Real-time measurements of amino acid and protein hydroperoxides using coumarin boronic acid

Photoreactivity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their mechanisms of phototoxicity against human immortalized keratinocytes (HaCaT)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous organic compounds in the environment. They are produced by many anthropogenic sources of different origins and are known for their toxicity, carcinogenicity, and mutagenicity. Sixteen PAHs have been identified as Priority Pollutants by the US EPA, which are often associated with particulate matter, facilitating their dispersion through air and water. When human skin is exposed to PAHs, it might occur simultaneously with solar radiation, potentially leading to phototoxic effects. Phototoxic mechanisms involve the generation of singlet oxygen and reactive oxygen species, DNA damage under specific light wavelengths, and the formation of charge transfer complexes. Despite predictions of phototoxic properties for some PAHs, there remains a paucity of experimental data. This study examined the photoreactive and phototoxic properties of the 16 PAHs enlisted in the Priority Pollutants list. Examined PAHs efficiently photogenerated singlet oxygen and superoxide anion in simple solutions. Furthermore, singlet oxygen phosphorescence was detected in PAH-loaded HaCaT cells. Phototoxicity against human keratinocytes was evaluated using various assays. At 5 nM concentration, examined PAHs significantly reduced viability and mitochondrial membrane potential of HaCaT cells following the exposure to solar simulated light. Analyzed compounds induced a substantial peroxidation of cellular proteins after light treatment. The results revealed that a majority of the examined PAHs exhibited substantial reactive oxygen species photoproduction under UVA and violet-blue light, with their phototoxicity corresponding to their photoreactive properties. These findings improve our comprehension of the interactions between PAHs and human skin cells under environmental conditions, particularly when exposed to solar radiation.

Evaluation of a novel pyridinium cation-linked styryl-based boronate probe for the detection of selected inflammation-related oxidants

Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) are a range of chemical individuals produced by living cells that contribute to the proper functioning of organisms. Cells under oxidative and nitrative stress show excessive production of RONS (including hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, hypochlorous acid, HOCl, and peroxynitrite, ONOO-) which may result in a damage proteins, lipids, and genetic material. Thus, the development of probes for in vivo detection of such oxidants is an active area of research, focusing on molecular redox sensors, including boronate-caged fluorophores. Here, we report a boronate-based styryl probe with a cationic pyridinium moiety (BANEP+) for the fluorescent detection of selected biological oxidants in vitro and in vivo. We compare the chemical reactivity of the BANEP+ probe toward H2O2, HOCl, and ONOO- and examine the influence of the major intracellular non-enzymatic antioxidant molecule, glutathione (GSH). We demonstrate that, at the physiologically relevant GSH concentration, the BANEP+ probe is efficiently oxidized by peroxynitrite, forming its phenolic derivative HNEP+. GSH does not affect the fluorescence properties of the BANEP+ and HNEP+ dyes. Finally, we report the identification of a novel type of molecular marker, with the boronate moiety replaced by the iodine atom, formed from the probe in the presence of HOCl and iodide anion. We conclude that the reported chemical reactivity and structural features of the BANEP+ probe may be a basis for the development of new red fluorescent probes for in vitro and in vivo detection of ONOO-.

Increased oxidative stress response in circulating blood of systemic sclerosis patients - relation to disease characteristics and inflammatory blood biomarkers

BACKGROUND

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a rare connective tissue disorder of unknown etiology characterized by organ fibrosis and microcirculation dysfunction. Emerging evidence suggests that SSc is related to increased oxidative stress, which contributes to further tissue and vascular damage.

METHODS

Oxidative stress response in the peripheral blood was assessed in patients with SSc (n = 55) and well-matched controls (n = 44) using real-time monitoring of protein hydroperoxide (HP) formation by the coumarin boronic acid (CBA) assay. We also analyzed the relationship between HP generation and SSc clinics, systemic inflammation, and cellular fibronectin, an emerging biomarker of endothelial damage.

RESULTS

SSc was characterized by a significantly faster (2-fold) fluorescent product generation in the CBA assay and higher cumulative HP formation (3-fold) compared to controls (p<0.001, both). The dynamics of HP generation were not associated with the form of the disease (diffuse vs. limited SSc), current immunosuppressive therapy use, presence of abnormal nailfold capillaries, and autoantibody profile. Still, it was enhanced in patients with more severe illness and certain clinical manifestations (i.e., pulmonary hypertension, digital ulcers, and cyclophosphamide treatment) and in smokers (current or past). Higher serum CRP, blood eosinophil count, and cellular fibronectin with lower hemoglobin levels were independent determinants of increased HP formation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate a pro-oxidant imbalance in SSc, likely related to systemic inflammation and endothelial injury. However, extensive prospective studies are needed to verify whether it is also associated with clinical disease progression.

NADPH Oxidases: From Molecular Mechanisms to Current Inhibitors

NADPH oxidases (NOXs) form a family of electron-transporting membrane enzymes whose main function is reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Strong evidence suggests that ROS produced by NOX enzymes are major contributors to oxidative damage under pathologic conditions. Therefore, blocking the undesirable actions of these enzymes is a therapeutic strategy for treating various pathological disorders, such as cardiovascular diseases, inflammation, and cancer. To date, identification of selective NOX inhibitors is quite challenging, precluding a pharmacologic demonstration of NOX as therapeutic targets in vivo. The aim of this Perspective is to furnish an updated outlook about the small-molecule NOX inhibitors described over the last two decades. Structures, activities, and in vitro/in vivo specificity are discussed, as well as the main biological assays used.

A thiomorpholine-based fluorescent probe for the far-red hypochlorous acid monitoring

A simple thiomorpholine-based fluorescent probe was designed and synthesized by combining thiomorpholine (TM) and nitrobenzenoselenadiazoles fluorophore (NBD-Se). The thiomorpholine group quenches the fluorescence of NBD-Se efficiently through the photoinduced electron transfer (PET) effect. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) oxidizes the NBD-Se-TM probe to its fluorescent S-oxide (NBD-Se-TSO) with a 1:1 stoichiometry. The desirable features of NBD-Se-TM for detecting HOCl in aqueous solutions, such as its high sensitivity and selectivity, reliability at physiological pH, and rapid fluorescence response, enabled its application in the detection of HOCl produced by myeloperoxidase. The results proved that NBD-Se-TM is a promising fluorescent probe that can be used in screening assays for MPO inhibitors. Its high reaction rate constant with HOCl (²k = 2.0 × 10⁷M^-1s^-1) indicates the possibility of application in more complex biological systems.

