A novel role for protein inhibitor of activated STAT (PIAS) proteins in modulating the activity of Zimp7, a novel PIAS-like protein, in androgen receptor-mediated transcription

Decreased ZMIZ1 suppresses melanogenesis in vitiligo by regulating mTOR/AKT/GSK-3β-mediated glucose uptake

The loss of epidermal melanocytes is a distinguishing feature of vitiligo (VIT), a prevalent and long-lasting skin ailment. While various hypotheses exist to explain the cause of VIT, the precise mechanisms leading to this disease remain unclear. Zinc finger MIZ-type containing 1 (ZMIZ1) has a strong link with the development and occurrence of VIT. However, the exact role of ZMIZ1 and its underlying mechanisms in VIT are not well understood. Our study aims to illustrate that targeting ZMIZ1 is an effective therapeutic and prophylactic strategy for treating VIT. We obtained the RNA expression profile of VIT samples using RNA-seq and determined the locations and expression of ZMIZ1 in these samples via immunochemistry. Glucose uptake was analyzed through immunofluorescence and glucose uptake assay. We evaluated mRNA levels using qPCR and used plasmids transfection to knock down ZMIZ1 in PIG1 and PIG3V cell lines. The activation of the mTOR/AKT/GSK-3β signalling pathway was assessed using Western blotting analysis. We found that ZMIZ1 expression was decreased in VIT samples. Decreased ZMIZ1 expression inhibits the proliferation, migration, and invasion of melanocytes in vitro. Moreover, we revealed that decreased ZMIZ1 could also inhibit the glucose uptake of melanocytes in vitro. Decreased ZMIZ1 expression inhibits the activation of the mTOR/AKT/GSK-3β pathway and the expression of melanin synthesis-related proteins in melanocytes. Finally, we demonstrated that decreased ZMIZ1 may inhibit the cell viability of melanocytes and the synthesis of melanin by mTOR/AKT/GSK-3β-mediated oxidative stress in vitro. In conclusion, our study suggests that decreased ZMIZ1 suppresses melanogenesis in vitiligo by regulating the mTOR/AKT/GSK-3β-mediated glucose uptake in vitro, making ZMIZ1 an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of VIT.

SUMO-activated target traps (SATTs) enable the identification of a comprehensive E3-specific SUMO proteome

Ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like conjugation cascades consist of dedicated E1, E2, and E3 enzymes with E3s providing substrate specificity. Mass spectrometry-based approaches have enabled the identification of more than 6500 SUMO2/3 target proteins. The limited number of SUMO E3s provides the unique opportunity to systematically study E3 substrate wiring. We developed SUMO-activated target traps (SATTs) and systematically identified substrates for eight different SUMO E3s, PIAS1, PIAS2, PIAS3, PIAS4, NSMCE2, ZNF451, LAZSUL (ZNF451-3), and ZMIZ2. SATTs enabled us to identify 427 SUMO1 and 961 SUMO2/3 targets in an E3-specific manner. We found pronounced E3 substrate preference. Quantitative proteomics enabled us to measure substrate specificity of E3s, quantified using the SATT index. Furthermore, we developed the Polar SATTs web-based tool to browse the dataset in an interactive manner. Overall, we uncover E3-to-target wiring of 1388 SUMO substrates, highlighting unique and overlapping sets of substrates for eight different SUMO E3 ligases.

ZMIZ proteins: partners in transcriptional regulation and risk factors for human disease

Coregulator proteins interact with signal-dependent transcription factors to modify their transcriptional activity. ZMIZ1 and ZMIZ2 (zinc finger MIZ-type containing 1 and 2) are coregulators with nonredundant functions that share unique structural characteristics. Among other interacting domains, they possess a MIZ (Msx-interacting zinc finger) that relates them to members of the protein inhibitor of activated STAT (PIAS) family and provides them the capacity to function as SUMO E3 ligases. The ZMIZ proteins stimulate the activity of various signaling pathways, including the androgen receptor (AR), P53, SMAD3/4, WNT/β-catenin, and NOTCH1 pathways, and interact with the BAF chromatin remodeling complex. Due to their molecular versatility, ZMIZ proteins have pleiotropic effects and thus are important for embryonic development and for human diseases. Both have been widely associated with cancer, and ZMIZ1 has been very frequently identified as a risk allele for several autoimmune conditions and other disorders. Moreover, mutations in the coding region of the ZMIZ1 gene are responsible for a severe syndromic neurodevelopmental disability. Because the actions of coregulators are highly gene-specific, a better knowledge of the associations that exist between the function of the ZMIZ coregulators and human pathologies is expected to potentiate the use of ZMIZ1 and ZMIZ2 as new drug targets for diseases such as hormone-dependent cancers.

