1
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Cheuka PM, Njaria P, Mayoka G, Funjika E. Emerging Drug Targets for Antimalarial Drug Discovery: Validation and Insights into Molecular Mechanisms of Function. J Med Chem 2024; 67:838-863. [PMID: 38198596 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Approximately 619,000 malaria deaths were reported in 2021, and resistance to recommended drugs, including artemisinin-combination therapies (ACTs), threatens malaria control. Treatment failure with ACTs has been found to be as high as 93% in northeastern Thailand, and parasite mutations responsible for artemisinin resistance have already been reported in some African countries. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify alternative treatments with novel targets. In this Perspective, we discuss some promising antimalarial drug targets, including enzymes involved in proteolysis, DNA and RNA metabolism, protein synthesis, and isoprenoid metabolism. Other targets discussed are transporters, Plasmodium falciparum acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase, N-myristoyltransferase, and the cyclic guanosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase G. We have outlined mechanistic details, where these are understood, underpinning the biological roles and hence druggability of such targets. We believe that having a clear understanding of the underlying chemical interactions is valuable to medicinal chemists in their quest to design appropriate inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Mubanga Cheuka
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, University of Zambia, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka 10101, Zambia
| | - Paul Njaria
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Kenyatta University, P.O. Box 14548-00400, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
| | - Godfrey Mayoka
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
| | - Evelyn Funjika
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, University of Zambia, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka 10101, Zambia
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2
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Crispim M, Verdaguer IB, Hernández A, Kronenberger T, Fenollar À, Yamaguchi LF, Alberione MP, Ramirez M, de Oliveira SS, Katzin AM, Izquierdo L. Beyond the MEP Pathway: A novel kinase required for prenol utilization by malaria parasites. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1011557. [PMID: 38277417 PMCID: PMC10849223 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024] Open
Abstract
A proposed treatment for malaria is a combination of fosmidomycin and clindamycin. Both compounds inhibit the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway, the parasitic source of farnesyl and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (FPP and GGPP, respectively). Both FPP and GGPP are crucial for the biosynthesis of several essential metabolites such as ubiquinone and dolichol, as well as for protein prenylation. Dietary prenols, such as farnesol (FOH) and geranylgeraniol (GGOH), can rescue parasites from MEP inhibitors, suggesting the existence of a missing pathway for prenol salvage via phosphorylation. In this study, we identified a gene in the genome of P. falciparum, encoding a transmembrane prenol kinase (PolK) involved in the salvage of FOH and GGOH. The enzyme was expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and its FOH/GGOH kinase activities were experimentally validated. Furthermore, conditional knockout parasites (Δ-PolK) were created to investigate the biological importance of the FOH/GGOH salvage pathway. Δ-PolK parasites were viable but displayed increased susceptibility to fosmidomycin. Their sensitivity to MEP inhibitors could not be rescued by adding prenols. Additionally, Δ-PolK parasites lost their capability to utilize prenols for protein prenylation. Experiments using culture medium supplemented with whole/delipidated human plasma in transgenic parasites revealed that human plasma has components that can diminish the effectiveness of fosmidomycin. Mass spectrometry tests indicated that both bovine supplements used in culture and human plasma contain GGOH. These findings suggest that the FOH/GGOH salvage pathway might offer an alternate source of isoprenoids for malaria parasites when de novo biosynthesis is inhibited. This study also identifies a novel kind of enzyme related to isoprenoid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic-Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ignasi Bofill Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Agustín Hernández
- Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Integrated Unit for Research in Biodiversity (BIOTROP-CCBS), Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Thales Kronenberger
- Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry and Tuebingen Center for Academic Drug Discovery, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
- Excellence Cluster "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections" (CMFI), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Àngel Fenollar
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic-Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - María Pía Alberione
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic-Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miriam Ramirez
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic-Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Alejandro Miguel Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luis Izquierdo
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic-Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Barcelona, Spain
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3