The Role of Singlet Oxygen in Photoreactivity and Phototoxicity of Curcumin

Curcumin is a plant-derived yellow-orange compound widely used as a spice, dye and food additive. It is also believed to have therapeutic effects against different disorders. On the other hand, there are data showing its phototoxicity against bacteria, fungi and various mammalian cells. Since the mechanism of its phototoxic action is not fully understood, we investigated here the phototoxic potential of curcumin in liposomal model membranes and in HaCaT cells. First, detection of singlet oxygen (¹ O₂ ) luminescence proved that curcumin generates ¹ O₂ upon blue light irradiation in organic solvent and in liposomes. Then, HPLC-EC(Hg) measurements revealed that liposomal and cellular cholesterol is oxidized by ¹ O₂ photogenerated by curcumin. Enrichment of liposome membranes with curcumin significantly increased the oxygen photo-consumption rate compared to the control liposomes as determined by EPR oximetry. Cytotoxicity measurements, mitochondrial membrane potential analyses and protein hydroperoxides detection confirmed strong phototoxic effects of curcumin in irradiated HaCaT cells. These data show that since curcumin is advertised as a valuable dietary supplement, or a component of cosmetics for topical use, caution should be recommended especially when skin is exposed to light.

Biological autoluminescence as a perturbance-free method for monitoring oxidation in biosystems

Biological oxidation processes are in the core of life energetics, play an important role in cellular biophysics, physiological cell signaling or cellular pathophysiology. Understanding of biooxidation processes is also crucial for biotechnological applications. Therefore, a plethora of methods has been developed for monitoring oxidation so far, each with distinct advantages and disadvantages. We review here the available methods for monitoring oxidation and their basic characteristics and capabilities. Then we focus on a unique method - the only one that does not require input of additional external energy or chemicals - which employs detection of biological autoluminescence (BAL). We highlight the pros and cons of this method and provide an overview of how BAL can be used to report on various aspects of cellular oxidation processes starting from oxygen consumption to the generation of oxidation products such as carbonyls. This review highlights the application potential of this completely non-invasive and label-free biophotonic diagnostic method.

Increased Oxidative Stress in Asthma-Relation to Inflammatory Blood and Lung Biomarkers and Airway Remodeling Indices

Airway inflammation in asthma is related to increased reactive oxygen species generation, potentially leading to tissue injury and subsequent airway remodeling. We evaluated oxidative stress in peripheral blood from asthmatic subjects (n = 74) and matched controls (n = 65), using recently developed real-time monitoring of the protein hydroperoxide (HP) formation by the coumarin boronic acid (CBA) assay. We also investigated the relation of the systemic oxidative stress response in asthma to disease severity, lung function, airway remodeling indices (lung computed tomography and histology), and blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) inflammatory biomarkers. We documented enhanced systemic oxidative stress in asthma, reflected by 35% faster and 58% higher cumulative fluorescent product generation in the CBA assay (p < 0.001 for both). The dynamics of HP generation correlated inversely with lung function but not with asthma severity or histological measures of airway remodeling. HP generation was associated positively with inflammatory indices in the blood (e.g., C-reactive protein) and BAL (e.g., interleukin [IL]-6, IL-12p70, and neutrophil count). Bronchial obstruction, thicker airway walls, increased BAL IL-6, and citrullinated histone 3 in systemic circulation independently determined increased HP formation. In conclusion, a real-time CBA assay showed increased systemic HP generation in asthma. In addition, it was associated with inflammatory biomarkers, suggesting that proper disease control can also lead to a decrease in oxidative stress.

Fluorescent probes for monitoring myeloperoxidase-derived hypochlorous acid: a comparative study

MPO-derived oxidants including HOCl contribute to tissue damage and the initiation and propagation of inflammatory diseases. The search for small molecule inhibitors of myeloperoxidase, as molecular tools and potential drugs, requires the application of high throughput screening assays based on monitoring the activity of myeloperoxidase. In this study, we have compared three classes of fluorescent probes for monitoring myeloperoxidase-derived hypochlorous acid, including boronate-, aminophenyl- and thiol-based fluorogenic probes and we show that all three classes of probes are suitable for this purpose. However, probes based on the coumarin fluorophore turned out to be not reliable indicators of the inhibitors’ potency. We have also determined the rate constants of the reaction between HOCl and the probes and they are equal to 1.8 × 10⁴ M⁻¹s⁻¹ for coumarin boronic acid (CBA), 1.1 × 10⁴ M⁻¹s⁻¹ for fluorescein based boronic acid (FLBA), 3.1 × 10⁴ M⁻¹s⁻¹ for 7-(p-aminophenyl)-coumarin (APC), 1.6 × 10⁴ M⁻¹s⁻¹ for 3’-(p-aminophenyl)-fluorescein (APF), and 1 × 10⁷ M⁻¹s⁻¹ for 4-thiomorpholino-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazole (NBD-TM). The high reaction rate constant of NBD-TM with HOCl makes this probe the most reliable tool to monitor HOCl formation in the presence of compounds showing HOCl-scavenging activity.

The Inhibitory Effect of Blue Light on Phagocytic Activity by ARPE-19 Cells

Chronic exposure of the retina to short wavelength visible light is a risk factor in pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration. The proper functioning and survival of photoreceptors depends on efficient phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments (POS) by retinal pigment epithelium. The purpose of this study was to analyze the phagocytic activity of blue light-treated ARPE-19 cells, and to examine whether the observed effects could be related to altered levels of POS phagocytosis receptor proteins and/or to oxidation of cellular proteins and lipids. POS phagocytosis was measured by flow cytometry. Phagocytosis receptor proteins αv and β5 integrin subunits and Mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK) were quantified by western blotting. The intact functional heterodimer αvβ5 was quantified by immunoprecipitation followed by immunoblotting. Cellular protein and lipid hydroperoxides were analyzed by coumarin boronic acid probe and iodometric assay, respectively. Cell irradiation induced reversible inhibition of specific phagocytosis and transient reductions in phagocytosis receptor proteins. Full recovery of functional heterodimer was apparent. Significant photooxidation of cellular proteins and lipids was observed. The results indicate that transient inhibition of specific phagocytosis by blue light could be related to the reduction in phagocytosis receptor proteins. Such changes may arise from oxidative modifications of cell phagocytic machinery components.

