin Lo AC. The central melanocortin system as a treatment target for obesity and diabetes: A brief overview. Eur J Pharmacol 2022; 924:174956. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2022.174956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Melanocortin-4 receptor signaling in the central amygdala mediates chronic inflammatory pain effects on nociception. Neuropharmacology 2022; 210:109032. [PMID: 35304172 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Chronic inflammatory pain represents one of the largest subsets of chronic pain diagnoses, which affect nearly a quarter of individuals in the United States and cost nearly $600 billion dollars annually. Chronic pain leads to persistent sensory hypersensitivities, as well as emotional and cognitive disturbances. Evidence suggests that melanocortin 4 receptors (MC4Rs) mediate pain-signaling and pain-like behaviors via actions at various nodes in the pain-neural axis, but the field lacks a complete understanding of the potential role of MC4Rs in chronic inflammatory pain in males and females. The central amygdala (CeA) expresses high quantities of MC4R and receives pain-related information from the periphery, and in vivo CeA manipulations alter nociceptive behavior in pain-naïve and in animals with chronic pain. Here, we tested the hypothesis that MC4Rs in the CeA modulate thermal nociception and mechanical sensitivity, as well as pain avoidance, in male and female Wistar rats, using a model of chronic inflammatory pain (Complete Freud's Adjuvant; CFA). First, we report that CFA produces long-lasting hyperalgesia in adult male and female Wistar rats, and long-lasting pain avoidance in male Wistar rats. Second, we report that MC4R antagonism in the CeA reduces thermal nociception and mechanical sensitivity in male and female Wistar rats treated with CFA. Finally, we report that MC4R antagonism in the CeA reduces pain avoidance in male, and that this effect is not due to drug effects on locomotor activity. Our results indicate that a model of chronic inflammatory pain produces long-lasting increases in pain-like behaviors in adult male and female Wistar rats, and that antagonism of MC4Rs in the CeA reverses those effects.
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Wang X, Xue S, Lei X, Song W, Li L, Li X, Fu Y, Zhang C, Zhang H, Luo Y, Wang M, Lin G, Zhang C, Guo J. Pharmacological Evaluation of Melanocortin 2 Receptor Accessory Protein 2 on Axolotl Neural Melanocortin Signaling. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:820896. [PMID: 35250878 PMCID: PMC8891371 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.820896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The Melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) and Melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), two members of the key hypothalamic neuropeptide signaling, function as complex mediators to control the central appetitive and energy homeostasis. The melanocortin 2 receptor accessory protein 2 (MRAP2) is well-known for its modulation on the trafficking and signaling of MC3R and MC4R in mammals. In this study, we cloned and elucidated the pharmacological profiles of MRAP2 on the regulation of central melanocortin signaling in a relatively primitive poikilotherm amphibian species, the Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum). Our results showed the higher conservation of axolotl mc3r and mc4r across species than mrap2, especially the transmembrane regions in these proteins. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the axolotl MC3R/MC4R clustered closer to their counterparts in the clawed frog, whereas MRAP2 fell in between the reptile and amphibian clade. We also identified a clear co-expression of mc3r, mc4r, and mrap2 along with pomc and agrp in the axolotl brain tissue. In the presence of MRAP2, the pharmacological stimulation of MC3R by α-MSH or ACTH significantly decreased. MRAP2 significantly decreased the cell surface expression of MC4R in a dose dependent manner. The co-localization and formation of the functional complex of axolotl MC3R/MC4R and MRAP2 on the plasma membrane were further confirmed in vitro. Dramatic changes of the expression levels of mc3r, mrap2, pomc, and agrp in the fasting axolotl hypothalamus indicated their critical roles in the metabolic regulation of feeding behavior and energy homeostasis in the poikilotherm aquatic amphibian.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaozhu Wang
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Song Xue
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaowei Lei
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenqi Song
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei Li
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Institute of Precision Medicine, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xuan Li
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanbin Fu
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury Repair and Regeneration of Ministry of Education, Orthopaedic Department of Tongji Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hailin Zhang
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
- Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury Repair and Regeneration of Ministry of Education, Orthopaedic Department of Tongji Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yao Luo
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Meng Wang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Institute of Precision Medicine, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Gufa Lin
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
- Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury Repair and Regeneration of Ministry of Education, Orthopaedic Department of Tongji Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chao Zhang
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Guo
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
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Ji RL, Tao YX. Regulation of Melanocortin-3 and -4 Receptors by Isoforms of Melanocortin-2 Receptor Accessory Protein 1 and 2. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12020244. [PMID: 35204745 PMCID: PMC8961526 DOI: 10.3390/biom12020244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The neural melanocortin receptors (MCRs), melanocortin-3 and -4 receptors (MC3R and MC4R), play essential non-redundant roles in the regulation of energy homeostasis. Interaction of neural MCRs and melanocortin-2 receptor accessory proteins (MRAPs, MRAP1 and MRAP2) is suggested to play pivotal roles in MC3R and MC4R signaling. In the present study, we identified two new human (h) MRAP2 splice variants, MRAP2b (465 bp open reading frame) and MRAP2c (381 bp open reading frame). Human MRAP2s are different in C-termini. We investigated the effects of five isoforms of MRAPs, hMRAP1a, hMRAP1b, hMRAP2a, hMRAP2b, and hMRAP2c, on MC3R and MC4R pharmacology. At the hMC3R, hMRAP1a and hMRAP2c increased and hMRAP1b decreased the cell surface expression. hMRAP1a increased affinity to ACTH. Four MRAPs (hMRAP1a, hMRAP1b, hMRAP2a, and hMRAP2c) decreased the maximal responses in response to α-MSH and ACTH. For hMC4R, hMRAP1a, hMRAP2a, and hMRAP2c increased the cell surface expression of hMC4R. Human MRAP1b significantly increased affinity to ACTH while MRAP2a decreased affinity to ACTH. Human MRAP1a increased ACTH potency. MRAPs also affected hMC4R basal activities, with hMRAP1s increasing and hMRAP2s decreasing the basal activities. In summary, the newly identified splicing variants, hMRAP2b and hMRAP2c, could regulate MC3R and MC4R pharmacology. The two MRAP1s and three MRAP2s had differential effects on MC3R and MC4R trafficking, binding, and signaling. These findings led to a better understanding of the regulation of neural MCRs by MRAP1s and MRAP2s.
