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Silva MA, Izidoro MA, Aricó M, Juliano L, Schenkman S. The effect of nutritional and oxidative stress on the metabolome of Trypanosoma cruzi. Mol Microbiol 2024. [PMID: 38814666 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, a flagellated protozoan, is the causative agent of Chagas disease. The parasite has developed various mechanisms to get through its intricate life cycle and adapt to different evolutionary phases. T. cruzi proliferates in the insect vector's digestive tract as an epimastigote form, encountering fluctuating nutrient availability and oxidative stress caused by the digestion of red blood cells from the mammalian host blood meal. To unravel how the parasite's metabolism adapts to these changing conditions, we conducted an analysis of the chemical species present in epimastigote forms. This involved comparing cultured parasites with those subjected to nutritional deficiency or oxidative stress using untargeted metabolomics. We looked at 21 samples: seven biological copies of parasites that were actively growing, seven samples that were put in a medium without nutrients for 3 h, and seven samples that were treated with glucose oxidase for 30 min to make H2O2 continuously. Importantly, in all conditions, parasite viability was maintained when the samples were collected. Upon nutrient removal, we observed a substantial decrease in amino acids and carbohydrate metabolites, accompanied by the accumulation of fatty acids and steroids, with the predominance of inositol and sphingolipid metabolism, along with a simultaneous decrease in the levels of H2O2. In the presence of H2O2, a significant rise in components of the pentose pathway and specific amino acids such as methionine and serine occurred, along with pathways related to an increase in antioxidant species metabolism such as ribulose 5-phosphate and glyceric acid. Conversely, fatty acid and steroid levels decrease. We found no common increase in metabolites or lipids. In contrast, eight species (succinic acid, glutamic acid, valine, 2-hydroxyisocaproic acid, alanine, indolelactic acid, proline, and lanosterol) were consumed under both stresses. These findings underscore the rapid and distinct enrichment responses in amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates required to cope with each different environmental condition. We concluded that T. cruzi presents a flexible metabolism that rapidly adapts to variable changes in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Augusto Silva
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Mirella Aricó
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz Juliano
- Department of Biophysics, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sergio Schenkman
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Liang S, Zhu S, Wang Q, Zhao Q, Dong H, Huang B, Yu Y, Han H. Eimeria tenella pyrroline -5-carboxylate reductase is a secreted protein and involved in host cell invasion. Exp Parasitol 2024; 259:108712. [PMID: 38336093 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2024.108712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Chicken coccidiosis, which caused by Eimeria spp, is a parasitic protozoal disease. At present, control measures of this disease depend mainly on anticoccidial drugs and live vaccines. But these control strategies have drawbacks such as drug resistance and limitations in live vaccines production. Therefore, novel control approaches are urgently need to study to control this disease effectively. In this study, the function and characteristics of the pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase of Eimeria tenella (EtPYCR) protein were preliminary analyzed. The transcription and translation level were analyzed by using qPCR and Western blot. The results showed that the mRNA transcription and translation levels of EtPYCR were higher in unsporulated oocysts (UO) and second generation merozoites (Mrz) than that in sporulated oocysts (SO) and sporozoites. Enzyme activity showed that the enzyme activity of EtPYCR was also higher in the UO and Mrz than that in the SO and sporozoites. Immunofluorescence localization showed EtPYCR was mainly located on the top of sporozoites and the whole cytoplasm and surface of Mrz. The secretion assay indicated that EtPYCR was secretion protein, but not from micronemes. Invasion inhibition assay showed that rabbit anti-rEtPYCR polyclonal antibodies can effectively inhibit sporozoite invasion of DF-1 cells. These results showed that EtPYCR possess several important roles that separate and distinct from its conversion 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C) into proline and maybe involved in the host cell invasion and development of parasites in host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Liang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai, 200241, China; Tangshan Food and Drug Comprehensive Testing Center, Tangshan, 063000, China
| | - Shunhai Zhu
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Qingjie Wang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai, 200241, China; Shaanxi Center for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Xian, 710016, China
| | - Qiping Zhao
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Hui Dong
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Bing Huang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Yu Yu
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Hongyu Han
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai, 200241, China.
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Opperdoes FR, Záhonová K, Škodová-Sveráková I, Bučková B, Chmelová Ľ, Lukeš J, Yurchenko V. In silico prediction of the metabolism of Blastocrithidia nonstop, a trypanosomatid with non-canonical genetic code. BMC Genomics 2024; 25:184. [PMID: 38365628 PMCID: PMC10874023 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-024-10094-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Almost all extant organisms use the same, so-called canonical, genetic code with departures from it being very rare. Even more exceptional are the instances when a eukaryote with non-canonical code can be easily cultivated and has its whole genome and transcriptome sequenced. This is the case of Blastocrithidia nonstop, a trypanosomatid flagellate that reassigned all three stop codons to encode amino acids. RESULTS We in silico predicted the metabolism of B. nonstop and compared it with that of the well-studied human parasites Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania major. The mapped mitochondrial, glycosomal and cytosolic metabolism contains all typical features of these diverse and important parasites. We also provided experimental validation for some of the predicted observations, concerning, specifically presence of glycosomes, cellular respiration, and assembly of the respiratory complexes. CONCLUSIONS In an unusual comparison of metabolism between a parasitic protist with a massively altered genetic code and its close relatives that rely on a canonical code we showed that the dramatic differences on the level of nucleic acids do not seem to be reflected in the metabolisms. Moreover, although the genome of B. nonstop is extremely AT-rich, we could not find any alterations of its pyrimidine synthesis pathway when compared to other trypanosomatids. Hence, we conclude that the dramatic alteration of the genetic code of B. nonstop has no significant repercussions on the metabolism of this flagellate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fred R Opperdoes
- de Duve Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kristína Záhonová
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, BIOCEV, Vestec, Czechia
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Ingrid Škodová-Sveráková
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Barbora Bučková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ľubomíra Chmelová
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia
| | - Julius Lukeš
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Vyacheslav Yurchenko
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia.