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles loaded with fluorescent coumarin-5-fluorouracil conjugates as mitochondrial-targeting theranostic probes for tumor cells

In this study, a nanodrug carrier (mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN)-SS-cysteamine hydrochloride (CS)-hyaluronic acid (HA)) for targeted drug delivery was prepared using MSNs, in which HA was used as a targeting ligand and blocking agent to control drug release. Coumarin is a fluorescent molecule that targets mitochondria. Two conjugates (XDS-DJ and 5-FUA-4C-XDS) were synthesized by chemically coupling nitrogen mustard and 5-fluorouracil with coumarin, which was further loaded into MSN-SS-CS-HA nanocarriers. MTT analysis demonstrated that the nanocomposite MSN-SS-CS@5-FUA-4C-XDS/HA displayed stronger cytotoxicity toward HCT-116 cells than HeLa or QSG-7701 cells. Furthermore, MSN-SS-CS@5-FUA-4C-XDS/HA was able to target the mitochondria of HCT-116 cells, causing decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and excessive production of reactive oxygen species. These results indicate that MSN-SS-CS@5-FUA-4C-XDS/HA has the potential to be a nanodrug delivery system for the treatment of colon cancer.

Identification of Peroxynitrite by Profiling Oxidation and Nitration Products from Mitochondria-Targeted Arylboronic Acid

The development of boronic probes enabled reliable detection and quantitative analysis of hydrogen peroxide , other nucleophilic hydroperoxides, hypochlorite , and peroxynitrite . The major product, in which boronate moiety of the probe is replaced by the hydroxyl group, is, however, common for all those oxidants. Here, we describe how ortho-isomer of mitochondria-targeted phenylboronic acid can be used to detect and differentiate peroxynitrite-dependent and independent probe oxidation. This method highlights detection and quantification of both the major, phenolic product and the minor, peroxynitrite-specific cyclic and nitrated products of probe oxidation.

Photoreactivity of Bis-retinoid A2E Complexed with a Model Protein in Selected Model Systems

The bis-retinoid N-retinyl-N-retinylidene ethanolamine (A2E) is formed as a byproduct of visual cycle in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). It contributes to golden-yellow fluorescence of the age pigment lipofuscin, which accumulates in RPE. Lipofuscin can generate a variety of reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon blue-light excitation. Although in model systems photoreactivity of A2E has been determined to be low, this bis-retinoid exhibited significant phototoxicity in RPE cells in vitro. Although the mechanism of A2E-mediated phototoxicity remains mostly unknown, we hypothesize that formation of A2E-adducts with different biomolecules may play an important role. In this study, we investigated the photochemical reactivity of A2E and its complex with bovine serum albumin (BSA) using UV-Vis absorption and emission spectroscopy, EPR-spin trapping, EPR-oximetry, time-resolved singlet oxygen phosphorescence, and the fluorogenic CBA probe. Our data show that A2E after complexation with this model protein photogenerated an increased level of ROS, particularly singlet oxygen. We also demonstrated the ability of A2E to oxidize BSA upon excitation with blue light in aqueous model systems. The data suggest that pyridinium bis-retinoid could oxidatively modify cellular proteins under physiological conditions.

The Effect of Antioxidants on Photoreactivity and Phototoxic Potential of RPE Melanolipofuscin Granules from Human Donors of Different Age

One of the most prominent age-related changes of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is the accumulation of melanolipofuscin granules, which could contribute to oxidative stress in the retina. The purpose of this study was to determine the ability of melanolipofuscin granules from younger and older donors to photogenerate reactive oxygen species, and to examine if natural antioxidants could modify the phototoxic potential of this age pigment. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) oximetry, EPR-spin trapping, and time-resolved detection of near-infrared phosphorescence were employed for measuring photogeneration of superoxide anion and singlet oxygen by melanolipofuscin isolated from younger and older human donors. Phototoxicity mediated by internalized melanolipofuscin granules with and without supplementation with zeaxanthin and α-tocopherol was analyzed in ARPE-19 cells by determining cell survival, oxidation of cellular proteins, organization of the cell cytoskeleton, and the cell specific phagocytic activity. Supplementation with antioxidants reduced aerobic photoreactivity and phototoxicity of melanolipofuscin granules. The effect was particularly noticeable for melanolipofuscin mediated inhibition of the cell phagocytic activity. Antioxidants decreased the extent of melanolipofuscin-dependent oxidation of cellular proteins and disruption of the cell cytoskeleton. Although melanolipofuscin might be involved in chronic phototoxicity of the aging RPE, natural antioxidants could partially ameliorate these harmful effects.

Boronate-Based Probes for Biological Oxidants: A Novel Class of Molecular Tools for Redox Biology

Boronate-based molecular probes are emerging as one of the most effective tools for detection and quantitation of peroxynitrite and hydroperoxides. This review discusses the chemical reactivity of boronate compounds in the context of their use for detection of biological oxidants, and presents examples of the practical use of those probes in selected chemical, enzymatic, and biological systems. The particular reactivity of boronates toward nucleophilic oxidants makes them a distinct class of probes for redox biology studies. We focus on the recent progress in the design and application of boronate-based probes in redox studies and perspectives for further developments.

Cysteine sulfenylation by CD36 signaling promotes arterial thrombosis in dyslipidemia

Arterial thrombosis in the setting of dyslipidemia promotes clinically significant events, including myocardial infarction and stroke. Oxidized lipids in low-density lipoproteins (oxLDL) are a risk factor for athero-thrombosis and are recognized by platelet scavenger receptor CD36. oxLDL binding to CD36 promotes platelet activation and thrombosis by promoting generation of reactive oxygen species. The downstream signaling events initiated by reactive oxygen species in this setting are poorly understood. In this study, we report that CD36 signaling promotes hydrogen peroxide flux in platelets. Using carbon nucleophiles that selectively and covalently modify cysteine sulfenic acids, we found that hydrogen peroxide generated through CD36 signaling promotes cysteine sulfenylation of platelet proteins. Specifically, cysteines were sulfenylated on Src family kinases, which are signaling transducers that are recruited to CD36 upon recognition of its ligands. Cysteine sulfenylation promoted activation of Src family kinases and was prevented by using a blocking antibody to CD36 or by enzymatic degradation of hydrogen peroxide. CD36-mediated platelet aggregation and procoagulant phosphatidylserine externalization were inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner by a panel of sulfenic acid-selective carbon nucleophiles. At the same concentrations, these probes did not inhibit platelet aggregation induced by the purinergic receptor agonist adenosine diphosphate or the collagen receptor glycoprotein VI agonist collagen-related peptide. Selective modification of cysteine sulfenylation in vivo with a benzothiazine-based nucleophile rescued the enhanced arterial thrombosis seen in dyslipidemic mice back to control levels. These findings suggest that CD36 signaling generates hydrogen peroxide to oxidize cysteines within platelet proteins, including Src family kinases, and lowers the threshold for platelet activation in dyslipidemia.