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Translational advances of melanocortin drugs: Integrating biology, chemistry and genetics. Semin Immunol 2022; 59:101603. [PMID: 35341670 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2022.101603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Melanocortin receptors have emerged as important targets with a very unusual versatility, as their widespread distribution on multiple tissues (e.g. skin, adrenal glands, brain, immune cells, exocrine glands) together with the variety of physiological processes they control (pigmentation, cortisol release, satiety mechanism, inflammation, secretions), place this family of receptors as genuine therapeutic targets for many disorders. This review focuses in the journey of the development of melanocortin receptors as therapeutic targets from the discovery of their existence in the early 1990 s to the approval of the first few drugs of this class. Two major areas of development characterise the current state of melanocortin drug development: their role in obesity, recently culminated with the approval of setmelanotide, and their potential for the treatment of chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis or fibrosis. The pro-resolving nature of these drugs offers the advantage of acting by mimicking the way our body naturally resolves inflammation, expecting fewer side effects and a more balanced (i.e. non-immunosuppressive) response from them. Here we also review the approaches followed for the design and development of novel compounds, the importance of the GPCR nature of these receptors in the process of drug development, therapeutic value, current challenges and successes, and the potential for the implementation of precision medicine approaches through the incorporation of genetics advances.
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Liu T, Ji RL, Tao YX. Naturally occurring mutations in G protein-coupled receptors associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pharmacol Ther 2021; 234:108044. [PMID: 34822948 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2021.108044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of membrane receptors involved in the regulation of almost all known physiological processes. Dysfunctions of GPCR-mediated signaling have been shown to cause various diseases. The prevalence of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), two strongly associated disorders, is increasing worldwide, with tremendous economical and health burden. New safer and more efficacious drugs are required for successful weight reduction and T2DM treatment. Multiple GPCRs are involved in the regulation of energy and glucose homeostasis. Mutations in these GPCRs contribute to the development and progression of obesity and T2DM. Therefore, these receptors can be therapeutic targets for obesity and T2DM. Indeed some of these receptors, such as melanocortin-4 receptor and glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor, have provided important new drugs for treating obesity and T2DM. This review will focus on the naturally occurring mutations of several GPCRs associated with obesity and T2DM, especially incorporating recent large genomic data and insights from structure-function studies, providing leads for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Liu
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
| | - Ren-Lei Ji
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
| | - Ya-Xiong Tao
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
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Xu Y, Li L, Zheng J, Wang M, Jiang B, Zhai Y, Lu L, Zhang C, Kuang Z, Yang X, Jin LN, Lin G, Zhang C. Pharmacological modulation of the cAMP signaling of two isoforms of melanocortin-3 receptor by melanocortin receptor accessory proteins in the tetrapod Xenopus laevis. Endocr Connect 2021; 10:1477-1488. [PMID: 34678757 PMCID: PMC8630767 DOI: 10.1530/ec-21-0179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
As a member of the seven-transmembrane rhodopsin-like G protein-coupled receptor superfamily, the melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) is vital for the regulation of energy homeostasis and rhythms synchronizing in mammals, and its pharmacological effect could be directly influenced by the presence of melanocortin receptor accessory proteins (MRAPs), MRAP1 and MRAP2. The tetrapod amphibian Xenopus laevis (xl) retains higher duplicated genome than extant teleosts and serves as an ideal model system for embryonic development and physiological studies. However, the melanocortin system of the Xenopus laevis has not yet been thoroughly evaluated. In this work, we performed sequence alignment, phylogenetic tree, and synteny analysis of two xlMC3Rs. Co-immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence assay further confirmed the co-localization and in vitro interaction of xlMC3Rs with xlMRAPs on the plasma membrane. Our results demonstrated that xlMRAP2.L/S could improve α-MSH-stimulated xlMC3Rs signaling and suppress their surface expression. Moreover, xlMC3R.L showed a similar profile on the ligands and surface expression in the presence of xlMRAP1.L. Overall, the distinct pharmacological modulation of xlMC3R.L and xlMC3R.S by dual MRAP2 proteins elucidated the functional consistency of melanocortin system during genomic duplication of tetrapod vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Xu
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei Li
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jihong Zheng
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Meng Wang
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bopei Jiang
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yue Zhai
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Liumei Lu
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cong Zhang
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhe Kuang
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaomei Yang
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
- Correspondence should be addressed to X Yang or L-N Jin or G Lin or C Zhang: or or or
| | - Li-Na Jin
- Department of Hematology, Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
- Correspondence should be addressed to X Yang or L-N Jin or G Lin or C Zhang: or or or
| | - Gufa Lin
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
- Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury Repair and Regeneration of Ministry of Education, Orthopaedic Department of Tongji Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
- Correspondence should be addressed to X Yang or L-N Jin or G Lin or C Zhang: or or or
| | - Chao Zhang
- Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
- Correspondence should be addressed to X Yang or L-N Jin or G Lin or C Zhang: or or or