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4
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Zheng Y, Cabassa-Hourton C, Eubel H, Chevreux G, Lignieres L, Crilat E, Braun HP, Lebreton S, Savouré A. Pyrroline-5-carboxylate metabolism protein complex detected in Arabidopsis thaliana leaf mitochondria. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2024; 75:917-934. [PMID: 37843921 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erad406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
Proline dehydrogenase (ProDH) and pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C) dehydrogenase (P5CDH) catalyse the oxidation of proline into glutamate via the intermediates P5C and glutamate-semialdehyde (GSA), which spontaneously interconvert. P5C and GSA are also intermediates in the production of glutamate from ornithine and α-ketoglutarate catalysed by ornithine δ-aminotransferase (OAT). ProDH and P5CDH form a fused bifunctional PutA enzyme in Gram-negative bacteria and are associated in a bifunctional substrate-channelling complex in Thermus thermophilus; however, the physical proximity of ProDH and P5CDH in eukaryotes has not been described. Here, we report evidence of physical proximity and interactions between Arabidopsis ProDH, P5CDH, and OAT in the mitochondria of plants during dark-induced leaf senescence when all three enzymes are expressed. Pairwise interactions and localization of the three enzymes were investigated using bimolecular fluorescence complementation with confocal microscopy in tobacco and sub-mitochondrial fractionation in Arabidopsis. Evidence for a complex composed of ProDH, P5CDH, and OAT was revealed by co-migration of the proteins in native conditions upon gel electrophoresis. Co-immunoprecipitation coupled with mass spectrometry analysis confirmed the presence of the P5C metabolism complex in Arabidopsis. Pull-down assays further demonstrated a direct interaction between ProDH1 and P5CDH. P5C metabolism complexes might channel P5C among the constituent enzymes and directly provide electrons to the respiratory electron chain via ProDH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Zheng
- Sorbonne Université, UPEC, CNRS, IRD, INRAE Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris (iEES), 75005 Paris, France
| | - Cécile Cabassa-Hourton
- Sorbonne Université, UPEC, CNRS, IRD, INRAE Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris (iEES), 75005 Paris, France
| | - Holger Eubel
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany
| | - Guillaume Chevreux
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Institut Jacques Monod, F-75013 Paris, France
| | - Laurent Lignieres
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Institut Jacques Monod, F-75013 Paris, France
| | - Emilie Crilat
- Sorbonne Université, UPEC, CNRS, IRD, INRAE Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris (iEES), 75005 Paris, France
| | - Hans-Peter Braun
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany
| | - Sandrine Lebreton
- Sorbonne Université, UPEC, CNRS, IRD, INRAE Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris (iEES), 75005 Paris, France
| | - Arnould Savouré
- Sorbonne Université, UPEC, CNRS, IRD, INRAE Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris (iEES), 75005 Paris, France
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Rapado LN, Nascimento JF, Manchola NC, Damasceno FS, Achjian RW, Silber AM. The branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) modulate the development of the intra-cellular stages of Trypanosoma cruzi. Exp Parasitol 2023; 255:108642. [PMID: 37939824 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2023.108642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
The life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, involves different forms of the parasite, which alternates between insect and vertebrate hosts. One critical process in the parasite's life cycle is metacyclogenesis, in which the replicative non-infective forms present in the insect midgut differentiate into non-dividing vertebrate-infective forms. It is known that proline (Pro) is important for this process and that leucine (Leu) and isoleucine (Ile) can act as inhibitors of metacyclogenesis. In this study, we investigated further the role of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) as negative modulators of parasite differentiation and infection capability in vitro. We found that BCAAs can down-regulate metacyclogenesis, inhibiting Pro-dependent differentiation. Furthermore, we evaluated the ability of all three BCAAs to influence the differentiation of intracellular stages and found that they could modulate the release of trypomastigotes from infected host cells. These findings suggest that BCAAs may have an important role in the complex life cycle of T. cruzi. Thus, enzymes of their metabolism and other interacting proteins could be potential targets for the development of new therapeutic strategies for Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- L N Rapado
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - J F Nascimento
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - N C Manchola
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - F S Damasceno
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - R W Achjian
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - A M Silber
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil.
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6
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San Francisco J, Astudillo C, Vega JL, Catalán A, Gutiérrez B, Araya JE, Zailberger A, Marina A, García C, Sanchez N, Osuna A, Vilchez S, Ramírez MI, Macedo J, Feijoli VS, Palmisano G, González J. Trypanosoma cruzi pathogenicity involves virulence factor expression and upregulation of bioenergetic and biosynthetic pathways. Virulence 2022; 13:1827-1848. [PMID: 36284085 PMCID: PMC9601562 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2022.2132776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular repertoire of Trypanosoma cruzi effects its virulence and impacts the clinical course of the resulting Chagas disease. This study aimed to determine the mechanism underlying the pathogenicity of T. cruzi. Two T. cruzi cell lines (C8C3hvir and C8C3lvir), obtained from the clone H510 C8C3 and exhibiting different virulence phenotypes, were used to evaluate the parasite's infectivity in mice. The organ parasite load was analysed by qPCR. The proteomes of both T. cruzi cell lines were compared using nLC-MS/MS. Cruzipain (Czp), complement regulatory protein (CRP), trans-sialidase (TS), Tc-85, and sialylated epitope expression levels were evaluated by immunoblotting. High-virulence C8C3hvir was highly infectious in mice and demonstrated three to five times higher infectivity in mouse myocardial cells than low-virulence C8C3lvir. qPCR revealed higher parasite loads in organs of acute as well as chronically C8C3hvir-infected mice than in those of C8C3lvir-infected mice. Comparative quantitative proteomics revealed that 390 of 1547 identified proteins were differentially regulated in C8C3hvir with respect to C8C3lvir. Amongst these, 174 proteins were upregulated in C8C3hvir and 216 were downregulated in C8C3lvir. The upregulated proteins in C8C3hvir were associated with the tricarboxylic acid cycle, ribosomal proteins, and redoxins. Higher levels of Czp, CRP, TS, Tc-85, and sialylated epitopes were expressed in C8C3hvir than in C8C3lvir. Thus, T. cruzi virulence may be related to virulence factor expression as well as upregulation of bioenergetic and biosynthetic pathways proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan San Francisco
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Constanza Astudillo
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - José Luis Vega
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile,Laboratory of Gap Junction Proteins and Parasitic Disease, Instituto Antofagasta, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile,Research Center in Immunology and Biomedical Biotechnology of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Alejandro Catalán
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Bessy Gutiérrez
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Jorge E Araya
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | | | - Anabel Marina
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos García
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Nuria Sanchez
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Osuna
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Susana Vilchez
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Marcel I Ramírez
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular e Sistemática de Trypanosomatides, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fiocruz, Parana, Brazil
| | - Janaina Macedo
- Department of Parasitology, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Jorge González
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile,Research Center in Immunology and Biomedical Biotechnology of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile,Laboratório de Biologia Molecular e Sistemática de Trypanosomatides, Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Antofagasta, Chile,CONTACT Jorge González
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Mantilla BS, Paes-Vieira L, de Almeida Dias F, Calderano SG, Elias MC, Cosentino-Gomes D, Oliveira PL, Meyer-Fernandes JR, Silber AM. Higher expression of proline dehydrogenase altered mitochondrial function and increased Trypanosoma cruzi differentiation in vitro and in the insect vector. Biochem J 2021; 478:3891-3903. [PMID: 34661234 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20210428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The pathogenic protist Trypanosoma cruzi uses kissing bugs as invertebrate hosts that vectorize the infection among mammals. This parasite oxidizes proline to glutamate through two enzymatic steps and one nonenzymatic step. In insect vectors, T. cruzi differentiates from a noninfective replicating form to nonproliferative infective forms. Proline sustains this differentiation, but to date, a link between proline metabolism and differentiation has not been established. In T. cruzi, the enzymatic steps of the proline-glutamate oxidation pathway are catalyzed exclusively by the mitochondrial enzymes proline dehydrogenase [TcPRODH, EC: 1.5.5.2] and Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase [TcP5CDH, EC: 1.2.1.88]. Both enzymatic steps produce reducing equivalents that are able to directly feed the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) and thus produce ATP. In this study, we demonstrate the contribution of each enzyme of the proline-glutamate pathway to ATP production. In addition, we show that parasites overexpressing these enzymes produce increased levels of H2O2, but only those overexpressing TcP5CDH produce increased levels of superoxide anion. We show that parasites overexpressing TcPRODH, but not parasites overexpressing TcP5CDH, exhibit a higher rate of differentiation into metacyclic trypomastigotes in vitro. Finally, insect hosts infected with parasites overexpressing TcPRODH showed a diminished parasitic load but a higher percent of metacyclic trypomastigotes, when compared with controls. Our data show that parasites overexpressing both, PRODH and P5CDH had increased mitochondrial functions that orchestrated different oxygen signaling, resulting in different outcomes in relation to the efficiency of parasitic differentiation in the invertebrate host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian S Mantilla
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps- LabTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Lisvane Paes-Vieira
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps- LabTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Felipe de Almeida Dias