Developing [60]Fullerene Nanomaterials for Better Photodynamic Treatment of Non-Melanoma Skin Cancers

Skin cancer is the most common cancer in the U.S.A. and Europe. Its subtype, squamous skin carcinoma (SCC), if allowed to grow, has the potential to metastasize and can become deadly. Currently, carbon nanomaterials are being developed to treat cancer due to their attractive physicochemical and biological properties such as an enhanced permeability effect and their ability to produce reactive oxygen species. Here, we describe the synthesis of two water-soluble aminofullerenes (MonoaminoC₆₀ and HexakisaminoC₆₀), which were evaluated as novel [60]fullerene based photosentizers exhibiting anticancer properties. Moreover, the previously described neutral glycofullerene GF1 and its peracetylated lipophilic precursor MMS48 were compared with the aminofullerenes for their ability to generate reactive oxygen species and oxidize lipids. Remarkably, the generation of singlet oxygen and a superoxide radical by HexakisaminoC₆₀ was found to be markedly elevated in the presence of bovine serum albumin and NADH, respectively. Mechanistic studies of lipid peroxidation using cholesterol as a unique reporter molecule revealed that although all four fullerene nanomaterials primarily generated singlet oxygen, superoxide anion was also formed, which suggest a mixed mechanism of action (in which Type I and Type II photochemistry is involved). The [60]fullerene derivative HexakisaminoC₆₀ was also studied for its phototoxicity in squamous skin cancer cell line (A431) using the MTT test and propidium iodide staining.

The effect of aging and antioxidants on photoreactivity and phototoxicity of human melanosomes: An in vitro study

Aging may significantly modify antioxidant and photoprotective properties of melanin in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Here, photoreactivity of melanosomes (MS), isolated from younger and older human donors with and without added zeaxanthin and α-tocopherol, was analyzed by electron paramagnetic resonance oximetry, time-resolved singlet oxygen phosphorescence, and protein oxidation assay. The phototoxic potential of ingested melanosomes was examined in ARPE-19 cells exposed to blue light. Phagocytosis of FITC-labeled photoreceptor outer segments (POS) isolated from bovine retinas was determined by flow cytometry. Irradiation of cells fed MS induced significant inhibition of the specific phagocytosis with the effect being stronger for melanosomes from older than from younger human cohorts, and enrichment of the melanosomes with antioxidants reduced the inhibitory effect. Cellular protein photooxidation was more pronounced in samples containing older melanosomes, and it was diminished by antioxidants. This study suggests that blue light irradiated RPE melanosomes could induce substantial inhibition of the key function of the cells-their specific phagocytosis. The data indicate that while photoreactivity of MS and their phototoxic potential increase with age, they could be reduced by selected natural antioxidants.

Tracking isotopically labeled oxidants using boronate-based redox probes

Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species have been implicated in many biological processes and diseases, including immune responses, cardiovascular dysfunction, neurodegeneration, and cancer. These chemical species are short-lived in biological settings, and detecting them in these conditions and diseases requires the use of molecular probes that form stable, easily detectable, products. The chemical mechanisms and limitations of many of the currently used probes are not well-understood, hampering their effective applications. Boronates have emerged as a class of probes for the detection of nucleophilic two-electron oxidants. Here, we report the results of an oxygen-18-labeling MS study to identify the origin of oxygen atoms in the oxidation products of phenylboronate targeted to mitochondria. We demonstrate that boronate oxidation by hydrogen peroxide, peroxymonocarbonate, hypochlorite, or peroxynitrite involves the incorporation of oxygen atoms from these oxidants. We therefore conclude that boronates can be used as probes to track isotopically labeled oxidants. This suggests that the detection of specific products formed from these redox probes could enable precise identification of oxidants formed in biological systems. We discuss the implications of these results for understanding the mechanism of conversion of the boronate-based redox probes to oxidant-specific products.

Quercetin protects ARPE-19 cells against photic stress mediated by the products of rhodopsin photobleaching

Exposure to intense light could increase the risk of phototoxic reactions mediated by rhodopsin photobleaching products (RPBP) that might accumulate in photoreceptor outer segments (POS).

Detection, identification, and quantification of oxidative protein modifications

Exposure of biological molecules to oxidants is inevitable and therefore commonplace. Oxidative stress in cells arises from both external agents and endogenous processes that generate reactive species, either purposely (e.g. during pathogen killing or enzymatic reactions) or accidentally (e.g. exposure to radiation, pollutants, drugs, or chemicals). As proteins are highly abundant and react rapidly with many oxidants, they are highly susceptible to, and major targets of, oxidative damage. This can result in changes to protein structure, function, and turnover and to loss or (occasional) gain of activity. Accumulation of oxidatively-modified proteins, due to either increased generation or decreased removal, has been associated with both aging and multiple diseases. Different oxidants generate a broad, and sometimes characteristic, spectrum of post-translational modifications. The kinetics (rates) of damage formation also vary dramatically. There is a pressing need for reliable and robust methods that can detect, identify, and quantify the products formed on amino acids, peptides, and proteins, especially in complex systems. This review summarizes several advances in our understanding of this complex chemistry and highlights methods that are available to detect oxidative modifications-at the amino acid, peptide, or protein level-and their nature, quantity, and position within a peptide sequence. Although considerable progress has been made in the development and application of new techniques, it is clear that further development is required to fully assess the relative importance of protein oxidation and to determine whether an oxidation is a cause, or merely a consequence, of injurious processes.

Detection and quantification of nitric oxide-derived oxidants in biological systems

The free radical nitric oxide (NO^•) exerts biological effects through the direct and reversible interaction with specific targets (e.g. soluble guanylate cyclase) or through the generation of secondary species, many of which can oxidize, nitrosate or nitrate biomolecules. The NO^•-derived reactive species are typically short-lived, and their preferential fates depend on kinetic and compartmentalization aspects. Their detection and quantification are technically challenging. In general, the strategies employed are based either on the detection of relatively stable end products or on the use of synthetic probes, and they are not always selective for a particular species. In this study, we describe the biologically relevant characteristics of the reactive species formed downstream from NO^•, and we discuss the approaches currently available for the analysis of NO^•, nitrogen dioxide (NO₂ ^•), dinitrogen trioxide (N₂O₃), nitroxyl (HNO), and peroxynitrite (ONOO^-/ONOOH), as well as peroxynitrite-derived hydroxyl (HO^•) and carbonate anion (CO₃ ^•-) radicals. We also discuss the biological origins of and analytical tools for detecting nitrite (NO₂ ^-), nitrate (NO₃ ^-), nitrosyl-metal complexes, S-nitrosothiols, and 3-nitrotyrosine. Moreover, we highlight state-of-the-art methods, alert readers to caveats of widely used techniques, and encourage retirement of approaches that have been supplanted by more reliable and selective tools for detecting and measuring NO^•-derived oxidants. We emphasize that the use of appropriate analytical methods needs to be strongly grounded in a chemical and biochemical understanding of the species and mechanistic pathways involved.