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Ji RL, Huang L, Wang Y, Liu T, Fan SY, Tao M, Tao YX. Topmouth culter melanocortin-3 receptor: regulation by two isoforms of melanocortin-2 receptor accessory protein 2. Endocr Connect 2021; 10:1489-1501. [PMID: 34678761 PMCID: PMC8630771 DOI: 10.1530/ec-21-0459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) is a regulator of energy homeostasis, and interaction of MC3R and melanocortin-2 receptor accessory protein 2 (MRAP2) plays a critical role in MC3R signaling of mammals. However, the physiological roles of MC3R in teleosts are not well understood. In this study, qRT-PCR was used to measure gene expression. Radioligand binding assay was used to study the binding properties of topmouth culter MC3R (caMC3R). Intracellular cAMP generation was determined by RIA, and caMC3R expression was quantified with flow cytometry. We showed that culter mc3r had higher expression in the CNS. All agonists could bind and stimulate caMC3R to increase dose dependently intracellular cAMP accumulation. Compared to human MC3R, culter MC3R showed higher constitutive activity, higher efficacies, and Rmax to alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), des-α-MSH, and adrenocorticotrophic hormone. Both caMRAP2a and caMRAP2b markedly decreased caMC3R basal cAMP production. However, only caMRAP2a significantly decreased cell surface expression, Bmax, and Rmax of caMC3R. Expression analysis suggested that MRAP2a and MRAP2b might be more important in regulating MC3R/MC4R signaling during larval period, and reduced mc3r, mc4r, and pomc expression might be primarily involved in modulation of MC3R/MC4R in adults. These data indicated that the cloned caMC3R was a functional receptor. MRAP2a and MRAP2b had different effects on expression and signaling of caMC3R. In addition, expression analysis suggested that MRAP2s, receptors, and hormones might play different roles in regulating culter development and growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ren-Lei Ji
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA
| | - Lu Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, Hunan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yin Wang
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA
| | - Ting Liu
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA
| | - Si-Yu Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, Hunan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Min Tao
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, Hunan, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence should be addressed to M Tao or Y-X Tao: or
| | - Ya-Xiong Tao
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA
- Correspondence should be addressed to M Tao or Y-X Tao: or
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Lam BYH, Williamson A, Finer S, Day FR, Tadross JA, Gonçalves Soares A, Wade K, Sweeney P, Bedenbaugh MN, Porter DT, Melvin A, Ellacott KLJ, Lippert RN, Buller S, Rosmaninho-Salgado J, Dowsett GKC, Ridley KE, Xu Z, Cimino I, Rimmington D, Rainbow K, Duckett K, Holmqvist S, Khan A, Dai X, Bochukova EG, Trembath RC, Martin HC, Coll AP, Rowitch DH, Wareham NJ, van Heel DA, Timpson N, Simerly RB, Ong KK, Cone RD, Langenberg C, Perry JRB, Yeo GS, O'Rahilly S. MC3R links nutritional state to childhood growth and the timing of puberty. Nature 2021; 599:436-441. [PMID: 34732894 PMCID: PMC8819628 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-04088-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The state of somatic energy stores in metazoans is communicated to the brain, which regulates key aspects of behaviour, growth, nutrient partitioning and development1. The central melanocortin system acts through melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) to control appetite, food intake and energy expenditure2. Here we present evidence that MC3R regulates the timing of sexual maturation, the rate of linear growth and the accrual of lean mass, which are all energy-sensitive processes. We found that humans who carry loss-of-function mutations in MC3R, including a rare homozygote individual, have a later onset of puberty. Consistent with previous findings in mice, they also had reduced linear growth, lean mass and circulating levels of IGF1. Mice lacking Mc3r had delayed sexual maturation and an insensitivity of reproductive cycle length to nutritional perturbation. The expression of Mc3r is enriched in hypothalamic neurons that control reproduction and growth, and expression increases during postnatal development in a manner that is consistent with a role in the regulation of sexual maturation. These findings suggest a bifurcating model of nutrient sensing by the central melanocortin pathway with signalling through MC4R controlling the acquisition and retention of calories, whereas signalling through MC3R primarily regulates the disposition of calories into growth, lean mass and the timing of sexual maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Y H Lam
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - A Williamson
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - S Finer
- Wolfson Institute of Population Health, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - F R Day
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - J A Tadross
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - A Gonçalves Soares
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit and Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - K Wade
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit and Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - P Sweeney
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - M N Bedenbaugh
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - D T Porter
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - A Melvin
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - K L J Ellacott
- Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter, UK
| | - R N Lippert
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition, Potsdam, Germany
| | - S Buller
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - J Rosmaninho-Salgado
- Medical Genetics Unit, Hospital Pediátrico, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - G K C Dowsett
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - K E Ridley
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Z Xu
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - I Cimino
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - D Rimmington
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - K Rainbow
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - K Duckett
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - S Holmqvist
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - A Khan
- Wolfson Institute of Population Health, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - X Dai
- Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University London, London, UK
| | - E G Bochukova
- Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University London, London, UK
| | - R C Trembath
- School of Basic and Medical Biosciences, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - H C Martin
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - A P Coll
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - D H Rowitch
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - N J Wareham
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - D A van Heel
- Wolfson Institute of Population Health, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
- Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University London, London, UK
| | - N Timpson
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit and Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - R B Simerly
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - K K Ong
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - R D Cone
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - C Langenberg
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Computational Medicine, Berlin Institute of Health at Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - J R B Perry
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - G S Yeo
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - S O'Rahilly
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, UK.