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Elahi R, Prigge ST. New insights into apicoplast metabolism in blood-stage malaria parasites. Curr Opin Microbiol 2023; 71:102255. [PMID: 36563485 PMCID: PMC9852000 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2022.102255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum is the only source of essential isoprenoid precursors and Coenzyme A (CoA) in the parasite. Isoprenoid precursor synthesis relies on the iron-sulfur cluster (FeS) cofactors produced within the apicoplast, rendering FeS synthesis an essential function of this organelle. Recent reports provide important insights into the roles of FeS cofactors and the use of isoprenoid precursors and CoA both inside and outside the apicoplast. Here, we review the recent insights into the roles of these metabolites in blood-stage malaria parasites and discuss new questions that have been raised in light of these discoveries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubayet Elahi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sean T Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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4
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Sharma D, Pareek A, Arya H, Soni R, Rai P, Agrawal A, Nimesh S, Kumar D, Yaragorla S, Bhatt TK. Synthesis and inhibition studies towards the discovery of benzodiazepines as potential antimalarial compounds. Exp Parasitol 2022; 243:108411. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2022.108411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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5
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Bofill Verdaguer I, Sussmann RAC, Santiago VF, Palmisano G, Moura GC, Mesquita JT, Yamaguchi LF, Kato MJ, Katzin AM, Crispim M. Isoprenoid alcohols utilization by malaria parasites. Front Chem 2022; 10:1035548. [PMID: 36531309 PMCID: PMC9751614 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.1035548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is the etiological agent of human malaria, one of the most widespread diseases in tropical and subtropical regions. Drug resistance is one of the biggest problems in controlling the disease, which leads to the need to discover new antimalarial compounds. One of the most promissory drugs purposed is fosmidomycin, an inhibitor of the biosynthesis of isoprene units by the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway, which in some cases failed in clinical studies. Once formed, isoprene units are condensed to form longer structures such as farnesyl and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, which are necessary for Heme O and A formation, ubiquinone, and dolichyl phosphate biosynthesis as well as for protein isoprenylation. Even though the natural substrates of polyprenyl transferases and synthases are polyprenyl pyrophosphates, it was already demonstrated that isoprenoid alcohols (polyprenols) such as farnesol (FOH) and geranylgeraniol (GGOH) can rescue parasites from fosmidomycin. This study better investigated how this rescue phenomenon occurs by performing drug-rescue assays. Similarly, to FOH and GGOH, it was observed that phytol (POH), a 20-carbon plant isoprenoid, as well as unsaponifiable lipid extracts from foods rescue parasites from the antimalarial effect of fosmidomycin. Contrarily, neither dolichols nor nonaprenol rescue parasites from fosmidomycin. Considering this, here we characterized the transport of FOH, GGOH, and POH. Once incorporated, it was observed that these substances are phosphorylated, condensed into longer isoprenoid alcohols, and incorporated into proteins and dolichyl phosphates. Through proteomic and radiolabelling approaches, it was found that prenylated proteins are naturally attached to several isoprenoids, derived from GGOH, dolichol, and POH if exogenously added. Furthermore, the results suggest the presence of at least two promiscuous protein prenyltransferases in the parasite: one enzyme which can use FPP among other unidentified substrates and another enzyme that can use GGPP, phytyl pyrophosphate (PPP), and dolichols, among other substrates not identified here. Thus, further evidence was obtained for dolichols and other isoprenoid products attached to proteins. This study helps to better understand the apicoplast-targeting antimalarial mechanism of action and a novel post-translational modification of proteins in P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignasi Bofill Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo A C Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Center for Environmental Sciences, Institute of Humanities, Arts and Sciences, Federal University of Southern Bahia, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Verônica Feijoli Santiago
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Giuseppe Palmisano
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Cândido Moura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana Tonini Mesquita
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lydia Fumiko Yamaguchi
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Massuo Jorge Kato
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro Miguel Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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6
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Characterization of Domiphen Bromide as a New Fast-Acting Antiplasmodial Agent Inhibiting the Apicoplastidic Methyl Erythritol Phosphate Pathway. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14071320. [PMID: 35890216 PMCID: PMC9319574 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14071320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of resistance by the malaria parasite to artemisinin, the key component of the combination therapy strategies that are at the core of current antimalarial treatments, calls for the urgent identification of new fast-acting antimalarials. The apicoplast organelle is a preferred target of antimalarial drugs because it contains biochemical processes absent from the human host. Fosmidomycin is the only drug in clinical trials targeting the apicoplast, where it inhibits the methyl erythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway. Here, we characterized the antiplasmodial activity of domiphen bromide (DB), another MEP pathway inhibitor with a rapid mode of action that arrests the in vitro growth of Plasmodium falciparum at the early trophozoite stage. Metabolomic analysis of the MEP pathway and Krebs cycle intermediates in 20 µM DB-treated parasites suggested a rapid activation of glycolysis with a concomitant decrease in mitochondrial activity, consistent with a rapid killing of the pathogen. These results present DB as a model compound for the development of new, potentially interesting drugs for future antimalarial combination therapies.