Circulating Tumor Cell-Free DNA Genes as Prognostic Gene Signature for Platinum Resistant Ovarian Cancer Diagnosis

Clinical management of gynecological cancer begins by optimal debulking with first-line platinum-based chemotherapy. However, in ~80% patients, ovarian cancer will recur and is lethal. Prognostic gene signature panel identifying platinum-resistance enables better patient stratification for precision therapy. Retrospectively collected serum from 11 "poor" (<6 months progression free interval [PFI]) and 22 "favorable" (>24 months PFI) prognosis patients, were evaluated using circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA). DNA from both groups showed 50 to 10 000 bp fragments. Pairwise analysis of sequenced cfDNA from patients showed that gene dosages were higher for 29 genes and lower for 64 genes in poor than favorable prognosis patients. Gene ontology analysis of higher dose genes predominantly grouped into cytoskeletal proteins, while lower dose genes, as hydrolases and receptors. Higher dosage genes searched for cancer-relatedness in Reactome database indicated 15 genes were referenced with cancer. Among them 3 genes, TGFBR2, ZMIZ2, and NRG2, were interacting with more than 4 cancer-associated genes. Protein expression analysis of tumor samples indicated that TGFBR2 was downregulated and ZMIZ2 was upregulated in poor prognosis patients. Our results indicate that the cfDNA gene dosage combined with protein expression in tumor samples can serve as gene signature panel for prognosis determination amongst ovarian cancer patients.

ZMIZ2 promotes the development of triple-receptor negative breast cancer

Background

Triple-receptor negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive breast tumor subtype that generally has a poor prognosis. This study aimed to investigate the role and regulatory mechanisms of Zinc finger MIZ-type containing 2 (ZMIZ2) in relation to TNBC.

Methods

Based on data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), the expression of ZMIZ2 in different subtypes and its correlation with androgen receptor (AR) were analyzed, and a regulatory mechanism network was constructed. The expression and prognostic value of ZMIZ2 in clinical TNBC tissue samples were also investigated. Furthermore, in vitro studies were conducted to investigate the effects of ZMIZ2 knockdown on the malignant behaviors of TNBC cells and target gene expression.

Results

Based on TCGA data, ZMIZ2 was found to be significantly upregulated in TNBC tissues and its expression was negatively correlated with AR expression. Key relationships, such as the ZMIZ2-CCL5, ZMIZ2/AR-MCM3, ZMIZ2/AR-E2F4, and the ZMIZ2/AR-DHX38 were identified, which were enriched in NOD-like receptor signaling pathway/toll-like receptor signaling pathway, DNA replication, cell cycle, and spliceosome, respectively. Moreover, ZMIZ2 was upregulated in clinical breast cancer tissues and its high expression was correlated with the poor prognosis of TNBC patients. Furthermore, ZMIZ2 expression was increased in breast cancer cells, and a knockdown of ZMIZ2 inhibited MDA-MB-231 cell proliferation, migration, and invasion, induced cell cycle arrest in the G1 phase, and promoted cell apoptosis. Furthermore, ZMIZ2 knockdown inhibited the mRNA and protein expression of CCL5, MCM3, E2F4, and DHX38.

Conclusion

Our findings reveal that ZMIZ2 is upregulated in TNBC tissues and is associated with its poor prognosis. ZMIZ2 may promote TNBC progression by promoting the expression of its target genes and affecting the corresponding pathways. Consequently, ZMIZ2 may serve as a promising target for future TNBC treatments.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-021-02393-x.