Lipofuscin-mediated photodynamic stress induces adverse changes in nanomechanical properties of retinal pigment epithelium cells

Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is an important part of the blood-retina barrier (BRB) that separates the retina from the choroid. Although melanin granules contribute to the mechanical stability of the BRB complex, it is unknown if the age pigment lipofuscin affects mechanical properties of the tissue. To address this issue the effect of sub-lethal photic stress mediated by phagocytized lipofuscin granules, isolated from RPE of human donors, on morphology and mechanical properties of ARPE-19 cells was investigated. Nanomechanical analysis using atomic force spectroscopy revealed that irradiation of cells containing lipofuscin granules with blue light induced significant softening of the cells, which was accompanied by substantial reorganization of the cell cytoskeleton due to peroxidation of cellular proteins. Our results indicate that lipofuscin-mediated photic stress can cause significant modification of the RPE cells with the potential to disturb biological function of the BRB complex.

Fluorescence and chemiluminescence approaches for peroxynitrite detection

In the last two decades, there has been a significant advance in understanding the biochemistry of peroxynitrite, an endogenously-produced oxidant and nucleophile. Its relevance as a mediator in several pathologic states and the aging process together with its transient character and low steady-state concentration, motivated the development of a variety of techniques for its unambiguous detection and estimation. Among these, fluorescence and chemiluminescence approaches have represented important tools with enhanced sensitivity but usual limited specificity. In this review, we analyze selected examples of molecular probes that permit the detection of peroxynitrite by fluorescence and chemiluminescence, disclosing their mechanism of reaction with either peroxynitrite or peroxynitrite-derived radicals. Indeed, probes have been divided into 1) redox probes that yield products by a free radical mechanism, and 2) electrophilic probes that evolve to products secondary to the nucleophilic attack by peroxynitrite. Overall, boronate-based compounds are emerging as preferred probes for the sensitive and specific detection and quantitation. Moreover, novel strategies involving genetically-modified fluorescent proteins with the incorporation of unnatural amino acids have been recently described as peroxynitrite sensors. This review analyzes the most commonly used fluorescence and chemiluminescence approaches for peroxynitrite detection and provides some guidelines for appropriate experimental design and data interpretation, including how to estimate peroxynitrite formation rates in cells.

Small-molecule luminescent probes for the detection of cellular oxidizing and nitrating species

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been implicated in both pathogenic cellular damage events and physiological cellular redox signaling and regulation. To unravel the biological role of ROS, it is very important to be able to detect and identify the species involved. In this review, we introduce the reader to the methods of detection of ROS using luminescent (fluorescent, chemiluminescent, and bioluminescent) probes and discuss typical limitations of those probes. We review the most widely used probes, state-of-the-art assays, and the new, promising approaches for rigorous detection and identification of superoxide radical anion, hydrogen peroxide, and peroxynitrite. The combination of real-time monitoring of the dynamics of ROS in cells and the identification of the specific products formed from the probes will reveal the role of specific types of ROS in cellular function and dysfunction. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involving ROS may help with the development of new therapeutics for several diseases involving dysregulated cellular redox status.

Detection of Hydrogen Peroxide with Fluorescent Dyes

SIGNIFICANCE

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is a powerful effector of redox signaling. It is able to oxidize cysteine residues, metal ion centers, and lipids. Understanding H₂O₂-mediated signaling requires, to some extent, measurement of H₂O₂ level. Recent Advances: Chemically and genetically encoded fluorescent probes for the detection of H₂O₂ are currently the most sensitive and popular. Novel probes are constantly being developed, with the latest progress particular with boronates and genetically encoded probes.

CRITICAL ISSUES

All currently available probes display limitations in terms of sensitivity, local and temporal resolution, and specificity in the detection of low H₂O₂ concentrations. In this review, we discuss the power of fluorescent probes and the systems in which they have been successfully employed. Moreover, we recommend approaches for overcoming probe limitations and for the avoidance of artifacts.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Constant improvements will lead to the generation of probes that are not only more sensitive but also specifically tailored to individual cellular compartments. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 29, 585-602.

Detection and Characterization of Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species in Biological Systems by Monitoring Species-Specific Products

SIGNIFICANCE

Since the discovery of the superoxide dismutase enzyme, the generation and fate of short-lived oxidizing, nitrosating, nitrating, and halogenating species in biological systems has been of great interest. Despite the significance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in numerous diseases and intracellular signaling, the rigorous detection of ROS and RNS has remained a challenge. Recent Advances: Chemical characterization of the reactions of selected ROS and RNS with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spin traps and fluorescent probes led to the establishment of species-specific products, which can be used for specific detection of several forms of ROS and RNS in cell-free systems and in cultured cells in vitro and in animals in vivo. Profiling oxidation products from the ROS and RNS probes provides a rigorous method for detection of those species in biological systems.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Formation and detection of species-specific products from the probes enables accurate characterization of the oxidative environment in cells. Measurement of the total signal (fluorescence, chemiluminescence, etc.) intensity does not allow for identification of the ROS/RNS formed. It is critical to identify the products formed by using chromatographic or other rigorous techniques. Product analyses should be accompanied by monitoring of the intracellular probe level, another factor controlling the yield of the product(s) formed.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

More work is required to characterize the chemical reactivity of the ROS/RNS probes, and to develop new probes/detection approaches enabling real-time, selective monitoring of the specific products formed from the probes. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 28, 1416-1432.

Detection of mitochondria-generated reactive oxygen species in cells using multiple probes and methods: Potentials, pitfalls, and the future

Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) such as superoxide (O₂^̇̄), hydrogen peroxide, lipid hydroperoxides, peroxynitrite, and hypochlorous and hypobromous acids play a key role in many pathophysiological processes. Recent studies have focused on mitochondrial ROS as redox signaling species responsible for promoting cell division, modulating and regulating kinases and phosphatases, and activating transcription factors. Many ROS also stimulate cell death and senescence. The extent to which these processes occur is attributed to ROS levels (low or high) in cells. However, the exact nature of ROS remains unknown. Investigators have used redox-active probes that, upon oxidation by ROS, yield products exhibiting fluorescence, chemiluminescence, or bioluminescence. Mitochondria-targeted probes can be used to detect ROS generated in mitochondria. However, because most of these redox-active probes (untargeted and mitochondria-targeted) are oxidized by several ROS species, attributing redox probe oxidation to specific ROS species is difficult. It is conceivable that redox-active probes are oxidized in common one-electron oxidation pathways, resulting in a radical intermediate that either reacts with another oxidant (including oxygen to produce O₂^̇̄) and forms a stable fluorescent product or reacts with O₂^̇̄ to form a fluorescent marker product. Here, we propose the use of multiple probes and complementary techniques (HPLC, LC-MS, redox blotting, and EPR) and the measurement of intracellular probe uptake and specific marker products to identify specific ROS generated in cells. The low-temperature EPR technique developed to investigate cellular/mitochondrial oxidants can easily be extended to animal and human tissues.