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Simone G Calderano
- Laboratório de Ciclo Celular, Center of Toxines, Immune response and Cell Signallig, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Maria Carolina Elias
- Laboratório de Ciclo Celular, Center of Toxines, Immune response and Cell Signallig, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Daniela Cosentino-Gomes
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Pedro L Oliveira
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - José Roberto Meyer-Fernandes
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Ariel M Silber
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps- LabTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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8
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Vázquez-Jiménez LK, Moreno-Herrera A, Juárez-Saldivar A, González-González A, Ortiz-Pérez E, Paz-González AD, Palos-Pizarro I, Ramírez-Moreno E, Rivera G. Recent Advances in the Development of Triose Phosphate Isomerase Inhibitors as Antiprotozoal Agents. Curr Med Chem 2021; 29:2504-2529. [PMID: 34517794 DOI: 10.2174/0929867328666210913090928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parasitic diseases caused by protozoa such as Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, malaria, African trypanosomiasis, amebiasis, trichomoniasis, and giardiasis are considered serious public health problems in developing countries. Drug-resistance among parasites justifies the search for new therapeutic drugs and the identification of new targets becomes a valuable approach. In this scenario, glycolysis pathway which consists of the conversion of glucose into pyruvate plays an important role in the protozoa energy supply and it is therefore considered as a promising target. In this pathway, triose phosphate isomerase (TIM) plays an essential role in efficient energy production. Furthermore, protozoa TIM show structural differences with human enzyme counterparts suggesting the possibility of obtaining selective inhibitors. Therefore, TIM is considered a valid approach to develop new antiprotozoal agents, inhibiting the glycolysis in the parasite. OBJECTIVE In this review, we discuss the drug design strategies, structure-activity relationship, and binding modes of outstanding TIM inhibitors against Trypanosoma cruzi, Trypanosoma brucei, Plasmodium falciparum, Giardia lamblia, Leishmania mexicana, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Entamoeba histolytica. RESULTS TIM inhibitors showed mainly aromatic systems and symmetrical structure, where the size and type of heteroatom are important for enzyme inhibition. This inhibition is mainly based on the interaction with i) the interfacial region of TIM inducing changes on the quaternary and tertiary structure or ii) with the TIM catalytic region were the main pathways that disabled the catalytic activity of the enzyme. CONCLUSION Benzothiazole, benzoxazole, benzimidazole, and sulfhydryl derivatives stand out as TIM inhibitors. In silico and in vitro studies demonstrate that the inhibitors bind mainly at the TIM dimer interface. In this review, the development of new TIM inhibitors as antiprotozoal drugs is demonstrated as an important pharmaceutical strategy that may lead to new therapies for these ancient parasitic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lenci K Vázquez-Jiménez
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, 88710 Reynosa. Mexico
| | - Antonio Moreno-Herrera
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, 88710 Reynosa. Mexico
| | - Alfredo Juárez-Saldivar
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, 88710 Reynosa. Mexico
| | - Alonzo González-González
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, 88710 Reynosa. Mexico
| | - Eyra Ortiz-Pérez
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, 88710 Reynosa. Mexico
| | - Alma D Paz-González
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, 88710 Reynosa. Mexico
| | - Isidro Palos-Pizarro
- Unidad Académica Multidisciplinaria Reynosa-Rodhe, Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, 88779 Reynosa. Mexico
| | - Esther Ramírez-Moreno
- Escuela Nacional de Medicina y Homeopatía, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, 07320 Ciudad de México. Mexico
| | - Gildardo Rivera
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, 88710 Reynosa. Mexico
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Patriarca EJ, Cermola F, D’Aniello C, Fico A, Guardiola O, De Cesare D, Minchiotti G. The Multifaceted Roles of Proline in Cell Behavior. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:728576. [PMID: 34458276 PMCID: PMC8397452 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.728576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Herein, we review the multifaceted roles of proline in cell biology. This peculiar cyclic imino acid is: (i) A main precursor of extracellular collagens (the most abundant human proteins), antimicrobial peptides (involved in innate immunity), salivary proteins (astringency, teeth health) and cornifins (skin permeability); (ii) an energy source for pathogenic bacteria, protozoan parasites, and metastatic cancer cells, which engage in extracellular-protein degradation to invade their host; (iii) an antistress molecule (an osmolyte and chemical chaperone) helpful against various potential harms (UV radiation, drought/salinity, heavy metals, reactive oxygen species); (iv) a neural metabotoxin associated with schizophrenia; (v) a modulator of cell signaling pathways such as the amino acid stress response and extracellular signal-related kinase pathway; (vi) an epigenetic modifier able to promote DNA and histone hypermethylation; (vii) an inducer of proliferation of stem and tumor cells; and (viii) a modulator of cell morphology and migration/invasiveness. We highlight how proline metabolism impacts beneficial tissue regeneration, but also contributes to the progression of devastating pathologies such as fibrosis and metastatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Gabriella Minchiotti
- Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati Traverso”, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Naples, Italy
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10
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Souza ROO, Damasceno FS, Marsiccobetre S, Biran M, Murata G, Curi R, Bringaud F, Silber AM. Fatty acid oxidation participates in resistance to nutrient-depleted environments in the insect stages of Trypanosoma cruzi. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009495. [PMID: 33819309 PMCID: PMC8049481 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the parasite causing Chagas disease, is a digenetic flagellated protist that infects mammals (including humans) and reduviid insect vectors. Therefore, T. cruzi must colonize different niches in order to complete its life cycle in both hosts. This fact determines the need of adaptations to face challenging environmental cues. The primary environmental challenge, particularly in the insect stages, is poor nutrient availability. In this regard, it is well known that T. cruzi has a flexible metabolism able to rapidly switch from carbohydrates (mainly glucose) to amino acids (mostly proline) consumption. Also established has been the capability of T. cruzi to use glucose and amino acids to support the differentiation process occurring in the insect, from replicative non-infective epimastigotes to non-replicative infective metacyclic trypomastigotes. However, little is known about the possibilities of using externally available and internally stored fatty acids as resources to survive in nutrient-poor environments, and to sustain metacyclogenesis. In this study, we revisit the metabolic fate of fatty acid breakdown in T. cruzi. Herein, we show that during parasite proliferation, the glucose concentration in the medium can regulate the fatty acid metabolism. At the stationary phase, the parasites fully oxidize fatty acids. [U-14C]-palmitate can be taken up from the medium, leading to CO2 production. Additionally, we show that electrons are fed directly to oxidative phosphorylation, and acetyl-CoA is supplied to the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, which can be used to feed anabolic pathways such as the de novo biosynthesis of fatty acids. Finally, we show as well that the inhibition of fatty acids mobilization into the mitochondrion diminishes the survival to severe starvation, and impairs metacyclogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodolpho Ornitz Oliveira Souza
- University of São Paulo, Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps–LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Flávia Silva Damasceno
- University of São Paulo, Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps–LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sabrina Marsiccobetre
- University of São Paulo, Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps–LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marc Biran
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques (RMSB), Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Gilson Murata
- University of São Paulo, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rui Curi
- University of São Paulo, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Cruzeiro do Sul University, Interdisciplinary Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences—São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Frédéric Bringaud
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Ariel Mariano Silber
- University of São Paulo, Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps–LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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11
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Trypanosoma cruzi synthesizes proline via a Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase whose activity is fine-tuned by NADPH cytosolic pools. Biochem J 2020; 477:1827-1845. [PMID: 32315030 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20200232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, the amino acid proline participates in processes related to T. cruzi survival and infection, such as ATP production, cell differentiation, host-cell invasion, and in protection against osmotic, nutritional, and thermal stresses and oxidative imbalance. However, little is known about proline biosynthesis in this parasite. Δ1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase (P5CR, EC 1.5.1.2) catalyzes the biosynthesis of proline from Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C) with concomitant NADPH oxidation. Herein, we show that unlike other eukaryotes, T. cruzi biosynthesizes proline from P5C, which is produced exclusively from glutamate. We found that TcP5CR is an NADPH-dependent cytosolic enzyme with a Kmapp for P5C of 27.7 μM and with a higher expression in the insect-resident form of the parasite. High concentrations of the co-substrate NADPH partially inhibited TcP5CR activity, prompting us to analyze multiple kinetic inhibition models. The model that best explained the obtained data included a non-competitive substrate inhibition mechanism (Kiapp=45±0.7μM). Therefore, TcP5CR is a candidate as a regulatory factor of this pathway. Finally, we show that P5C can exit trypanosomatid mitochondria in conditions that do not compromise organelle integrity. These observations, together with previously reported results, lead us to propose that in T. cruzi TcP5CR participates in a redox shuttle between the mitochondria and the cytoplasm. In this model, cytoplasmic redox equivalents from NADPH pools are transferred to the mitochondria using proline as a reduced metabolite, and shuttling to fuel electrons to the respiratory chain through proline oxidation by its cognate dehydrogenase.