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7
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Mutorwa MK, Lobb KA, Klein R, Blatch GL, Kaye PT. Synthesis of 2,3-dihydroxy-3-(N-substituted carbamoyl)propylphosphonic acid derivatives as hybrid DOXP-fosmidomycin analogues. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2022.132453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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8
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Sussmann RAC, Gabriel HB, Ríos AG, Menchaca Vega DS, Yamaguchi LF, Doménech-Carbó A, Cebrián-Torrejón G, Kimura EA, Kato MJ, Bofill Verdaguer I, Crispim M, Katzin AM. Presence of Phylloquinone in the Intraerythrocytic Stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:869085. [PMID: 35531326 PMCID: PMC9069557 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.869085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is one of the most widespread parasitic diseases, especially in Africa, Southeast Asia and South America. One of the greatest problems for control of the disease is the emergence of drug resistance, which leads to a need for the development of new antimalarial compounds. The biosynthesis of isoprenoids has been investigated as part of a strategy to identify new targets to obtain new antimalarial drugs. Several isoprenoid quinones, including menaquinone-4 (MK-4/vitamin K2), α- and γ-tocopherol and ubiquinone (UQ) homologs UQ-8 and UQ-9, were previously detected in in vitro cultures of Plasmodium falciparum in asexual stages. Herein, we described for the first time the presence of phylloquinone (PK/vitamin K1) in P. falciparum and discuss the possible origins of this prenylquinone. While our results in metabolic labeling experiments suggest a biosynthesis of PK prenylation via phytyl pyrophosphate (phytyl-PP) with phytol being phosphorylated, on the other hand, exogenous PK attenuated atovaquone effects on parasitic growth and respiration, showing that this metabolite can be transported from extracellular environment and that the mitochondrial electron transport system (ETS) of P. falciparum is capable to interact with PK. Although the natural role and origin of PK remains elusive, this work highlights the PK importance in plasmodial metabolism and future studies will be important to elucidate in seeking new targets for antimalarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo A. C. Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Center for Environmental Sciences, Institute of Humanities, Arts and Sciences, Federal University of Southern Bahia, Porto Seguro, Brazil
| | - Heloisa B. Gabriel
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro García Ríos
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Metalopharmaceuticals, Institute of Chemistry at the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Chemistry Program, Universidad del Quindio, Quindio, Colombia
| | - Danielle S. Menchaca Vega
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lydia F. Yamaguchi
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Antonio Doménech-Carbó
- Departament of Analytic Chemistry, Facultat de Química, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Gerardo Cebrián-Torrejón
- Laboratoire Connaissance et Valorisation Equipes d'Accueil (COVACHIM-M2E EA) 3592, Université des Antilles, Pointe-à-Pitre Cedex, Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, France
| | - Emilia A. Kimura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Massuo J. Kato
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ignasi Bofill Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro M. Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Alejandro M. Katzin,
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9
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Saggu GS. Apicoplast Journey and Its Essentiality as a Compartment for Malaria Parasite Survival. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:881825. [PMID: 35463632 PMCID: PMC9022174 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.881825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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10
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Okada M, Rajaram K, Swift RP, Mixon A, Maschek JA, Prigge ST, Sigala PA. Critical role for isoprenoids in apicoplast biogenesis by malaria parasites. eLife 2022; 11:73208. [PMID: 35257658 PMCID: PMC8959605 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) is an essential metabolic output of the apicoplast organelle in Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites and is required for prenylation-dependent vesicular trafficking and other cellular processes. We have elucidated a critical and previously uncharacterized role for IPP in apicoplast biogenesis. Inhibiting IPP synthesis blocks apicoplast elongation and inheritance by daughter merozoites, and apicoplast biogenesis is rescued by exogenous IPP and polyprenols. Knockout of the only known isoprenoid-dependent apicoplast pathway, tRNA prenylation by MiaA, has no effect on blood-stage parasites and thus cannot explain apicoplast reliance on IPP. However, we have localized an annotated polyprenyl synthase (PPS) to the apicoplast. PPS knockdown is lethal to parasites, rescued by IPP and long- (C50) but not short-chain (≤C20) prenyl alcohols, and blocks apicoplast biogenesis, thus explaining apicoplast dependence on isoprenoid synthesis. We hypothesize that PPS synthesizes long-chain polyprenols critical for apicoplast membrane fluidity and biogenesis. This work critically expands the paradigm for isoprenoid utilization in malaria parasites and identifies a novel essential branch of apicoplast metabolism suitable for therapeutic targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Okada
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Krithika Rajaram
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, United States
| | - Russell P Swift
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, United States
| | - Amanda Mixon
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - John Alan Maschek
- Metabolomics Core, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Sean T Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, United States
| | - Paul A Sigala
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
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11
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Abstract