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Zhang X, Wang X, Wang S, Peng W, Ullah R, Fu J, Zhou Y, Shen Y. Trilogy Development of Proopiomelanocortin Neurons From Embryonic to Adult Stages in the Mice Retina. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:718851. [PMID: 34676208 PMCID: PMC8523858 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.718851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Proopiomelanocortin-positive amacrine cells (POMC ACs) were first discovered in adult mouse retinas in 2010; however, the development of POMC-ACs has not been studied. We bred POMC-EGFP mice to label POMC-positive cells and investigated the development of POMC neurons from embryonic to adult stages. We found that POMC neuron development is mainly divided into three stages: the embryonic stage, the closed-eye stage, and the open-eye stage. Each stage has unique characteristics. In the embryonic stage, POMC neurons appeared in the retina at about E13. There was a cell number developmental peak at E15, followed by a steep decline at E16. POMC neurons showed a large soma and increased spine numbers at the closed-eye stage, and two dendritic sublaminas formed in the inner plexiform layer (IPL). The appearance and increased soma size and dendrite numbers did not occur continuously in space. We found that the soma number was asymmetric between the superior and inferior retinas according to the developmental topographic map. Density peaked in the superior retina, which existed persistently in the retinal ganglion cell layer (GCL), but disappeared from the inner nuclear layer (INL) at about P6. At the same time, the soma distribution in the INL was the most regular. At the open-eye stage, the development of POMC neurons was nearly stable only with only an increase in the IPL width, which increased the soma–dendrite distance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuhong Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoyu Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Center for Brain Research and Brain-Machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Senjie Wang
- Department of Endocrinology, The Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wei Peng
- Department of Endocrinology, The Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Rahim Ullah
- Center for Brain Research and Brain-Machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Department of Endocrinology, The Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Junfen Fu
- Department of Endocrinology, The Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yudong Zhou
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Center for Brain Research and Brain-Machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ye Shen
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Zhou Y, Chawla MK, Rios-Monterrosa JL, Wang L, Zempare MA, Hruby VJ, Barnes CA, Cai M. Aged Brains Express Less Melanocortin Receptors, Which Correlates with Age-Related Decline of Cognitive Functions. Molecules 2021; 26:6266. [PMID: 34684847 PMCID: PMC8541441 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26206266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain G-protein coupled receptors have been hypothesized to be potential targets for maintaining or restoring cognitive function in normal aged individuals or in patients with neurodegenerative disease. A number of recent reports suggest that activation of melanocortin receptors (MCRs) in the brain can significantly improve cognitive functions of normal rodents and of different rodent models of the Alzheimer's disease. However, the potential impact of normative aging on the expression of MCRs and their potential roles for modulating cognitive function remains to be elucidated. In the present study, we first investigated the expression of these receptors in six different brain regions of young (6 months) and aged (23 months) rats following assessment of their cognitive status. Correlation analysis was further performed to reveal potential contributions of MCR subtypes to spatial learning and memory. Our results revealed statistically significant correlations between the expression of several MCR subtypes in the frontal cortex/hypothalamus and the hippocampus regions and the rats' performance in spatial learning and memory only in the aged rats. These findings support the hypothesis that aging has a direct impact on the expression and function of MCRs, establishing MCRs as potential drug targets to alleviate aging-induced decline of cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhou
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (Y.Z.); (J.L.R.-M.); (L.W.); (V.J.H.)
| | - Monica K. Chawla
- Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (M.K.C.); (M.A.Z.); (C.A.B.)
- Division of Neural Systems, Memory & Aging, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Jose L. Rios-Monterrosa
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (Y.Z.); (J.L.R.-M.); (L.W.); (V.J.H.)
| | - Lingzhi Wang
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (Y.Z.); (J.L.R.-M.); (L.W.); (V.J.H.)
| | - Marc A. Zempare
- Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (M.K.C.); (M.A.Z.); (C.A.B.)
- Division of Neural Systems, Memory & Aging, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Victor J. Hruby
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (Y.Z.); (J.L.R.-M.); (L.W.); (V.J.H.)
| | - Carol A. Barnes
- Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (M.K.C.); (M.A.Z.); (C.A.B.)
- Division of Neural Systems, Memory & Aging, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
- Department of Psychology, Neurology and Neuroscience, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Minying Cai
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (Y.Z.); (J.L.R.-M.); (L.W.); (V.J.H.)