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12
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Fargnoli L, Panozzo-Zénere EA, Pagura L, Barisón MJ, Cricco JA, Silber AM, Labadie GR. Targeting L-Proline Uptake as New Strategy for Anti-chagas Drug Development. Front Chem 2020; 8:696. [PMID: 33195007 PMCID: PMC7477874 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.00696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
L-Proline is an important amino acid for the pathogenic protists belonging to Trypanosoma and Leishmania genera. In Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, this amino acid is involved in fundamental biological processes such as ATP production, differentiation of the insect and intracellular stages, the host cell infection and the resistance to a variety of stresses. In this study, we explore the L-Proline uptake as a chemotherapeutic target for T. cruzi. Novel inhibitors have been proposed containing the amino acid with a linker and a variable region able to block the transporter. A series of sixteen 1,2,3-triazolyl-proline derivatives have been prepared for in vitro screening against T. cruzi epimastigotes and proline uptake assays. We successfully obtained inhibitors that interfere with the amino acid internalization, which validated our design targeting the metabolite's transport. The presented structures are one of few examples of amino acid transporter inhibitors. The unprecedent application of this strategy on the development of new chemotherapy against Chagas disease, opens a new horizon on antiparasitic drug development against parasitic diseases and other pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Fargnoli
- Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Instituto de Química de Rosario (IQUIR), Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Esteban A Panozzo-Zénere
- Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Instituto de Química de Rosario (IQUIR), Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Lucas Pagura
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas CONICET-Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - María Julia Barisón
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps-LaBTryps, Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Julia A Cricco
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas CONICET-Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Ariel M Silber
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps-LaBTryps, Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Guillermo R Labadie
- Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Instituto de Química de Rosario (IQUIR), Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina.,Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
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13
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Shiratsubaki IS, Fang X, Souza ROO, Palsson BO, Silber AM, Siqueira-Neto JL. Genome-scale metabolic models highlight stage-specific differences in essential metabolic pathways in Trypanosoma cruzi. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008728. [PMID: 33021977 PMCID: PMC7567352 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease and a leading cause of heart failure in Latin America caused by a protozoan called Trypanosoma cruzi. This parasite presents a complex multi-stage life cycle. Anti-Chagas drugs currently available are limited to benznidazole and nifurtimox, both with severe side effects. Thus, there is a need for alternative and more efficient drugs. Genome-scale metabolic models (GEMs) can accurately predict metabolic capabilities and aid in drug discovery in metabolic genes. This work developed an extended GEM, hereafter referred to as iIS312, of the published and validated T. cruzi core metabolism model. From iIS312, we then built three stage-specific models through transcriptomics data integration, and showed that epimastigotes present the most active metabolism among the stages (see S1-S4 GEMs). Stage-specific models predicted significant metabolic differences among stages, including variations in flux distribution in core metabolism. Moreover, the gene essentiality predictions suggest potential drug targets, among which some have been previously proven lethal, including glutamate dehydrogenase, glucokinase and hexokinase. To validate the models, we measured the activity of enzymes in the core metabolism of the parasite at different stages, and showed the results were consistent with model predictions. Our results represent a potential step forward towards the improvement of Chagas disease treatment. To our knowledge, these stage-specific models are the first GEMs built for the stages Amastigote and Trypomastigote. This work is also the first to present an in silico GEM comparison among different stages in the T. cruzi life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel S Shiratsubaki
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, UC San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- Department of Bioengineering, UC San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Xin Fang
- Department of Bioengineering, UC San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Rodolpho O O Souza
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bernhard O Palsson
- Department of Bioengineering, UC San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, UC San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ariel M Silber
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jair L Siqueira-Neto
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, UC San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
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14
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Glutamine Analogues Impair Cell Proliferation, the Intracellular Cycle and Metacyclogenesis in Trypanosoma cruzi. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25071628. [PMID: 32252252 PMCID: PMC7180609 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25071628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the aetiologic agent of Chagas disease, which affects people in the Americas and worldwide. The parasite has a complex life cycle that alternates among mammalian hosts and insect vectors. During its life cycle, T. cruzi passes through different environments and faces nutrient shortages. It has been established that amino acids, such as proline, histidine, alanine, and glutamate, are crucial to T. cruzi survival. Recently, we described that T. cruzi can biosynthesize glutamine from glutamate and/or obtain it from the extracellular environment, and the role of glutamine in energetic metabolism and metacyclogenesis was demonstrated. In this study, we analysed the effect of glutamine analogues on the parasite life cycle. Here, we show that glutamine analogues impair cell proliferation, the developmental cycle during the infection of mammalian host cells and metacyclogenesis. Taken together, these results show that glutamine is an important metabolite for T. cruzi survival and suggest that glutamine analogues can be used as scaffolds for the development of new trypanocidal drugs. These data also reinforce the supposition that glutamine metabolism is an unexplored possible therapeutic target.
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15
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Abstract
The evaluation of mitochondrial functionality is critical to interpret most biological data at the (eukaryotic) cellular level. For example, metabolism, cell cycle, epigenetic regulation, cell death mechanisms, autophagy, differentiation, and response redox imbalance are dependent on the mitochondrial state. In case of parasitic organisms, such as trypanosomatids, it is very often important to have information on mitochondrial functionality in order to assess the mechanisms of actions of drugs being proposed for therapy. In this chapter we present a set of methods that together allow to evaluate with some precision the mitochondrial functionality in Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma brucei. We discuss how to determine O2 consumption, mitochondrial inner membrane potential, ATP production, and the endogenous production of reactive oxygen species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayke Bezerra Alencar
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Richard Bruno Marcel Moreira Girard
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Ariel Mariano Silber
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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16
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Rocha SC, Pérez AR, Beloscar J, Bottasso O, Silber AM. Diminished Prolinemia in Chronic Chagasic Patients: A New Clue for Disease Pathology? Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24173167. [PMID: 31480397 PMCID: PMC6749509 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24173167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 07/28/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, is dependent on proline for a variety of processes, such as energy metabolism, host cell invasion, differentiation, and resistance to osmotic, metabolic, and oxidative stress. On this basis, we investigated a possible relationship between prolinemia and severity of T. cruzi infection in chronic patients, as reported here. The study population consisted of 112 subjects, separated into 83 chronically T. cruzi-infected patients and 29 age-matched healthy volunteers (control) of both sexes, recruited at the Chagas Disease Service from the Department of Cardiology, Hospital Provincial del Centenario de Rosario (Rosario, Argentina). Chagasic patients were separated into three groups: chronic asymptomatic, mild/moderate, and severe chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy (CCC) subjects. We observed a significant decrease of 11.7% in prolinemia in chagasic patients when compared to controls. Further analysis within the three groups of chagasic patients also revealed a statistically significant decrease of prolinemia in severe CCC patients compared to controls, showing a relative difference of 13.6% in proline concentrations. These data point to the possibility that collagen—which participates in the healing process of cardiac tissue—and proline metabolism in the myocardium could constitute new factors affecting the evolution of Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Carla Rocha
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1374, Sao Paulo 05508000, Brazil
| | - Ana Rosa Pérez
- Institute of Clinical and Experimental Immunology of Rosario (IDICER-CONICET UNR), Suipacha 590, Rosario 2000, Argentina
| | - Juan Beloscar
- Institute of Clinical and Experimental Immunology of Rosario (IDICER-CONICET UNR), Suipacha 590, Rosario 2000, Argentina
| | - Oscar Bottasso
- Institute of Clinical and Experimental Immunology of Rosario (IDICER-CONICET UNR), Suipacha 590, Rosario 2000, Argentina
| | - Ariel Mariano Silber
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1374, Sao Paulo 05508000, Brazil.