Cholesterol is the most abundant lipid in the erythrocyte. During its blood-stage development, the malaria parasite establishes an active cholesterol gradient across the various membrane systems within the infected erythrocyte. Interestingly, some antimalarial compounds have recently been shown to disrupt cholesterol homeostasis in the intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum. These studies point to the importance of cholesterol for parasite growth. Previously, reduction of cholesterol from the erythrocyte membrane by treatment with methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) was shown to inhibit parasite invasion and growth. In addition, MβCD treatment of trophozoite-stage P. falciparum was shown to result in parasite expulsion from the host cell. We have revisited these phenomena by using live video microscopy, ultrastructural analysis, and response to antimalarial compounds. By using time-lapse video microscopy of fluorescently tagged parasites, we show that MβCD treatment for just 30 min causes dramatic expulsion of the trophozoite-stage parasites. This forceful expulsion occurs within 10 s. Remarkably, the plasma membrane of the host cell from which the parasite has been expelled does not appear to be compromised. The parasitophorous vacuolar membrane (PVM) continued to surround the extruded parasite, but the PVM appeared damaged. Treatment with antimalarial compounds targeting PfATP4 or PfNCR1 prevented MβCD-mediated extrusion of the parasites, pointing to a potential role of cholesterol dynamics underlying the expulsion phenomena. We also confirmed the essential role of erythrocyte plasma membrane cholesterol for invasion and growth of P. falciparum. This defect can be partially complemented by cholesterol and desmosterol but not with epicholesterol, revealing stereospecificity underlying cholesterol function. Overall, our studies advance previous observations and reveal unusual cell biological features underlying cholesterol depletion of the infected erythrocyte plasma membrane. IMPORTANCE Malaria remains a major challenge in much of the world. Symptoms of malaria are caused by the growth of parasites belonging to Plasmodium spp. inside the red blood cells (RBCs), leading to their destruction. The parasite depends upon its host for much of its nutritional needs. Cholesterol is a major lipid in the RBC plasma membrane, which is the only source of this lipid for malaria parasites. We have previously shown that certain new antimalarial compounds disrupt cholesterol homeostasis in P. falciparum. Here, we use live time-lapse video microscopy to show dramatic expulsion of the parasite from the host RBC when the cholesterol content of the RBC is reduced. Remarkably, this expulsion is inhibited by the antimalarials that disrupt lipid homeostasis. We also show stereospecificity of cholesterol in supporting parasite growth inside RBC. Overall, these results point to a critical role of cholesterol in the physiology of malaria parasites.
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12
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Mathews ES, Jezewski AJ, Odom John AR. Protein Prenylation and Hsp40 in Thermotolerance of Plasmodium falciparum Malaria Parasites. mBio 2021; 12:e0076021. [PMID: 34182772 PMCID: PMC8262983 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00760-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
During its complex life cycle, the malaria parasite survives dramatic environmental stresses, including large temperature shifts. Protein prenylation is required during asexual replication of Plasmodium falciparum, and the canonical heat shock protein 40 protein (HSP40; PF3D7_1437900) is posttranslationally modified with a 15-carbon farnesyl isoprenyl group. In other organisms, farnesylation of Hsp40 orthologs controls their localization and function in resisting environmental stress. In this work, we find that plastidial isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) synthesis and protein farnesylation are required for malaria parasite survival after cold and heat shock. Furthermore, loss of HSP40 farnesylation alters its membrane attachment and interaction with proteins in essential pathways in the parasite. Together, this work reveals that farnesylation is essential for parasite survival during temperature stress. Farnesylation of HSP40 may promote thermotolerance by guiding distinct chaperone-client protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily S. Mathews
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Andrew J. Jezewski
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Audrey R. Odom John
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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13
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Exploring Ubiquinone Biosynthesis Inhibition as a Strategy for Improving Atovaquone Efficacy in Malaria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65:AAC.01516-20. [PMID: 33495230 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01516-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Atovaquone (AV) acts on the malaria parasite by competing with ubiquinol (UQH2) for its union to the mitochondrial bc1 complex, preventing the ubiquinone-8 and ubiquinone-9 (UQ-8 and UQ-9) redox recycling, which is a necessary step in pyrimidine biosynthesis. This study focused on UQ biosynthesis in Plasmodium falciparum and adopted proof-of-concept research to better elucidate the mechanism of action of AV and improve its efficacy. Initially, UQ biosynthesis was evaluated using several radioactive precursors and chromatographic techniques. This methodology was suitable for studying the biosynthesis of both UQ homologs and its redox state. Additionally, the composition of UQ was investigated in parasites cultivated at different oxygen saturations or in the presence of AV. AV affected the redox states of both UQ-8 and UQ-9 homologs by increasing the levels of the respective reduced forms. Conversely, low-oxygen environments specifically inhibited UQ-9 biosynthesis and increased the antimalarial efficacy of AV. These findings encouraged us to investigate the biological importance and the potential of UQ biosynthesis as a drug target based on its inhibition by 4-nitrobenzoate (4-NB), a 4-hydroxybenzoate (4-HB) analog. 4-NB effectively inhibits UQ biosynthesis and enhances the effects of AV on parasitic growth and respiration rate. Although 4-NB itself exhibits poor antimalarial activity, its 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) value increased significantly in the presence of a soluble UQ analog, p-aminobenzoic acid (pABA), or 4-HB. These results indicate the potential of AV combined with 4-NB as a novel therapy for malaria and other diseases caused by AV-sensitive pathogens.