Teaching the basics of reactive oxygen species and their relevance to cancer biology: Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species detection, redox signaling, and targeted therapies

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been implicated in tumorigenesis (tumor initiation, tumor progression, and metastasis). Of the many cellular sources of ROS generation, the mitochondria and the NADPH oxidase family of enzymes are possibly the most prevalent intracellular sources. In this article, we discuss the methodologies to detect mitochondria-derived superoxide and hydrogen peroxide using conventional probes as well as newly developed assays and probes, and the necessity of characterizing the diagnostic marker products with HPLC and LC-MS in order to rigorously identify the oxidizing species. The redox signaling roles of mitochondrial ROS, mitochondrial thiol peroxidases, and transcription factors in response to mitochondria-targeted drugs are highlighted. ROS generation and ROS detoxification in drug-resistant cancer cells and the relationship to metabolic reprogramming are discussed. Understanding the subtle role of ROS in redox signaling and in tumor proliferation, progression, and metastasis as well as the molecular and cellular mechanisms (e.g., autophagy) could help in the development of combination therapies. The paradoxical aspects of antioxidants in cancer treatment are highlighted in relation to the ROS mechanisms in normal and cancer cells. Finally, the potential uses of newly synthesized exomarker probes for in vivo superoxide and hydrogen peroxide detection and the low-temperature electron paramagnetic resonance technique for monitoring oxidant production in tumor tissues are discussed.

Recent Developments in the Probes and Assays for Measurement of the Activity of NADPH Oxidases

NADPH oxidases are a family of enzymes capable of transferring electrons from NADPH to molecular oxygen. A major function of NADPH oxidases is the activation of molecular oxygen into reactive oxygen species. Increased activity of NADPH oxidases has been implicated in various pathologies, including cardiovascular disease, neurological dysfunction, and cancer. Thus, NADPH oxidases have been identified as a viable target for the development of novel therapeutics exhibiting inhibitory effects on NADPH oxidases. Here, we describe the development of new assays for measuring the activity of NADPH oxidases enabling the high-throughput screening for NADPH oxidase inhibitors.

Selenium-containing indolyl compounds: Kinetics of reaction with inflammation-associated oxidants and protective effect against oxidation of extracellular matrix proteins

Activated white blood cells generate multiple oxidants in response to invading pathogens. Thus, hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is generated via the reaction of myeloperoxidase (from neutrophils and monocytes) with hydrogen peroxide, and peroxynitrous acid (ONOOH), a potent oxidizing and nitrating agent is formed from superoxide radicals and nitric oxide, generated by stimulated macrophages. Excessive or misplaced production of these oxidants has been linked to multiple human pathologies, including cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis is characterized by chronic inflammation and the presence of oxidized materials, including extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, within the artery wall. Here we investigated the potential of selenium-containing indoles to afford protection against these oxidants, by determining rate constants (k) for their reaction, and quantifying the extent of damage on isolated ECM proteins and ECM generated by human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAECs). The novel selenocompounds examined react with HOCl with k 0.2-1.0 × 10⁸M^-1s^-1, and ONOOH with k 4.5-8.6 - × 10⁵M^-1s^-1. Reaction with H₂O₂ is considerably slower (k < 0.25M^-1s^-1). The selenocompound 2-phenyl-3-(phenylselanyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine provided protection to human serum albumin (HSA) against HOCl-mediated damage (as assessed by SDS-PAGE) and damage to isolated matrix proteins induced by ONOOH, with a concomitant decrease in the levels of the biomarker 3-nitrotyrosine. Structural damage and generation of 3-nitroTyr on HCAEC-ECM were also reduced. These data demonstrate that the novel selenium-containing compounds show high reactivity with oxidants and may modulate oxidative and nitrosative damage at sites of inflammation, contributing to a reduction in tissue dysfunction and atherogenesis.

Mitochondria-Targeted Triphenylphosphonium-Based Compounds: Syntheses, Mechanisms of Action, and Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications

Mitochondria are recognized as one of the most important targets for new drug design in cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases. Currently, the most effective way to deliver drugs specifically to mitochondria is by covalent linking a lipophilic cation such as an alkyltriphenylphosphonium moiety to a pharmacophore of interest. Other delocalized lipophilic cations, such as rhodamine, natural and synthetic mitochondria-targeting peptides, and nanoparticle vehicles, have also been used for mitochondrial delivery of small molecules. Depending on the approach used, and the cell and mitochondrial membrane potentials, more than 1000-fold higher mitochondrial concentration can be achieved. Mitochondrial targeting has been developed to study mitochondrial physiology and dysfunction and the interaction between mitochondria and other subcellular organelles and for treatment of a variety of diseases such as neurodegeneration and cancer. In this Review, we discuss efforts to target small-molecule compounds to mitochondria for probing mitochondria function, as diagnostic tools and potential therapeutics. We describe the physicochemical basis for mitochondrial accumulation of lipophilic cations, synthetic chemistry strategies to target compounds to mitochondria, mitochondrial probes, and sensors, and examples of mitochondrial targeting of bioactive compounds. Finally, we review published attempts to apply mitochondria-targeted agents for the treatment of cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.

Formation and repair of oxidatively generated damage in cellular DNA

In this review article, emphasis is placed on the critical survey of available data concerning modified nucleobase and 2-deoxyribose products that have been identified in cellular DNA following exposure to a wide variety of oxidizing species and agents including, hydroxyl radical, one-electron oxidants, singlet oxygen, hypochlorous acid and ten-eleven translocation enzymes. In addition, information is provided about the generation of secondary oxidation products of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine and nucleobase addition products with reactive aldehydes arising from the decomposition of lipid peroxides. It is worth noting that the different classes of oxidatively generated DNA damage that consist of single lesions, intra- and interstrand cross-links were unambiguously assigned and quantitatively detected on the basis of accurate measurements involving in most cases high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. The reported data clearly show that the frequency of DNA lesions generated upon severe oxidizing conditions, including exposure to ionizing radiation is low, at best a few modifications per 106 normal bases. Application of accurate analytical measurement methods has also allowed the determination of repair kinetics of several well-defined lesions in cellular DNA that however concerns so far only a restricted number of cases.