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38
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Ericson MD, Doering SR, Larson CM, Freeman KT, LaVoi TM, Donow HM, Santos RG, Cho RH, Koerperich ZM, Giulianotti MA, Pinilla C, Houghten RA, Haskell-Luevano C. Functional Mixture-Based Positional Scan Identifies a Library of Antagonist Tetrapeptide Sequences (LAtTeS) with Nanomolar Potency for the Melanocortin-4 Receptor and Equipotent with the Endogenous AGRP(86-132) Antagonist. J Med Chem 2021; 64:14860-14875. [PMID: 34592820 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) plays an important role in appetite. Agonist ligands that stimulate the MC4R decrease appetite, while antagonist compounds increase food consumption. Herein, a functional mixture-based positional scan identified novel MC4R antagonist sequences. Mixtures comprising a library of 12,960,000 tetrapeptides were screened in the presence and absence of the NDP-MSH agonist. These results led to the synthesis of 48 individual tetrapeptides, of which 40 were screened for functional activity at the melanocortin receptors. Thirteen compounds were found to possess nanomolar antagonist potency at the MC4R, with the general tetrapeptide sequence Ac-Aromatic-Basic-Aromatic-Basic-NH2. The most notable results include the identification of tetrapeptide 48 [COR1-25, Ac-DPhe(pI)-Arg-Nal(2')-Arg-NH2], an equipotent MC4R antagonist to agouti-related protein [AGRP(86-132)], more potent than miniAGRP(87-120), and possessing 15-fold selectivity for the MC4R versus the MC3R. These tetrapeptides may serve as leads for novel appetite-inducing therapies to treat states of negative energy balance, such as cachexia and anorexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Ericson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translation Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Skye R Doering
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translation Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Courtney M Larson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translation Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Katie T Freeman
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translation Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Travis M LaVoi
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Haley M Donow
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Radleigh G Santos
- Nova Southeastern University, 3301 College Avenue, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33314, United States
| | - Rachel H Cho
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translation Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Zoe M Koerperich
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translation Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Marc A Giulianotti
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Clemencia Pinilla
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Richard A Houghten
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Carrie Haskell-Luevano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translation Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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Li Y, Wang X, Lu L, Wang M, Zhai Y, Tai X, Dilimulati D, Lei X, Xu J, Zhang C, Fu Y, Qu S, Li Q, Zhang C. Identification of novel GPCR partners of the central melanocortin signaling. Mol Metab 2021; 53:101317. [PMID: 34400348 PMCID: PMC8458986 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Homo- or heterodimerization of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) generally affects the normal functioning of these receptors and mediates the responses to a variety of physiological stimuli in vivo. It is well known that melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) and melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) are key regulators of appetite and energy homeostasis in the central nervous system. However, the GPCR partners of MC3R and MC4R are not well understood. Our objective is to analyze single cell RNA-seq datasets of the hypothalamus to explore and identify novel GPCR partners of MC3R and MC4R and examine the pharmacological effect on the downstream signal transduction and membrane translocation of melanocortin receptors. METHODS We conducted an integrative analysis of multiple single cell RNA-seq datasets to reveal the expression pattern and correlation of GPCR families in the mouse hypothalamus. The emerging GPCRs with important metabolic functions were selected for cloning and co-immunoprecipitation validation. The positive GPCR partners were then tested for the pharmacological activation, competitive binding assay and surface translocation ELISA experiments. RESULTS Based on the expression pattern of GPCRs and their function enrichment results, we narrowed down the range of potential GPCR interaction with MC3R and MC4R for further confirmation. Co-immunoprecipitation assay verified 23 and 32 novel GPCR partners that interacted with MC3R and MC4R in vitro. The presence of these GPCR partners exhibited different effects in the physiological regulation and signal transduction of MC3R and MC4R. CONCLUSIONS This work represented the first large-scale screen for the functional GPCR complex of central melanocortin receptors and defined a composite metabolic regulatory GPCR network of the hypothalamic nucleuses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunpeng Li
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, National Metabolic Management Center, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, Frontier Science Center for Stem Cell Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaozhu Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy and Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Frontier Science Center for Stem Cell Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Liumei Lu
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, National Metabolic Management Center, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, Frontier Science Center for Stem Cell Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Meng Wang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Institute of Precision Medicine, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yue Zhai
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, National Metabolic Management Center, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, Frontier Science Center for Stem Cell Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaolu Tai
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, National Metabolic Management Center, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, Frontier Science Center for Stem Cell Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Diliqingna Dilimulati
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, National Metabolic Management Center, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaowei Lei
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, National Metabolic Management Center, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, Frontier Science Center for Stem Cell Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Xu
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, National Metabolic Management Center, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, Frontier Science Center for Stem Cell Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cong Zhang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Institute of Precision Medicine, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanbin Fu
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Institute of Precision Medicine, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shen Qu
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, National Metabolic Management Center, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Qingfeng Li
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Institute of Precision Medicine, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| | - Chao Zhang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Institute of Precision Medicine, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
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40
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VTA MC3R neurons control feeding in an activity- and sex-dependent manner in mice. Neuropharmacology 2021; 197:108746. [PMID: 34371079 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Increasing evidence indicates that the melanocortin and mesolimbic dopamine (DA) systems interact to regulate feeding and body weight. Because melanocortin-3 receptors (MC3R) are highly expressed in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), we tested whether VTA neurons expressing these receptors (VTA MC3R neurons) control feeding and body weight in vivo. We also tested whether there were sex differences in the ability of VTA MC3R neurons to control feeding, as MC3R -/- mice show sex-dependent alterations in reward feeding and DA levels, and there are clear sex differences in multiple DA-dependent behaviors and disorders. Designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADD) were used to acutely activate and inhibit VTA MC3R neurons and changes in food intake and body weight were measured. Acutely altering the activity of VTA MC3R neurons decreased feeding in an activity- and sex-dependent manner, with acute activation decreasing feeding, but only in females, and acute inhibition decreasing feeding, but only in males. These differences did not appear to be due to sex differences in the number of VTA MC3R neurons, the ability of hM3Dq to activate VTA MC3R neurons, or the proportion of VTA MC3R neurons expressing tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). These studies demonstrate an important role for VTA MC3R neurons in the control of feeding and reveal important sex differences in behavior, whereby opposing changes in neuronal activity in male and female mice cause similar changes in behavior.