ZMIZ1 promotes the proliferation and migration of melanocytes in vitiligo

Genome wide association studies have revealed that the zinc finger MIZ-type containing 1 (ZMIZ1) is involved in the pathogenesis of vitiligo; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of ZMIZ1 on the proliferation, apoptosis and migration of the human melanocyte cell lines PIG1 and PIG3V. ZMIZ1 overexpression and knockdown PIG1 and PIG3V cell models were established by lentivirus infection, and the effects of ZMIZ1 on cell proliferation and apoptosis were determined using an MTT assay and flow cytometry, respectively. Furthermore, the expression levels of proliferation- and apoptosis-associated proteins were analyzed using western blotting. Additionally, Transwell assays were performed to determine the effect of ZMIZ1 on the migration of PIG1 and PIG3V cells. Finally, the effect of ZMIZ1 on cytoskeletal remodeling in PIG1 and PIG3V cells was analyzed using immunocytochemistry. The overexpression of ZMIZ1 promoted the proliferation and inhibited the apoptosis of PIG1 and PIG3V cells, whereas the genetic knockdown of ZMIZ1 resulted in the opposite effects. Furthermore, ZMIZ1 overexpression increased the migration, whereas the knockdown of ZMIZ1 inhibited the migration and altered remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton in PIG1 and PIG3V cells. In conclusion, the results of the present study suggest that ZMIZ1 regulates the proliferation, apoptosis and migration of PIG1 and PIG3V cells, and indicate that ZMIZ1 may serve as a potential therapeutic target for vitiligo.

Protein inhibitor of activated STAT genes are differentially expressed in breast tumor tissues

Aim: Protein inhibitor of activated STAT ( PIAS) family includes transcriptional regulator proteins with SUMO E3 ligase activity. They regulate expression of several genes involved in cell proliferation, differentiation and survival. Method: We evaluated expression of PIAS1–4 genes in 54 breast cancer tissues and their paired adjacent noncancerous tissues. Results: PIAS2 and PIAS3 genes were significantly downregulated in tumoral tissues compared with adjacent noncancerous tissues. PIAS1–3 expressions were significantly lower in estrogen receptor (ER+) samples compared with ER- samples while PIAS4 had the opposite trend. PIAS3 expression was significantly higher in grade 1 samples compared with grade 2 samples. Conclusion: These findings highlight the role of PIAS genes in the pathogenesis of breast cancer and their association with determinants of response to antihormone therapies.

Identification of a Radiosensitivity Molecular Signature Induced by Enzalutamide in Hormone-sensitive and Hormone-resistant Prostate Cancer Cells

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common cancer amongst men. A novel androgen receptor (AR) antagonist, enzalutamide (ENZA) has recently been demonstrated to enhance the effect of radiation (XRT) by impairing the DNA damage repair process. This study aimed to identify a radiosensitive gene signature induced by ENZA in the PCa cells and to elucidate the biological pathways which influence this radiosensitivity. We treated LNCaP (AR-positive, hormone-sensitive PCa cells) and C4-2 (AR-positive, hormone-resistant PCa cells) cells with ENZA alone and in combination with androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) and XRT. Using one-way ANOVA on the gene expression profiling, we observed significantly differentially expressed (DE) genes in inflammation-and metabolism-related genes in hormone-sensitive and hormone-resistant PCa cell lines respectively. Survival analysis in both the TCGA PRAD and GSE25136 datasets suggested an association between the expression of these genes and time to recurrence. These results indicated that ENZA alone or in combination with ADT enhanced the effect of XRT through immune and inflammation-related pathways in LNCaP cells and metabolic-related pathways in C4-2 cells. Kaplan–Meier analysis and Cox proportional hazard models showed that low expression of all the candidate genes except for PTPRN2 were associated with tumor progression and recurrence in a PCa cohort.