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17
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Sayé M, Reigada C, Gauna L, Valera-Vera EA, Pereira CA, Miranda MR. Amino Acid and Polyamine Membrane Transporters in Trypanosoma cruzi: Biological Function and Evaluation as Drug Targets. Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:6636-6651. [PMID: 31218951 DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666190620094710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Amino acids and polyamines are involved in relevant processes for the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, like protein synthesis, stress resistance, life cycle progression, infection establishment and redox balance, among others. In addition to the biosynthetic routes of amino acids, T. cruzi possesses transport systems that allow the active uptake from the extracellular medium; and in the case of polyamines, the uptake is the unique way to obtain these compounds. The TcAAAP protein family is absent in mammals and its members are responsible for amino acid and derivative uptake, thus the TcAAAP permeases are not only interesting and promising therapeutic targets but could also be used to direct the entry of toxic compounds into the parasite. Although there is a treatment available for Chagas disease, its limited efficacy in the chronic stage of the disease, as well as the side effects reported, highlight the urgent need to develop new therapies. Discovery of new drugs is a slow and cost-consuming process, and even during clinical trials the drugs can fail. In this context, drug repositioning is an interesting and recommended strategy by the World Health Organization since costs and time are significantly reduced. In this article, amino acids and polyamines transport and their potential as therapeutic targets will be revised, including examples of synthetic drugs and drug repurposing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melisa Sayé
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Medicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Chantal Reigada
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Medicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Lucrecia Gauna
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Medicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Edward A Valera-Vera
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Medicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Claudio A Pereira
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Medicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariana R Miranda
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Medicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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18
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Christgen SL, Becker DF. Role of Proline in Pathogen and Host Interactions. Antioxid Redox Signal 2019; 30:683-709. [PMID: 29241353 PMCID: PMC6338583 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2017.7335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Revised: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Proline metabolism has complex roles in a variety of biological processes, including cell signaling, stress protection, and energy production. Proline also contributes to the pathogenesis of various disease-causing organisms. Understanding the mechanisms of how pathogens utilize proline is important for developing new strategies against infectious diseases. Recent Advances: The ability of pathogens to acquire amino acids is critical during infection. Besides protein biosynthesis, some amino acids, such as proline, serve as a carbon, nitrogen, or energy source in bacterial and protozoa pathogens. The role of proline during infection depends on the physiology of the host/pathogen interactions. Some pathogens rely on proline as a critical respiratory substrate, whereas others exploit proline for stress protection. CRITICAL ISSUES Disruption of proline metabolism and uptake has been shown to significantly attenuate virulence of certain pathogens, whereas in other pathogens the importance of proline during infection is not known. Inhibiting proline metabolism and transport may be a useful therapeutic strategy against some pathogens. Developing specific inhibitors to avoid off-target effects in the host, however, will be challenging. Also, potential treatments that target proline metabolism should consider the impact on intracellular levels of Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate, a metabolite intermediate that can have opposing effects on pathogenesis. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Further characterization of how proline metabolism is regulated during infection would provide new insights into the role of proline in pathogenesis. Biochemical and structural characterization of proline metabolic enzymes from different pathogens could lead to new tools for exploring proline metabolism during infection and possibly new therapeutic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelbi L. Christgen
- Department of Biochemistry, Redox Biology Center, University of Nebraska−Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska
| | - Donald F. Becker
- Department of Biochemistry, Redox Biology Center, University of Nebraska−Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska
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19
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Cruz-Bustos T, Ibarrola-Vannucci AK, Díaz-Lozano I, Ramírez JL, Osuna A. Characterization and functionality of two members of the SPFH protein superfamily, prohibitin 1 and 2 in Leishmania major. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:622. [PMID: 30514373 PMCID: PMC6278115 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3195-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Leishmaniasis, a disease caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania, infects roughly 12 million people worldwide, with about two million new cases per year. Prohibitins (PHBs) are highly conserved proteins belonging to the stomatin-prohibitin flotillin-HflC/K (SPFH) protein superfamily. In this study, we examine the potential functions of two proteins of Leishmania major, PHB1 and PHB2, as well as how they might help protect the protozoan against oxidative stress. Results By immunolocalization in the parasite cells, PHB1 appeared in the mitochondria and plasma membrane, whereas PHB2 was grouped in the nucleus. When Leishmania cells were under oxidative stress, PHB1 migrates towards the plasma membrane and the paraxial rod, while PHB2 remained in the nucleus and near the kinetoplast. PHB1 presented higher mRNA levels than PHB2 in the amastigotes and the infective metacyclic forms. The mRNA expression of both prohibitins was affected by the presence of the Fe3+ ion. PHBs inhibited the Fenton reaction, where reactive oxygen species could nick DNA, implying that they play a crucial role in controlling oxidative stress. Conclusions Here, we propose that PHBs may help to protect membranes and DNA against superoxide ions, thus enhancing the survival capacity of the protozoan by controlling the ROS within the phagosome of the macrophages where the parasite multiplies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Cruz-Bustos
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | | | - Isabel Díaz-Lozano
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.,Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - José Luis Ramírez
- Instituto de Estudios Avanzados, (IDEA), Caracas, Venezuela.,Instituto de Biología Experimental, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - A Osuna
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, Granada, Spain. .,Molecular Parasitology Research Group (CTS-183), Institute of Biotechnology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.
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20
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Campagnaro GD, de Freitas Nascimento J, Girard RB, Silber AM, de Koning HP. Cloning and characterisation of the Equilibrative Nucleoside Transporter family of Trypanosoma cruzi: ultra-high affinity and selectivity to survive in the intracellular niche. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1862:2750-2763. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Revised: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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L-Glutamine uptake is developmentally regulated and is involved in metacyclogenesis in Trypanosoma cruzi. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2018; 224:17-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2018.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Proteome-Wide Analysis of Trypanosoma cruzi Exponential and Stationary Growth Phases Reveals a Subcellular Compartment-Specific Regulation. Genes (Basel) 2018; 9:genes9080413. [PMID: 30111733 PMCID: PMC6115888 DOI: 10.3390/genes9080413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2018] [Revised: 08/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, cycles through different life stages characterized by defined molecular traits associated with the proliferative or differentiation state. In particular, T. cruzi epimastigotes are the replicative forms that colonize the intestine of the Triatomine insect vector before entering the stationary phase that is crucial for differentiation into metacyclic trypomastigotes, which are the infective forms of mammalian hosts. The transition from proliferative exponential phase to quiescent stationary phase represents an important step that recapitulates the early molecular events of metacyclogenesis, opening new possibilities for understanding this process. In this study, we report a quantitative shotgun proteomic analysis of the T. cruzi epimastigote in the exponential and stationary growth phases. More than 3000 proteins were detected and quantified, highlighting the regulation of proteins involved in different subcellular compartments. Ribosomal proteins were upregulated in the exponential phase, supporting the higher replication rate of this growth phase. Autophagy-related proteins were upregulated in the stationary growth phase, indicating the onset of the metacyclogenesis process. Moreover, this study reports the regulation of N-terminally acetylated proteins during growth phase transitioning, adding a new layer of regulation to this process. Taken together, this study reports a proteome-wide rewiring during T. cruzi transit from the replicative exponential phase to the stationary growth phase, which is the preparatory phase for differentiation.