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41
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Sweeney P, Bedenbaugh MN, Maldonado J, Pan P, Fowler K, Williams SY, Gimenez LE, Ghamari-Langroudi M, Downing G, Gui Y, Hadley CK, Joy ST, Mapp AK, Simerly RB, Cone RD. The melanocortin-3 receptor is a pharmacological target for the regulation of anorexia. Sci Transl Med 2021; 13:13/590/eabd6434. [PMID: 33883274 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abd6434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Ablation of hypothalamic AgRP (Agouti-related protein) neurons is known to lead to fatal anorexia, whereas their activation stimulates voracious feeding and suppresses other motivational states including fear and anxiety. Despite the critical role of AgRP neurons in bidirectionally controlling feeding, there are currently no therapeutics available specifically targeting this circuitry. The melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) is expressed in multiple brain regions and exhibits sexual dimorphism of expression in some of those regions in both mice and humans. MC3R deletion produced multiple forms of sexually dimorphic anorexia that resembled aspects of human anorexia nervosa. However, there was no sexual dimorphism in the expression of MC3R in AgRP neurons, 97% of which expressed MC3R. Chemogenetic manipulation of arcuate MC3R neurons and pharmacologic manipulation of MC3R each exerted potent bidirectional regulation over feeding behavior in male and female mice, whereas global ablation of MC3R-expressing cells produced fatal anorexia. Pharmacological effects of MC3R compounds on feeding were dependent on intact AgRP circuitry in the mice. Thus, the dominant effect of MC3R appears to be the regulation of the AgRP circuitry in both male and female mice, with sexually dimorphic sites playing specialized and subordinate roles in feeding behavior. Therefore, MC3R is a potential therapeutic target for disorders characterized by anorexia, as well as a potential target for weight loss therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Sweeney
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Michelle N Bedenbaugh
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA
| | - Jose Maldonado
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA
| | - Pauline Pan
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Katelyn Fowler
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | | | - Luis E Gimenez
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Masoud Ghamari-Langroudi
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA
| | - Griffin Downing
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, School of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Yijun Gui
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, School of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Colleen K Hadley
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Stephen T Joy
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Anna K Mapp
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Department of Chemistry, School of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Richard B Simerly
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA.
| | - Roger D Cone
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA. .,Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, School of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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42
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Fortin SM, Chen J, Grill HJ, Hayes MR. The Mesencephalic Trigeminal Nucleus Controls Food Intake and Body Weight via Hindbrain POMC Projections. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13051642. [PMID: 34068091 PMCID: PMC8152732 DOI: 10.3390/nu13051642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus (Mes5) processes oral sensory–motor information, but its role in the control of energy balance remains unexplored. Here, using fluorescent in situ hybridization, we show that the Mes5 expresses the melanocortin-4 receptor. Consistent with MC4R activation in other areas of the brain, we found that Mes5 microinjection of the MC4R agonist melanotan-II (MTII) suppresses food intake and body weight in the mouse. Furthermore, NTS POMC-projecting neurons to the Mes5 can be chemogenetically activated to drive a suppression in food intake. Taken together, these findings highlight the Mes5 as a novel target of melanocortinergic control of food intake and body weight regulation, although elucidating the endogenous role of this circuit requires future study. While we observed the sufficiency of Mes5 MC4Rs for food intake and body weight suppression, these receptors do not appear to be necessary for food intake or body weight control. Collectively, the data presented here support the functional relevance of the NTS POMC to Mes5 projection pathway as a novel circuit that can be targeted to modulate food intake and body weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha M. Fortin
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (S.M.F.); (J.C.)
| | - Jack Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (S.M.F.); (J.C.)
| | - Harvey J. Grill
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
| | - Matthew R. Hayes
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (S.M.F.); (J.C.)
- Correspondence:
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43
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Doering SR, Freeman K, Debevec G, Geer P, Santos RG, Lavoi TM, Giulianotti MA, Pinilla C, Appel JR, Houghten RA, Ericson MD, Haskell-Luevano C. Discovery of Nanomolar Melanocortin-3 Receptor (MC3R)-Selective Small Molecule Pyrrolidine Bis-Cyclic Guanidine Agonist Compounds Via a High-Throughput "Unbiased" Screening Campaign. J Med Chem 2021; 64:5577-5592. [PMID: 33886285 PMCID: PMC8552302 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c02041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The central melanocortin-3 and melanocortin-4 receptors (MC3R, MC4R) are key regulators of body weight and energy homeostasis. Herein, the discovery and characterization of first-in-class small molecule melanocortin agonists with selectivity for the melanocortin-3 receptor over the melanocortin-4 receptor are reported. Identified via "unbiased" mixture-based high-throughput screening approaches, pharmacological evaluation of these pyrrolidine bis-cyclic guanidines resulted in nanomolar agonist activity at the melanocortin-3 receptor. The pharmacological profiles at the remaining melanocortin receptor subtypes tested indicated similar agonist potencies at both the melanocortin-1 and melanocortin-5 receptors and antagonist or micromolar agonist activities at the melanocortin-4 receptor. This group of small molecules represents a new area of chemical space for the melanocortin receptors with mixed receptor pharmacology profiles that may serve as novel lead compounds to modulate states of dysregulated energy balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skye R Doering
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Katie Freeman
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Ginamarie Debevec
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Phaedra Geer
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Radleigh G Santos
- Nova Southeastern University, 3301 College Avenue, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33314, United States
| | - Travis M Lavoi
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Marc A Giulianotti
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Clemencia Pinilla
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Jon R Appel
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Richard A Houghten
- Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, Florida 34987, United States
| | - Mark D Ericson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Carrie Haskell-Luevano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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44
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Benko AL, Wright AD, Sunyer T, Kovacs WJ, Olsen NJ. Pituitary neuropeptides and B lymphocyte function. Scand J Immunol 2021; 94:e13041. [PMID: 33817820 DOI: 10.1111/sji.13041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This review discusses the accumulated evidence that pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) gene products as well as other pituitary neuropeptides derived from related genes (Proenkephalin, PENK; Prodynorphin, PDYN, and Pronociceptin, PNOC) can exert direct effects on B lymphocytes to modulate their functions. We also review the available data on receptor systems that might be involved in the transmission of such hormonal signals to B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann L Benko
- Division of Rheumatology, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, USA
| | | | | | - William J Kovacs
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Nancy J Olsen
- Division of Rheumatology, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, USA
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45
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Yeo GSH, Chao DHM, Siegert AM, Koerperich ZM, Ericson MD, Simonds SE, Larson CM, Luquet S, Clarke I, Sharma S, Clément K, Cowley MA, Haskell-Luevano C, Van Der Ploeg L, Adan RAH. The melanocortin pathway and energy homeostasis: From discovery to obesity therapy. Mol Metab 2021; 48:101206. [PMID: 33684608 PMCID: PMC8050006 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Over the past 20 years, insights from human and mouse genetics have illuminated the central role of the brain leptin-melanocortin pathway in controlling mammalian food intake, with genetic disruption resulting in extreme obesity, and more subtle polymorphic variations influencing the population distribution of body weight. At the end of 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved setmelanotide, a melanocortin 4 receptor agonist, for use in individuals with severe obesity due to either pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1 (PCSK1), or leptin receptor (LEPR) deficiency. Scope of review Herein, we chart the melanocortin pathway's history, explore its pharmacology, genetics, and physiology, and describe how a neuropeptidergic circuit became an important druggable obesity target. Major conclusions Unravelling the genetics of the subset of severe obesity has revealed the importance of the melanocortin pathway in appetitive control; coupling this with studying the molecular pharmacology of compounds that bind melanocortin receptors has brought a new obesity drug to the market. This process provides a drug discovery template for complex disorders, which for setmelanotide took 25 years to transform from a single gene into an approved drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giles S H Yeo
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, University of Cambridge Metabolic Research Laboratories, Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK.