Platelet-Related Variants Identified by Exomechip Meta-analysis in 157,293 Individuals

Platelet production, maintenance, and clearance are tightly controlled processes indicative of platelets' important roles in hemostasis and thrombosis. Platelets are common targets for primary and secondary prevention of several conditions. They are monitored clinically by complete blood counts, specifically with measurements of platelet count (PLT) and mean platelet volume (MPV). Identifying genetic effects on PLT and MPV can provide mechanistic insights into platelet biology and their role in disease. Therefore, we formed the Blood Cell Consortium (BCX) to perform a large-scale meta-analysis of Exomechip association results for PLT and MPV in 157,293 and 57,617 individuals, respectively. Using the low-frequency/rare coding variant-enriched Exomechip genotyping array, we sought to identify genetic variants associated with PLT and MPV. In addition to confirming 47 known PLT and 20 known MPV associations, we identified 32 PLT and 18 MPV associations not previously observed in the literature across the allele frequency spectrum, including rare large effect (FCER1A), low-frequency (IQGAP2, MAP1A, LY75), and common (ZMIZ2, SMG6, PEAR1, ARFGAP3/PACSIN2) variants. Several variants associated with PLT/MPV (PEAR1, MRVI1, PTGES3) were also associated with platelet reactivity. In concurrent BCX analyses, there was overlap of platelet-associated variants with red (MAP1A, TMPRSS6, ZMIZ2) and white (PEAR1, ZMIZ2, LY75) blood cell traits, suggesting common regulatory pathways with shared genetic architecture among these hematopoietic lineages. Our large-scale Exomechip analyses identified previously undocumented associations with platelet traits and further indicate that several complex quantitative hematological, lipid, and cardiovascular traits share genetic factors.

PIAS4 is associated with macro/microcephaly in the novel interstitial 19p13.3 microdeletion/microduplication syndrome

Array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) is a powerful genetic tool that has enabled the identification of novel imbalances in individuals with intellectual disability (ID), autistic disorders and congenital malformations. Here we report a 'genotype first' approach using aCGH on 13 unrelated patients with 19p13.3 submicroscopic rearrangement (11 deletions and 2 duplications) and review cases in the literature and in public databases. Shared phenotypic features suggest that these patients represent an interstitial microdeletion/microduplication syndrome at 19p13.3. Common features consist of abnormal head circumference in most patients (macrocephaly with the deletions and microcephaly with the duplications), ID with developmental delay (DD), hypotonia, speech delay and common dysmorphic features. The phenotype is associated with at least a ~0.113 Mb critical region harboring three strong candidate genes probably associated with DD, ID, speech delay and other dysmorphic features: MAP2K2, ZBTB7A and PIAS4, an E3 ubiquitin ligase involved in the ubiquitin signaling pathways, which we hypothesize for the first time to be associated with head size in humans.

A comprehensive association analysis confirms ZMIZ1 to be a susceptibility gene for vitiligo in Chinese population

BACKGROUND

ZMIZ1 has been shown to be associated with multiple autoimmune diseases and play a role in the development of melanocyte. The association of ZMIZ1 with vitiligo was also suggested, but the evidence did not reach genome-wide significance and has not been confirmed by independent studies.

METHODS

A fine mapping analysis of the ZMIZ1 locus was carried out in the dataset of 1117 vitiligo patients and 3437 controls through deep imputation. Ten suggestive SNPs were then analysed in an independent validation cohort of 7458 cases and 7542 controls. SNPs within ZMIZ1 locus were functionally annotated using the ENCODE and RegulomeDB databases and published eQTL dataset of primary immune cells.

RESULTS

A genome-wide significant association was discovered at rs1408944 (OR(combined)=1.18, p(combined)=1.38E-09) that locates at a DNAse hypersensitivity site and within a Myb_1 motif carried by the binding sites of six overlapping transcription factors (TFs) within the region. Gene Relationships Across Implicated Loci (GRAIL) analysis revealed biological connectivity between ZMIZ1 and previously discovered susceptibility loci for vitiligo as well as the six TFs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study has confirmed ZMIZ1 as a novel susceptibility locus for vitiligo and further suggested rs1408944 to be the putative causal variant that potentially interrupts TF binding and thus the transcriptional regulation of ZMIZ1.