Mitochondrially targeted fluorescent redox sensors

The balance of oxidants and antioxidants within the cell is crucial for maintaining health, and regulating physiological processes such as signalling. Consequently, imbalances between oxidants and antioxidants are now understood to lead to oxidative stress, a physiological feature that underlies many diseases. These processes have spurred the field of chemical biology to develop a plethora of sensors, both small-molecule and fluorescent protein-based, for the detection of specific oxidizing species and general redox balances within cells. The mitochondrion, in particular, is the site of many vital redox reactions. There is therefore a need to target redox sensors to this particular organelle. It has been well established that targeting mitochondria can be achieved by the use of a lipophilic cation-targeting group, or by utilizing natural peptidic mitochondrial localization sequences. Here, we review how these two approaches have been used by a number of researchers to develop mitochondrially localized fluorescent redox sensors that are already proving useful in providing insights into the roles of reactive oxygen species in the mitochondria.

Type I and Type II Photosensitized Oxidation Reactions: Guidelines and Mechanistic Pathways

Here, 10 guidelines are presented for a standardized definition of type I and type II photosensitized oxidation reactions. Because of varied notions of reactions mediated by photosensitizers, a checklist of recommendations is provided for their definitions. Type I and type II photoreactions are oxygen-dependent and involve unstable species such as the initial formation of radical cation or neutral radicals from the substrates and/or singlet oxygen (¹ O₂¹ ∆_g ) by energy transfer to molecular oxygen. In addition, superoxide anion radical (O2·-) can be generated by a charge-transfer reaction involving O₂ or more likely indirectly as the result of O₂ -mediated oxidation of the radical anion of type I photosensitizers. In subsequent reactions, O2·- may add and/or reduce a few highly oxidizing radicals that arise from the deprotonation of the radical cations of key biological targets. O2·- can also undergo dismutation into H₂ O₂ , the precursor of the highly reactive hydroxyl radical (·OH) that may induce delayed oxidation reactions in cells. In the second part, several examples of type I and type II photosensitized oxidation reactions are provided to illustrate the complexity and the diversity of the degradation pathways of mostly relevant biomolecules upon one-electron oxidation and singlet oxygen reactions.

Electrochemical Detection of Hydrogen Peroxide by Inhibiting the p-Benzenediboronic Acid-Triggered Assembly of Citrate-Capped Au/Ag Nanoparticles on Electrode Surface

Metal nanoparticles (NPs) possess unique physicochemical attributes for creating effective recognition and transduction processes in chem/bio-sensing. In this work, we suggested that citrate-capped Au/Ag NPs could be used as the reporters for the design of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) sensors with a simple manipulation principle and an easy detection procedure. Specifically, p-benzenediboronic acid (BDBA) induced the aggregation of citrate-capped Au NPs through the cross-linking reaction between citrate and boronic acid of BDBA in solution. By modifying the electrode with a boronic acid derivative, the BDBA-induced assembly of Au NPs was achieved on the electrode surface. This led to a significant decrease in the electron transfer resistance due to the unique conductive ability of Au NPs. However, when the boronate group on the electrode surface was oxidized into its phenol format, the assembly of Au NPs on the electrode surface was not achieved. As a result, a higher electron transfer resistance was observed. The process could be monitored by electrochemical impedance technique. Furthermore, when Ag NPs were used instead of Au NPs in this design, the H₂O₂ concentration could be determined by measuring the linear-sweep voltammetry (LSV) current through the solid-state Ag/AgCl reaction of Ag NPs. The results indicated that NP-based colorimetric assays could be developed into more sensitive electrochemical analysis.

Sensitive detection and estimation of cell-derived peroxynitrite fluxes using fluorescein-boronate

The specific and sensitive detection of peroxynitrite (ONOO^-/ONOOH) in biological systems is a great challenge due to its high reactivity towards several biomolecules. Herein, we validated the advantages of using fluorescein-boronate (Fl-B) as a highly sensitive fluorescent probe for the direct detection of peroxynitrite under biologically-relevant conditions in two different cell models. The synthesis of Fl-B was achieved by a very simply two-step conversion synthetic route with high purity (>99%) and overall yield (∼42%). Reactivity analysis of Fl-B with relevant biological oxidants including hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and peroxynitrite were performed. The rate constant for the reaction of peroxynitrite with Fl-B was 1.7×10⁶M^-1s^-1, a million times faster than the rate constant measured for H₂O₂ (k=1.7M^-1s^-1) and 2,700 faster than HOCl (6.2×10²M^-1s^-1) at 37°C and pH 7.4. The reaction of Fl-B with peroxynitrite was significant even in the presence of physiological concentrations of CO₂, a well-known peroxynitrite reactant. Experimental and simulated kinetic analyses confirm that the main oxidation process of Fl-B takes place with peroxynitrite itself via a direct bimolecular reaction and not with peroxynitrite-derived radicals. Fl-B was successfully applied for the detection of endogenously-generated peroxynitrite by endothelial cells and in macrophage-phagocyted parasites. Moreover, the generated data allowed estimating the actual intracellular flux of peroxynitrite. For instance, ionomycin-stimulated endothelial cells generated peroxynitrite at a rate of ∼ 0.1μMs^-1, while immunostimulated macrophages do so in the order of ∼1μMs^-1 inside T. cruzi-infected phagosomes. Fl-B revealed not to be toxic in concentrations up to 1mM for 24h. Cellular peroxynitrite detection was achieved by conventional laboratory fluorescence-based methods including flow cytometry and epi-fluorescence microscopy. Fl-B was shown to be more sensitive than the coumarin boronate due to a higher molar absorption coefficient and quantum yield. Overall, our results show that Fl-B is a kinetically selective and highly sensitive probe for the direct detection of cell-derived peroxynitrite.

On the use of peroxy-caged luciferin (PCL-1) probe for bioluminescent detection of inflammatory oxidants in vitro and in vivo - Identification of reaction intermediates and oxidant-specific minor products

Peroxy-caged luciferin (PCL-1) probe was first used to image hydrogen peroxide in living systems (Van de Bittner et al., 2010 [9]). Recently this probe was shown to react with peroxynitrite more potently than with hydrogen peroxide (Sieracki et al., 2013 [11]) and was suggested to be a more suitable probe for detecting peroxynitrite under in vivo conditions. In this work, we investigated in detail the products formed from the reaction between PCL-1 and hydrogen peroxide, hypochlorite, and peroxynitrite. HPLC analysis showed that hydrogen peroxide reacts slowly with PCL-1, forming luciferin as the only product. Hypochlorite reaction with PCL-1 yielded significantly less luciferin, as hypochlorite oxidized luciferin to form a chlorinated luciferin. Reaction between PCL-1 and peroxynitrite consists of a major and minor pathway. The major pathway results in luciferin and the minor pathway produces a radical-mediated nitrated luciferin. Radical intermediate was characterized by spin trapping. We conclude that monitoring of chlorinated and nitrated products in addition to bioluminescence in vivo will help identify the nature of oxidant responsible for bioluminescence derived from PCL-1.