| | | | - Anna-Maria Siegert
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, University of Cambridge Metabolic Research Laboratories, Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Zoe M Koerperich
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA 55455.
| | - Mark D Ericson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA 55455.
| | - Stephanie E Simonds
- Metabolism, Diabetes, and Obesity Programme, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Courtney M Larson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA 55455.
| | - Serge Luquet
- Université de Paris, BFA, UMR 8251, CNRS, Paris, France.
| | - Iain Clarke
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | | | - Karine Clément
- Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Nutrition Department, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Nutrition and Obesity: Systemic Approaches (NutriOmics) Research Unit, Paris, France.
| | - Michael A Cowley
- Metabolism, Diabetes, and Obesity Programme, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Carrie Haskell-Luevano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA 55455.
| | | | - Roger A H Adan
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, UMCU Brain Centre, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht University, the Netherlands; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
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46
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Wang W, Lin YJ, Chen ZX, Guo DY. Identification and characterization of two novel melanocortin-3 receptor mutations in Chinese obese individuals. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2021; 1867:166107. [PMID: 33621651 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2021.166107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) and melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), known as neural melanocortin receptors, have been implicated to be critical components of the hypothalamic leptin-melanocortin pathway and related to obesity pathogenesis. In contrast to extensive evidence from physiologic, biological, genetic studies demonstrating that MC4R is a critical regulator in obesity, whether MC3R mutation causes obesity is still controversial. In the present study, we screened for coding variants in the MC3R gene of 176 obese individuals (mean BMI 34.84 ± 0.19 kg/m2) and 170 lean controls (mean BMI 20.70 ± 0.08 kg/m2) to assess the prevalence of MC3R mutations in a Chinese cohort. Two novel mutations, A33D (c.C98 > A) and A259T (c.G775 > A), were identified in two subjects with morbid obesity, respectively. A259T was also identified in the carrier's sibling. In vitro functional studies showed that A33D was defective in the cAMP signaling pathway, whereas A259T MC3R had defective maximal binding and cAMP generation in response to NDP- and α-MSH, likely due to decreased cell surface expression. In addition, we showed that A33D and A259T were biased receptors and defect in constitutive activation of ERK1/2 signaling through MC3R might be a cause for morbid obesity. Our sequencing and co-segregation studies combined with comprehensive functional analysis demonstrated that A259T might be predisposing to obesity. Further investigations in larger cohorts will be needed in order to define this association and the specific phenotypic characteristics resulting from these mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Department of Clinical laboratory, Xiamen Huli Guoyu Clinic, Co., Ltd., 128 Hetongli Rd, Huli District, Xiamen 361000, China.
| | - Yue-Jun Lin
- Department of Clinical laboratory, Xiamen Huli Guoyu Clinic, Co., Ltd., 128 Hetongli Rd, Huli District, Xiamen 361000, China
| | - Zhao-Xia Chen
- Department of Clinical laboratory, Xiamen Huli Guoyu Clinic, Co., Ltd., 128 Hetongli Rd, Huli District, Xiamen 361000, China
| | - Dong-Yu Guo
- Department of Clinical laboratory, Xiamen Huli Guoyu Clinic, Co., Ltd., 128 Hetongli Rd, Huli District, Xiamen 361000, China.