Identification of a novel role of ZMIZ2 protein in regulating the activity of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

ZMIZ2, also named ZIMP7, is a protein inhibitor of activated STAT (PIAS)-like protein and a transcriptional coactivator. In this study, we investigated the interaction between ZMIZ2 and β-catenin, a key regulator of the Wnt signaling pathway. We demonstrated that the expression of exogenous ZMIZ2 augments TCF (T cell factor) and β-catenin-mediated transcription. In contrast, shRNA knockdown of ZMIZ2 expression specifically represses the enhancement of TCF/β-catenin-mediated transcription by ZMIZ2. Using Wnt3a-conditioned medium, we demonstrated that ZMIZ2 can enhance Wnt ligand-induced TCF/β-catenin-mediated transcription. We also showed a promotional role of ZMIZ2 in enhancing β-catenin downstream target gene expression in human cells and in Zmiz2 null (Zmiz2(-/-)) mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). The regulatory role of Zmiz2 in Wnt-induced TCF/β-catenin-mediated transcription can be restored in Zmiz2(-/-) MEFs that were infected with adenoviral expression vectors for Zmiz2. Moreover, enhancement of Zmiz2 on TCF/β-catenin-mediated transcription was further demonstrated in Zmiz2 knockout and Axin2 reporter compound mice. Furthermore, the protein-protein interaction between ZMIZ2 and β-catenin was identified by co-immunoprecipitation and in vitro protein pulldown assays. We also observed recruitment of endogenous ZMIZ2 onto the promoter region of the Axin 2 gene, a β-catenin downstream target promoter, in a Wnt ligand-inducible manner. Finally, a promotional role of ZMIZ2 on cell growth was demonstrated in human cell lines and Zmiz2 knockout MEFs. Our findings demonstrate a novel interaction between ZMIZ2 and β-catenin and elucidate a novel mechanism for PIAS-like proteins in regulating Wnt signaling pathways.

Convergence of the ZMIZ1 and NOTCH1 pathways at C-MYC in acute T lymphoblastic leukemias

Activating NOTCH1 mutations are found in 50% to 60% of human T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) samples. In mouse models, these mutations generally fail to induce leukemia. This observation suggests that NOTCH1 activation must collaborate with other genetic events. Mutagenesis screens previously implicated ZMIZ1 as a possible NOTCH1 collaborator in leukemia. ZMIZ1 is a transcriptional coactivator of the protein inhibitor of activated STAT (PIAS)-like family. Its role in oncogenesis is unknown. Here, we show that activated NOTCH1 and ZMIZ1 collaborate to induce T-ALL in mice. ZMIZ1 and activated NOTCH1 are coexpressed in a subset of human T-ALL patients and cell lines. ZMIZ1 inhibition slowed growth and sensitized leukemic cells to corticosteroids and NOTCH inhibitors. Gene expression profiling identified C-MYC, but not other NOTCH-regulated genes, as an essential downstream target of ZMIZ1. ZMIZ1 functionally interacts with NOTCH1 to promote C-MYC transcription and activity. The mechanism does not involve the NOTCH pathway and appears to be indirect and mediated independently of canonical PIAS functions through a novel N-terminal domain. Our study shows the importance of identifying genetic collaborations between parallel leukemic pathways that may be therapeutically targeted. They also raise new inquiries into potential NOTCH-ZMIZ1 collaboration in a variety of C-MYC-driven cancers.

Deletion of leucine zipper tumor suppressor 2 (Lzts2) increases susceptibility to tumor development

Using an Lzts2 knock-out mouse model, we characterized the biological role of Lzts2 in tumorigenesis. Both heterozygous and homozygous deletion of the Lzts2-targeted allele in mice shows an increased incidence in spontaneous tumor development, although Lzts2 homozygous knock-out mice show significantly higher incidences than heterozygous mice. Treatment of Lzts2-deficient mice with a carcinogen, N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine, increases the susceptibility to N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine-induced bladder carcinoma development. Examination of human prostate cancer tissue specimens shows a reduction of LZTS2 protein expression in prostate cancer cells. Further analyses of mouse embryonic fibroblasts isolated from Lzts2 knock-out embryos show that loss of Lzts2 enhances cell growth. These data provide the first line of evidence demonstrating that deletion of Lzts2 increases susceptibility to spontaneous and carcinogen-induced tumor development.