Oxidative stress, free radicals and protein peroxides

Primary free radicals generated under oxidative stress in cells and tissues produce a cascade of reactive secondary radicals, which attack biomolecules with efficiency determined by the reaction rate constants and target concentration. Proteins are prominent targets because they constitute the bulk of the organic content of cells and tissues and react readily with many of the secondary radicals. The reactions commonly lead to the formation of carbon-centered radicals, which generally convert in vivo to peroxyl radicals and finally to semistable hydroperoxides. All of these intermediates can initiate biological damage. This article outlines the advantages of the application of ionizing radiations to studies of radicals, with particular reference to the generation of desired radicals, studies of the kinetics of their reactions and correlating the results with events in biological systems. In one such application, formation of protein hydroperoxides in irradiated cells was inhibited by the intracellular ascorbate and glutathione.

Characterization of Fluorescein-Based Monoboronate Probe and Its Application to the Detection of Peroxynitrite in Endothelial Cells Treated with Doxorubicin

Boronate probes have emerged recently as a versatile tool for the detection of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Here, we present the characterization of a fluorescein-based monoboronate probe, a 4-(pinacol boronate)benzyl derivative of fluorescein methyl ester (FBBE), that proved to be useful to detect peroxynitrite in cell culture experiments. The reactivity of FBBE toward peroxynitrite as well hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, and tyrosyl hydroperoxide was determined. Second-order rate constants of the reactions of FBBE with peroxynitrite, HOCl, and H2O2 at pH 7.4 were equal to (2.8 ± 0.2) × 10(5) M(-1) s(-1), (8.6 ± 0.5) × 10(3) M(-1) s(-1), and (0.96 ± 0.03) M(-1) s(-1), respectively. The presence of glutathione completely blocked the oxidation of the probe by HOCl and significantly inhibited its oxidation by H2O2 and tyrosyl hydroperoxide but not by peroxynitrite. The oxidative conversion of the probe was also studied in the systems generating singlet oxygen, superoxide radical anion, and nitric oxide in the presence and absence of glutathione. Spectroscopic characterization of FBBE and its oxidation product has been also performed. The differences in the reactivity pattern were supported by DFT quantum mechanical calculations. Finally, the FBBE probe was used to study the oxidative stress in endothelial cells (Ea.hy926) incubated with doxorubicin, a quinone anthracycline antibiotic. In endothelial cells pretreated with doxorubicin, FBBE was oxidized, and this effect was reversed by PEG-SOD and L-NAME but not by catalase.

Protein oxidation and peroxidation

Proteins are major targets for radicals and two-electron oxidants in biological systems due to their abundance and high rate constants for reaction. With highly reactive radicals damage occurs at multiple side-chain and backbone sites. Less reactive species show greater selectivity with regard to the residues targeted and their spatial location. Modification can result in increased side-chain hydrophilicity, side-chain and backbone fragmentation, aggregation via covalent cross-linking or hydrophobic interactions, protein unfolding and altered conformation, altered interactions with biological partners and modified turnover. In the presence of O2, high yields of peroxyl radicals and peroxides (protein peroxidation) are formed; the latter account for up to 70% of the initial oxidant flux. Protein peroxides can oxidize both proteins and other targets. One-electron reduction results in additional radicals and chain reactions with alcohols and carbonyls as major products; the latter are commonly used markers of protein damage. Direct oxidation of cysteine (and less commonly) methionine residues is a major reaction; this is typically faster than with H2O2, and results in altered protein activity and function. Unlike H2O2, which is rapidly removed by protective enzymes, protein peroxides are only slowly removed, and catabolism is a major fate. Although turnover of modified proteins by proteasomal and lysosomal enzymes, and other proteases (e.g. mitochondrial Lon), can be efficient, protein hydroperoxides inhibit these pathways and this may contribute to the accumulation of modified proteins in cells. Available evidence supports an association between protein oxidation and multiple human pathologies, but whether this link is causal remains to be established.

Endogenous Generation of Singlet Oxygen and Ozone in Human and Animal Tissues: Mechanisms, Biological Significance, and Influence of Dietary Components

Recent studies have shown that exposing antibodies or amino acids to singlet oxygen results in the formation of ozone (or an ozone-like oxidant) and hydrogen peroxide and that human neutrophils produce both singlet oxygen and ozone during bacterial killing. There is also mounting evidence that endogenous singlet oxygen production may be a common occurrence in cells through various mechanisms. Thus, the ozone-producing combination of singlet oxygen and amino acids might be a common cellular occurrence. This paper reviews the potential pathways of formation of singlet oxygen and ozone in vivo and also proposes some new pathways for singlet oxygen formation. Physiological consequences of the endogenous formation of these oxidants in human tissues are discussed, as well as examples of how dietary factors may promote or inhibit their generation and activity.

Kinetics of Nitrite Reduction and Peroxynitrite Formation by Ferrous Heme in Human Cystathionine β-Synthase

Cystathionine β-synthase (CBS) is a pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the condensation of homocysteine with serine or with cysteine to form cystathionine and either water or hydrogen sulfide, respectively. Human CBS possesses a noncatalytic heme cofactor with cysteine and histidine as ligands, which in its oxidized state is relatively unreactive. Ferric CBS (Fe(III)-CBS) can be reduced by strong chemical and biochemical reductants to Fe(II)-CBS, which can bind carbon monoxide (CO) or nitric oxide (NO(•)), leading to inactive enzyme. Alternatively, Fe(II)-CBS can be reoxidized by O2to Fe(III)-CBS, forming superoxide radical anion (O2 (̇̄)). In this study, we describe the kinetics of nitrite (NO2 (-)) reduction by Fe(II)-CBS to form Fe(II)NO(•)-CBS. The second order rate constant for the reaction of Fe(II)-CBS with nitrite was obtained at low dithionite concentrations. Reoxidation of Fe(II)NO(•)-CBS by O2showed complex kinetic behavior and led to peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) formation, which was detected using the fluorescent probe, coumarin boronic acid. Thus, in addition to being a potential source of superoxide radical, CBS constitutes a previously unrecognized source of NO(•)and peroxynitrite.

Toward selective detection of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species with the use of fluorogenic probes--Limitations, progress, and perspectives

Over the last 40 years, there has been tremendous progress in understanding the biological reactions of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). It is widely accepted that the generation of ROS and RNS is involved in physiological and pathophysiological processes. To understand the role of ROS and RNS in a variety of pathologies, the specific detection of ROS and RNS is fundamental. Unfortunately, the intracellular detection and quantitation of ROS and RNS remains a challenge. In this short review, we have focused on the mechanistic and quantitative aspects of their detection with the use of selected fluorogenic probes. The challenges, limitations and perspectives of these methods are discussed.