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47
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Ericson MD, Haslach EM, Schnell SM, Freeman KT, Xiang ZM, Portillo FP, Speth R, Litherland SA, Haskell-Luevano C. Discovery of Molecular Interactions of the Human Melanocortin-4 Receptor (hMC4R) Asp189 (D189) Amino Acid with the Endogenous G-Protein-Coupled Receptor (GPCR) Antagonist Agouti-Related Protein (AGRP) Provides Insights to AGRP's Inverse Agonist Pharmacology at the hMC4R. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:542-556. [PMID: 33470098 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The melanocortin receptors (MCRs) are important for numerous biological pathways, including feeding behavior and energy homeostasis. In addition to endogenous peptide agonists, this receptor family has two naturally occurring endogenous antagonists, agouti and agouti-related protein (AGRP). At the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), the AGRP ligand functions as an endogenous inverse agonist in the absence of agonist and as a competitive antagonist in the presence of agonist. At the melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R), AGRP functions solely as a competitive antagonist in the presence of agonist. The molecular interactions that differentiate AGRP's inverse agonist activity at the MC4R have remained elusive until the findings reported herein. Upon the basis of homology molecular modeling approaches, we previously postulated a unique interaction between the D189 position of the hMC4R and Asn114 of AGRP. To further test this hypothesis, six D189 mutant hMC4Rs (D189A, D189E, D189N, D189Q, D189S, and D189K) were generated and pharmacologically characterized resulting in the discovery of differences in inverse agonist activity of AGRP and an 11 macrocyclic compound library. These data support the hypothesized interaction between the hMC4R D189 position and Asn114 residue of AGRP and define critical ligand-receptor molecular interactions responsible for the inverse agonist activity of AGRP at the hMC4R.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D. Ericson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Erica M. Haslach
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Sathya M. Schnell
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Katie T. Freeman
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Zhimin M. Xiang
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Frederico P. Portillo
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Robert Speth
- College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33328, United States
- College of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057, United States
| | - Sally A. Litherland
- Translational Research, Florida Hospital Cancer Institute, Orlando, Florida 32804, United States
| | - Carrie Haskell-Luevano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
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48
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Ericson MD, Shaikh R, Larson CM, Freeman KT, Haskell-Luevano C. Multiresidue Tetrapeptide Substitutions Yield a 140-fold Selective Melanocortin-3 over Melanocortin-4 Receptor Agonist. ACS Med Chem Lett 2021; 12:115-120. [PMID: 33488972 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.0c00561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The five melanocortin receptors regulate numerous physiological functions. Although many ligands have been developed for the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), the melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) has been less-well characterized, in part due to the lack of potent, selective tool compounds. Previously an Ac-His-Arg-(pI)DPhe-Tic-NH2 scaffold, inverting the Phe-Arg motif of the native melanocortin signal sequence, was identified to possess mMC3R over mMC4R selective agonist activity. In this study, a library of 12 compounds derived from this scaffold was synthesized and assayed at the mouse melanocortin receptors (MCRs), utilizing substitutions previously shown to increase mMC3R agonist potency and/or selectivity. One compound (8, Ac-Val-Gln-DBip-DTic-NH2) was identified as greater than 140-fold selective for the mMC3R over the mMC4R, possessed 70 nM potency at the mMC3R, and partially stimulated the mMC4R at 100 μM concentrations without antagonist activity. This pharmacological profile may be useful in developing new tool and therapeutic ligands that selective signal through the MC3R.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D. Ericson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Romessa Shaikh
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Courtney M. Larson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Katie T. Freeman
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Carrie Haskell-Luevano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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49
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Dinparastisaleh R, Mirsaeidi M. Antifibrotic and Anti-Inflammatory Actions of α-Melanocytic Hormone: New Roles for an Old Player. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14010045. [PMID: 33430064 PMCID: PMC7827684 DOI: 10.3390/ph14010045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The melanocortin system encompasses melanocortin peptides, five receptors, and two endogenous antagonists. Besides pigmentary effects generated by α-Melanocytic Hormone (α-MSH), new physiologic roles in sexual activity, exocrine secretion, energy homeostasis, as well as immunomodulatory actions, exerted by melanocortins, have been described recently. Among the most common and burdensome consequences of chronic inflammation is the development of fibrosis. Depending on the regenerative capacity of the affected tissue and the quality of the inflammatory response, the outcome is not always perfect, with the development of some fibrosis. Despite the heterogeneous etiology and clinical presentations, fibrosis in many pathological states follows the same path of activation or migration of fibroblasts, and the differentiation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts, which produce collagen and α-SMA in fibrosing tissue. The melanocortin agonists might have favorable effects on the trajectories leading from tissue injury to inflammation, from inflammation to fibrosis, and from fibrosis to organ dysfunction. In this review we briefly summarized the data on structure, receptor signaling, and anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic properties of α-MSH and proposed that α-MSH analogues might be promising future therapeutic candidates for inflammatory and fibrotic diseases, regarding their favorable safety profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roshan Dinparastisaleh
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA;
| | - Mehdi Mirsaeidi
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33146, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-305-243-1377
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50
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Zhang HJ, Cui ZH, Liu M, Min TQ, Xiao X, Wang ZQ, Tao YX. Pharmacological characterization of three chicken melanocortin-3 receptor mutants. Domest Anim Endocrinol 2021; 74:106507. [PMID: 32841887 DOI: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2020.106507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) is a G protein-coupled receptor and potentially important in production traits. Three naturally occurring mutations (M54L, G104S, and L151R) in chicken MC3R (cMC3R) were reported previously to be associated with production traits. Here, we inserted the full-length cMC3R coding sequence into pcDNA3.1(+) and generated the 3 mutations by site-directed mutagenesis. The total and cell surface expression of the receptors was measured by flow cytometry. We analyzed the pharmacological characteristics, including binding and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, using 6 ligands ([Nle4, D-Phe7]-α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH), α-, β-, γ-, and D-Trp8-γ-MSHs, and agouti-related peptide). All mutants had similar total and cell surface expression as the wild-type (WT) cMC3R. M54L had similar pharmacological properties as the WT cMC3R. G104S did not exhibit any specific binding but had minimal response to α-, β-, γ-, and D-Trp8-γ-MSH, although it generated 24% WT response when stimulated by NDP-MSH. Although L151R had normal binding, the responses to agonists were reduced to approximately 25% of that of the WT. In MAPK signaling, all 3 mutants showed significantly increased agonist-stimulated phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases 1/2, indicating the existence of biased signaling at G104S and L151R. In summary, our studies demonstrated that although all 3 mutations are significantly associated with production traits, only G104S and L151R had severe defects in receptor pharmacology. How M54L might cause production trait differences remains to be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- H-J Zhang
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, People's Republic of China; Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Z-H Cui
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, People's Republic of China
| | - M Liu
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, People's Republic of China
| | - T-Q Min
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, People's Republic of China
| | - X Xiao
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, People's Republic of China
| | - Z-Q Wang
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, People's Republic of China.
| | - Y-X Tao
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
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