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Evolutionary Perspectives of Genotype-Phenotype Factors in Leishmania Metabolism. J Mol Evol 2018; 86:443-456. [PMID: 30022295 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-018-9857-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The sandfly midgut and the human macrophage phagolysosome provide antagonistic metabolic niches for the endoparasite Leishmania to survive and populate. Although these environments fluctuate across developmental stages, the relative changes in both these environments across parasite generations might remain gradual. Such environmental restrictions might endow parasite metabolism with a choice of specific genotypic and phenotypic factors that can constrain enzyme evolution for successful adaptation to the host. With respect to the available cellular information for Leishmania species, for the first time, we measure the relative contribution of eight inter-correlated predictors related to codon usage, GC content, gene expression, gene length, multi-functionality, and flux-coupling potential of an enzyme on the evolutionary rates of singleton metabolic genes and further compare their effects across three Leishmania species. Our analysis reveals that codon adaptation, multi-functionality, and flux-coupling potential of an enzyme are independent contributors of enzyme evolutionary rates, which can together explain a large variation in enzyme evolutionary rates across species. We also hypothesize that a species-specific occurrence of duplicated genes in novel subcellular locations can create new flux routes through certain singleton flux-coupled enzymes, thereby constraining their evolution. A cross-species comparison revealed both common and species-specific genes whose evolutionary divergence was constrained by multiple independent factors. Out of these, previously known pharmacological targets and virulence factors in Leishmania were identified, suggesting their evolutionary reasons for being important survival factors to the parasite. All these results provide a fundamental understanding of the factors underlying adaptive strategies of the parasite, which can be further targeted.
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Abstract
Amino acids participate in several critical processes in the biology of trypanosomatids, such as osmoregulation, cell differentiation, and host cell invasion. Some of them provide reducing power for mitochondrial ATP synthesis. It was previously shown that alanine, which is formed mainly by the amination of pyruvate, is a metabolic end product formed when parasites are replicating in a medium rich in glucose and amino acids. It was shown as well that this amino acid can also be used for the regulation of cell volume and resistance to osmotic stress. In this work, we demonstrate that, despite it being an end product of its metabolism, Trypanosoma cruzi can take up and metabolize l-Ala through a low-specificity nonstereoselective active transport system. The uptake was dependent on the temperature in the range between 10 and 40°C, which allowed us to calculate an activation energy of 66.4 kJ/mol and estimate the number of transporters per cell at ~436,000. We show as well that, once taken up by the cells, l-Ala can be completely oxidized to CO2, supplying electrons to the electron transport chain, maintaining the electrochemical proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane, and supporting ATP synthesis in T. cruzi epimastigotes. Our data demonstrate a dual role for Ala in the parasite's bioenergetics, by being a secreted end product of glucose catabolism and taken up as nutrient for oxidative mitochondrial metabolism.IMPORTANCE It is well known that trypanosomatids such as the etiological agent of Chagas' disease, Trypanosoma cruzi, produce alanine as a main end product of their energy metabolism when they grow in a medium containing glucose and amino acids. In this work, we investigated if under starvation conditions (which happen during the parasite life cycle) the secreted alanine could be recovered from the extracellular medium and used as an energy source. Herein we show that indeed, in parasites submitted to metabolic stress, this metabolite can be taken up and used as an energy source for ATP synthesis, allowing the parasite to extend its survival under starvation conditions. The obtained results point to a dual role for Ala in the parasite's bioenergetics, by being a secreted end product of glucose catabolism and taken up as nutrient for oxidative mitochondrial metabolism.
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The Uptake and Metabolism of Amino Acids, and Their Unique Role in the Biology of Pathogenic Trypanosomatids. Pathogens 2018; 7:pathogens7020036. [PMID: 29614775 PMCID: PMC6027508 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens7020036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei, as well as Trypanosoma cruzi and more than 20 species of the genus Leishmania, form a group of flagellated protists that threaten human health. These organisms are transmitted by insects that, together with mammals, are their natural hosts. This implies that during their life cycles each of them faces environments with different physical, chemical, biochemical, and biological characteristics. In this work we review how amino acids are obtained from such environments, how they are metabolized, and how they and some of their intermediate metabolites are used as a survival toolbox to cope with the different conditions in which these parasites should establish the infections in the insects and mammalian hosts.
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Crispim M, Damasceno FS, Hernández A, Barisón MJ, Pretto Sauter I, Souza Pavani R, Santos Moura A, Pral EMF, Cortez M, Elias MC, Silber AM. The glutamine synthetase of Trypanosoma cruzi is required for its resistance to ammonium accumulation and evasion of the parasitophorous vacuole during host-cell infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006170. [PMID: 29320490 PMCID: PMC5779702 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, consumes glucose and amino acids depending on the environmental availability of each nutrient during its complex life cycle. For example, amino acids are the major energy and carbon sources in the intracellular stages of the T. cruzi parasite, but their consumption produces an accumulation of NH4+ in the environment, which is toxic. These parasites do not have a functional urea cycle to secrete excess nitrogen as low-toxicity waste. Glutamine synthetase (GS) plays a central role in regulating the carbon/nitrogen balance in the metabolism of most living organisms. We show here that the gene TcGS from T. cruzi encodes a functional glutamine synthetase; it can complement a defect in the GLN1 gene from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and utilizes ATP, glutamate and ammonium to yield glutamine in vitro. Overall, its kinetic characteristics are similar to other eukaryotic enzymes, and it is dependent on divalent cations. Its cytosolic/mitochondrial localization was confirmed by immunofluorescence. Inhibition by Methionine sulfoximine revealed that GS activity is indispensable under excess ammonium conditions. Coincidently, its expression levels are maximal in the amastigote stage of the life cycle, when amino acids are preferably consumed, and NH4+ production is predictable. During host-cell invasion, TcGS is required for the parasite to escape from the parasitophorous vacuole, a process sine qua non for the parasite to replicate and establish infection in host cells. These results are the first to establish a link between the activity of a metabolic enzyme and the ability of a parasite to reach its intracellular niche to replicate and establish host-cell infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcell Crispim
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps—LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Flávia Silva Damasceno
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps—LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Agustín Hernández
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps—LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - María Julia Barisón
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps—LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ismael Pretto Sauter
- Immunobiology of Leishmania-Macrophage Interaction Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Raphael Souza Pavani
- Special Laboratory of Cell Cycle, Center of Toxins, Immunology and Cell Signalling, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Santos Moura
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps—LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Elizabeth Mieko Furusho Pral
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps—LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mauro Cortez
- Immunobiology of Leishmania-Macrophage Interaction Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Carolina Elias
- Special Laboratory of Cell Cycle, Center of Toxins, Immunology and Cell Signalling, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Ariel Mariano Silber
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps—LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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Manchola NC, Silber AM, Nowicki C. The Non-Canonical Substrates of Trypanosoma cruzi Tyrosine and Aspartate Aminotransferases: Branched-Chain Amino Acids. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2017; 65:70-76. [PMID: 28618210 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Revised: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, lacks genes that encode canonical branched-chain aminotransferases. However, early studies showed that when epimastigotes were grown in the presence of 14 C1 -DL-leucine, the label was incorporated into various intermediates. More recently, our studies provided evidence that T. cruzi epimastigotes display a single ATP-dependent and saturable transport system that enables epimastigotes to uptake branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) from the culture media. To extend our knowledge of the first step of BCAA catabolism, the ability of this parasite's noncanonical broad specificity aminotransferases, such as tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) and aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT), to transaminate these amino acids was investigated. Indeed, our results show that TAT and ASAT utilize BCAAs as substrates; however, both enzymes differ in their catalytic competence in utilizing these amino donors. For instance, ASAT transaminates isoleucine nearly 10-fold more efficiently than does TAT. This unique characteristic of TAT and ASAT allows to explain how BCAAs can be oxidized in the absence of a BCAA transaminase in T. cruzi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nubia Carolina Manchola