Identification of Pold2 as a novel interaction partner of protein inhibitor of activated STAT2

Pold2 is a subunit of the DNA polymerase δ complex, encoding a protein involved in DNA replication and repair. In this study, using a yeast two-hybrid screening technique and the common cDNA fragment of the mouse PIAS2 as a bait, Pold2 was found to interact with PIAS2. A direct interaction between Pold2 and PIAS2 was confirmed by direct yeast two-hybrid. In vivo evidence of Pold2 association with PIAS2 was obtained by co-immunoprecipitation using HEK-293 cells. Subcellular localization studies demonstrated that Pold2 and PIAS2 were partially co-localized in mammalian cells. Collectively, our results suggest that Pold2 interacts under physiological conditions with PIAS2.

Interaction of protein inhibitor of activated STAT 2 (PIAS2) with receptor of activated C kinase 1, RACK1

In this study, the evolutionarily conserved intracellular adaptor protein, receptor of activated C kinase 1 (RACK1) was identified as a novel interaction partner of protein inhibitor of activated STAT 2 (PIAS2) using a yeast two-hybrid screening system. The direct interaction and co-localization of RACK1 with PIAS2 was confirmed by immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence staining analysis, respectively. The 5th to 7th Trp-Asp 40 (5-7 WD40) repeats of RACK1 were identified as the minimal domain required for interaction with PIAS2 by deletion analysis. Furthermore, multiple PIAS2-domains, particularly the 'PINIT' and RLD domains, bind the RACK1 5-7 WD40 domain.

The leucine zipper putative tumor suppressor 2 protein LZTS2 regulates kidney development

Members of the leucine zipper putative tumor suppressor (LZTS) family play crucial roles in transcription modulation and cell cycle control. We previously demonstrated that LZTS2 functions as a novel β-catenin-interacting protein and represses β-catenin-mediated transcription on T-cell factor/lymphoid enhancing factor. Here, we investigate the biological role of LZTS2 using newly established Lzts2 KO mice. Homozygosity for loss-of-function of the Lzts2-targeted allele resulted in severe kidney and urinary tract developmental defects, including renal/ureteral duplication, hydroureter, and hydronephrosis, which were visible prenatally. Altered ureteric bud outgrowth was identified in Lzts2 null embryos. Further analysis indicated that β-catenin subcellular localization was altered in fibroblasts isolated from Lzts2 null embryos. In addition, Wnt growth factor-induced β-catenin-mediated transcriptional activity was increased in Lzts2 null fibroblasts, suggesting a direct role for Lzts2 in the Wnt signaling pathway. These data demonstrate a critical role of LZTS2 in renal development and implicate LZTS2 as a critical regulator of β-catenin-mediated nephrogenesis.

The beta-catenin binding protein ICAT modulates androgen receptor activity

Androgens have important roles in the development of the prostate gland and in prostate cancer. Since the finding that β-catenin is a cofactor of the androgen receptor (AR) and can augment AR signaling, several proteins have been found to affect AR signaling through their interaction with β-catenin. Here, we investigated inhibitor of β-catenin and T-cell factor (ICAT), a β-catenin binding protein that inhibits the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, in AR signaling. We demonstrated that expression of ICAT in two AR positive prostate cancer cell lines, LNCaP and LAPC4, augments ligand-dependent AR-mediated transcription. In contrast, short hairpin RNA knockdown of ICAT and β-catenin specifically blocks enhanced AR-mediated transcription by ICAT. Using both stable expression of ICAT and short hairpin RNA knockdown of ICAT expression approaches, we further showed that ICAT enhances expression of endogenous PSA and KLK2, two androgen response genes, and ligand-induced cell growth. In addition, we identified that ICAT and AR can form a ternary complex with β-catenin using in vitro glutathione S-transferase protein pulldown assays. Moreover, we detected the endogenous protein complex containing ICAT, AR, and β-catenin in prostate cancer cells using immunoprecipitation assays. Recruitment of endogenous ICAT onto the promoter region of the human PSA gene, an AR downstream target promoter, was also identified in LNCaP cells. Finally, using in vitro protein binding assays, we examined the effect of full-length and truncated ICAT on the AR-β-catenin interaction and observed that addition of full-length ICAT retained the interaction between β-catenin and AR proteins. Intriguingly, the truncated ICAT comprising the N-terminal helical domain showed a more pronounced effect on β-catenin binding to AR proteins. Our findings suggest a novel molecular mechanism underlying the cross talk between androgen and Wnt signaling pathways.