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo USP, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes, 1374, Cidade Universitaria, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Ariel Mariano Silber
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo USP, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes, 1374, Cidade Universitaria, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Cristina Nowicki
- IQUIFIB (CONICET, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires), Junin 956, Buenos Aires, 1113, Argentina
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28
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Barisón MJ, Rapado LN, Merino EF, Furusho Pral EM, Mantilla BS, Marchese L, Nowicki C, Silber AM, Cassera MB. Metabolomic profiling reveals a finely tuned, starvation-induced metabolic switch in Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:8964-8977. [PMID: 28356355 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.778522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Revised: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, is a protozoan parasite with a complex life cycle involving a triatomine insect and mammals. Throughout its life cycle, the T. cruzi parasite faces several alternating events of cell division and cell differentiation in which exponential and stationary growth phases play key biological roles. It is well accepted that arrest of the cell division in the epimastigote stage, both in the midgut of the triatomine insect and in vitro, is required for metacyclogenesis, and it has been previously shown that the parasites change the expression profile of several proteins when entering this quiescent stage. However, little is known about the metabolic changes that epimastigotes undergo before they develop into the metacyclic trypomastigote stage. We applied targeted metabolomics to measure the metabolic intermediates in the most relevant pathways for energy metabolism and oxidative imbalance in exponentially growing and stationary growth-arrested epimastigote parasites. We show for the first time that T. cruzi epimastigotes transitioning from the exponential to the stationary phase exhibit a finely tuned adaptive metabolic mechanism that enables switching from glucose to amino acid consumption, which is more abundant in the stationary phase. This metabolic plasticity appears to be crucial for survival of the T. cruzi parasite in the myriad different environmental conditions to which it is exposed during its life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Julia Barisón
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps-LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, 05508-000 São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ludmila Nakamura Rapado
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps-LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, 05508-000 São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Emilio F Merino
- the Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, and
| | - Elizabeth Mieko Furusho Pral
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps-LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, 05508-000 São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Brian Suarez Mantilla
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps-LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, 05508-000 São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Letícia Marchese
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps-LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, 05508-000 São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Cristina Nowicki
- the Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológica (IQUIFIB-CONICET), Universidad de Buenos Aires, 1113 Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ariel Mariano Silber
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps-LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, 05508-000 São Paulo, Brazil,
| | - Maria Belen Cassera
- the Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, and
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Oliveira C, Faoro H, Alves LR, Goldenberg S. RNA-binding proteins and their role in the regulation of gene expression in Trypanosoma cruzi and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genet Mol Biol 2017; 40:22-30. [PMID: 28463381 PMCID: PMC5409782 DOI: 10.1590/1678-4685-gmb-2016-0258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) have important functions in the regulation of gene
expression. RBPs play key roles in post-transcriptional processes in all eukaryotes,
such as splicing regulation, mRNA transport and modulation of mRNA translation and
decay. RBPs assemble into different mRNA-protein complexes, which form messenger
ribonucleoprotein complexes (mRNPs). Gene expression regulation in trypanosomatids
occurs mainly at the post-transcriptional level and RBPs play a key role in all
processes. However, the functional characterization of RBPs in Trypanosoma
cruzi has been impaired due to the lack of reliable reverse genetic
manipulation tools. The comparison of RBPs from Saccharomyces
cerevisiae and T. cruzi might allow inferring on the
function of these proteins based on the information available for the orthologous
RNA-binding proteins from the S. cerevisiae model organism. In this
review, we discuss the role of some RBPs from T. cruzi and their
homologues in regulating gene expression in yeast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Oliveira
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fiocruz-Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Helisson Faoro
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fiocruz-Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
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Guarneri AA, Lorenzo MG. Triatomine physiology in the context of trypanosome infection. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 97:66-76. [PMID: 27401496 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2016.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Revised: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Triatomines are hematophagous insects that feed on the blood of vertebrates from different taxa, but can occasionally also take fluids from invertebrate hosts, including other insects. During the blood ingestion process, these insects can acquire diverse parasites that can later be transmitted to susceptible vertebrates if they complete their development inside bugs. Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, and Trypanosoma rangeli are protozoan parasites transmitted by triatomines, the latter only transmitted by Rhodnius spp. The present work makes an extensive revision of studies evaluating triatomine-trypanosome interaction, with special focus on Rhodnius prolixus interacting with the two parasites. The sequences of events encompassing the development of these trypanosomes inside bugs and the consequent responses of insects to this infection, as well as many pathological effects produced by the parasites are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Aparecida Guarneri
- Vector Behavior and Pathogen Interaction Group, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fiocruz, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Marcelo Gustavo Lorenzo
- Vector Behavior and Pathogen Interaction Group, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fiocruz, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Akpunarlieva S, Weidt S, Lamasudin D, Naula C, Henderson D, Barrett M, Burgess K, Burchmore R. Integration of proteomics and metabolomics to elucidate metabolic adaptation in Leishmania. J Proteomics 2017; 155:85-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2016.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Vermelho AB, Capaci GR, Rodrigues IA, Cardoso VS, Mazotto AM, Supuran CT. Carbonic anhydrases from Trypanosoma and Leishmania as anti-protozoan drug targets. Bioorg Med Chem 2017; 25:1543-1555. [PMID: 28161253 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2017.01.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2016] [Revised: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp. are protozoa of the Trypanosomatidae family, being the etiological agents of two widespread parasitic diseases, Chagas disease and leishmaniasis, respectively. Both parasites are the focus of worldwide research with the aim to find effective and less toxic drugs than the few ones available so far, and for controlling the spread of the diseases. Carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1) belonging to the α- and β-class were recently identified in these protozoans and several studies suggested that they could be new targets for drug development. Sulfonamide, thiol and hydroxamate inhibitors effectively inhibited the α-CA from T. cruzi (TcCA) and the β-CA from L. donovani chagasi (LdccCA) in vitro, and some of them also showed in vivo efficacy in inhibiting the growth of the parasites in animal models of Chagas disease and leishmaniasis. As few therapeutic options are presently available for these orphan diseases, protozoan CA inhibition may represent a novel strategy to address this stringent health problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alane B Vermelho
- BIOINOVAR - Biotechnology Laboratories: Biocatalysis, Bioproducts and Bioenergy, Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Goes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| | - Giseli R Capaci
- School of Science and Technology and Graduate Studies in Science Education Program, University of Rio Grande, Duque de Caxias, RJ, Brazil
| | - Igor A Rodrigues
- Department of Natural Products and Food, School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Verônica S Cardoso
- BIOINOVAR - Biotechnology Laboratories: Biocatalysis, Bioproducts and Bioenergy, Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Goes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Ana Maria Mazotto
- BIOINOVAR - Biotechnology Laboratories: Biocatalysis, Bioproducts and Bioenergy, Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Goes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Claudiu T Supuran
- Neurofarba Department and Laboratorio di Chimica Bioinorganica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via U. Schiff 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Florence, Italy.
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Mantilla BS, Marchese L, Casas-Sánchez A, Dyer NA, Ejeh N, Biran M, Bringaud F, Lehane MJ, Acosta-Serrano A, Silber AM. Proline Metabolism is Essential for Trypanosoma brucei brucei Survival in the Tsetse Vector. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006158. [PMID: 28114403 PMCID: PMC5289646 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Adaptation to different nutritional environments is essential for life cycle completion by all Trypanosoma brucei sub-species. In the tsetse fly vector, L-proline is among the most abundant amino acids and is mainly used by the fly for lactation and to fuel flight muscle. The procyclic (insect) stage of T. b. brucei uses L-proline as its main carbon source, relying on an efficient catabolic pathway to convert it to glutamate, and then to succinate, acetate and alanine as the main secreted end products. Here we investigated the essentiality of an undisrupted proline catabolic pathway in T. b. brucei by studying mitochondrial Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (TbP5CDH), which catalyzes the irreversible conversion of gamma-glutamate semialdehyde (γGS) into L-glutamate and NADH. In addition, we provided evidence for the absence of a functional proline biosynthetic pathway. TbP5CDH expression is developmentally regulated in the insect stages of the parasite, but absent in bloodstream forms grown in vitro. RNAi down-regulation of TbP5CDH severely affected the growth of procyclic trypanosomes in vitro in the absence of glucose, and altered the metabolic flux when proline was the sole carbon source. Furthermore, TbP5CDH knocked-down cells exhibited alterations in the mitochondrial inner membrane potential (ΔΨm), respiratory control ratio and ATP production. Also, changes in the proline-glutamate oxidative capacity slightly affected the surface expression of the major surface glycoprotein EP-procyclin. In the tsetse, TbP5CDH knocked-down cells were impaired and thus unable to colonize the fly’s midgut, probably due to the lack of glucose between bloodmeals. Altogether, our data show that the regulated expression of the proline metabolism pathway in T. b. brucei allows this parasite to adapt to the nutritional environment of the tsetse midgut. Bloodsucking insects play a major role in the transmission of pathogens that cause major tropical diseases. Their capacity to transmit these diseases is directly associated with the availability and turnover of energy sources. Proline is the main readily-mobilizable fuel of the tsetse fly, which is the vector of sub-species of Trypanosoma brucei parasites that cause human sleeping sickness and are partly responsible for animal trypanosomiasis (Nagana disease) in sub-Saharan Africa. Once trypanosomes are ingested from an infected host by the tsetse, the parasites encounter an environment that is poor in glucose (as it is rapidly metabolized by the fly) but rich in proline, which then becomes the main carbon source once the parasite differentiates into the first insect (procyclic) stage. In this work, we provide evidence on the essentiality of T. b. brucei proline catabolism for procyclic survival within the tsetse’s digestive tract, as this organism is unable to synthesize this amino acid and strictly depends on the proline provided by the fly. We also show that parasites deficient in TbP5CDH, a mitochondrial enzyme involved in the proline degradative pathway, failed to proliferate in vitro, showed a diminished respiratory capacity, and showed compromised maintenance of energy levels and metabolic flux when proline was offered as the main carbon source. Thus, the integrity of the trypanosome proline degradation pathway is needed to maintain essential functions related to parasite bioenergetics, replication and infectivity within the insect host. Our observations answer a long-standing question on the role of parasite proline metabolism in tsetse-trypanosome interplay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian S. Mantilla
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Letícia Marchese
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Aitor Casas-Sánchez
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Naomi A. Dyer
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas Ejeh
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Marc Biran
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systemes Biologiques, Université Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Frédéric Bringaud
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systemes Biologiques, Université Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Michael J. Lehane
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Alvaro Acosta-Serrano
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (AMS); (AAS)
| | - Ariel M. Silber
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps - LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail: (AMS); (AAS)
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Carrea A, Diambra L. Commentary: Systems Biology Approach to Model the Life Cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:1. [PMID: 28149830 PMCID: PMC5241278 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Carrea
- Laboratorio de Biología de Sistemas, Centro Regional de Estudios Genómicos, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La PlataLa Plata, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasArgentina
| | - Luis Diambra
- Laboratorio de Biología de Sistemas, Centro Regional de Estudios Genómicos, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La PlataLa Plata, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasArgentina
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The active transport of histidine and its role in ATP production in Trypanosoma cruzi. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2016; 48:437-49. [PMID: 27222029 DOI: 10.1007/s10863-016-9665-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the aetiological agent of Chagas's disease, metabolizes glucose, and after its exhaustion, degrades amino acids as energy source. Here, we investigate histidine uptake and its participation in energy metabolism. No putative genes for the histidine biosynthetic pathway have been identified in genome databases of T. cruzi, suggesting that its uptake from extracellular medium is a requirement for the viability of the parasite. From this assumption, we characterized the uptake of histidine in T. cruzi, showing that this amino acid is incorporated through a single and saturable active system. We also show that histidine can be completely oxidised to CO2. This finding, together with the fact that genes encoding the putative enzymes for the histidine - glutamate degradation pathway were annotated, led us to infer its participation in the energy metabolism of the parasite. Here, we show that His is capable of restoring cell viability after long-term starvation. We confirm that as an energy source, His provides electrons to the electron transport chain, maintaining mitochondrial inner membrane potential and O2 consumption in a very efficient manner. Additionally, ATP biosynthesis from oxidative phosphorylation was found when His was the only oxidisable metabolite present, showing that this amino acid is involved in bioenergetics and parasite persistence within its invertebrate host.
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Sayé M, Miranda MR, Reigada C, Pereira CA. Trypanosoma cruzi Proline Transport Presents a Cell Density-dependent Regulation. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2016; 63:516-23. [PMID: 26750517 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Revised: 12/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, uses proline as its main carbon source, essential for parasite growth and stage differentiation in epimastigotes and amastigotes. Since proline is mainly obtained from extracellular medium by transport proteins, in this work we studied the regulation of the T. cruzi proline transporter TcAAAP069. Proline uptake and intracellular concentration presented oscillations during epimastigote growth phases, increasing during the early exponential phase (322 pmol/min) and decreasing to undetectable levels during the late exponential phase. Transporter expression rate correlated with proline uptake, and its subcellular localization alternated from both, the plasma membrane and close to the flagellar pocket, when the transport is higher, to only the flagellar pocket region, when the transport decreased until proline uptake and TcAAAP069 protein became undetectable at the end of the growth curve. Interestingly, when parasites were treated with conditioned medium or were concentrated to artificially increase the culture density, the proline transport was completely abolished resembling the effects observed in late exponential phase. These data highlight for the first time the existence of a density-associated regulation of relevant physiological processes such as proline metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melisa Sayé
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas Alfredo Lanari, Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariana R Miranda
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas Alfredo Lanari, Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Chantal Reigada
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas Alfredo Lanari, Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Claudio A Pereira
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas Alfredo Lanari, Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Manchola NC, Rapado LN, Barisón MJ, Silber AM. Biochemical Characterization of Branched Chain Amino Acids Uptake in Trypanosoma cruzi. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2015; 63:299-308. [PMID: 26496801 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas disease. During its life cycle, it alternates among vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. Metabolic flexibility is a main biochemical characteristic of this parasite, which is able to obtain energy by oxidizing a variety of nutrients that can be transported from the extracellular medium. Moreover, several of these metabolites, more specifically amino acids, have a variety of functions beyond being sources of energy. Branched chain amino acids (BCAA), beyond their role in ATP production, are involved in sterol biosynthesis; for example, leucine is involved as a negative regulator of the parasite differentiation process occurring in the insect midgut. BCAA are essential metabolites in most nonphotosynthetic eukaryotes, including trypanosomes. In view of this, the metabolism of BCAA in T. cruzi depends mainly on their transport into the cell. In this work, we kinetically characterized the BCAA transport in T. cruzi epimastigotes. Our data point to BCAA as being transported by a single saturable transport system able to recognize leucine, isoleucine and valine. In view of this, we used leucine to further characterize this system. The transport increased linearly with temperature from 10 to 45 °C, allowing the calculation of an activation energy of 51.30 kJ/mol. Leucine uptake was an active process depending on ATP production and a H(+) gradient, but not on a Na(+) or K(+) gradient at the cytoplasmic membrane level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nubia C Manchola
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Ludmila N Rapado
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - María J Barisón
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Ariel M Silber
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
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