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14
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Metabolomics profiling reveals new aspects of dolichol biosynthesis in Plasmodium falciparum. Sci Rep 2020; 10:13264. [PMID: 32764679 PMCID: PMC7414040 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70246-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The cis-polyisoprenoid lipids namely polyprenols, dolichols and their derivatives are linear polymers of several isoprene units. In eukaryotes, polyprenols and dolichols are synthesized as a mixture of four or more homologues of different length with one or two predominant species with sizes varying among organisms. Interestingly, co-occurrence of polyprenols and dolichols, i.e. detection of a dolichol along with significant levels of its precursor polyprenol, are unusual in eukaryotic cells. Our metabolomics studies revealed that cis-polyisoprenoids are more diverse in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum than previously postulated as we uncovered active de novo biosynthesis and substantial levels of accumulation of polyprenols and dolichols of 15 to 19 isoprene units. A distinctive polyprenol and dolichol profile both within the intraerythrocytic asexual cycle and between asexual and gametocyte stages was observed suggesting that cis-polyisoprenoid biosynthesis changes throughout parasite’s development. Moreover, we confirmed the presence of an active cis-prenyltransferase (PfCPT) and that dolichol biosynthesis occurs via reduction of the polyprenol to dolichol by an active polyprenol reductase (PfPPRD) in the malaria parasite.
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15
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Wang S, Li M, Luo X, Yu L, Nie Z, Liu Q, An X, Ao Y, Liu Q, Chen J, Tian Y, Zhao J, He L. Inhibitory Effects of Fosmidomycin Against Babesia microti in vitro. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:247. [PMID: 32411701 PMCID: PMC7198706 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Babesia microti, the main pathogen causing human babesiosis, has been reported to exhibit resistance to the traditional treatment of azithromycin + atovaquone and clindamycin + quinine, suggesting the necessity of developing new drugs. The methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway, a unique pathway in apicomplexan parasites, was shown to play a crucial function in the growth of Plasmodium falciparum. In the MEP pathway, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR) is a rate-limiting enzyme and fosmidomycin (FSM) is a reported inhibitor for this enzyme. DXR has been shown as an antimalarial drug target, but no report is available on B. microti DXR (BmDXR). Here BmDXR was cloned, sequenced, analyzed by bioinformatics, and evaluated as a potential drug target for inhibiting the growth of B. micorti in vitro. Drug assay was performed by adding different concentrations of FSM in B. microti in vitro culture. Rescue experiment was done by supplementing 200 μM isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) or 5 μM geranylgeraniol (GG-ol) in the culture medium together with 5 μM FSM or 10 μM diminazene aceturate. The results indicated that FSM can inhibit the growth of B. microti in in vitro culture with an IC50 of 4.63 ± 0.12 μM, and growth can be restored by both IPP and GG-ol. Additionally, FSM is shown to inhibit the growth of parasites by suppressing the DXR activity, which agreed with the reported results of other apicomplexan parasites. Our results suggest the potential of DXR as a drug target for controlling B. microti and that FSM can inhibit the growth of B. microti in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sen Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, China
| | - Muxiao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaoying Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, China
| | - Long Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, China
| | - Zheng Nie
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, China
| | - Qin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaomeng An
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, China
| | - Yangsiqi Ao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, China
| | - Qin Liu
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiaxu Chen
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, China
| | - Yu Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Junlong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemical Disease and Infectious Zoonoses, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Lan He
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemical Disease and Infectious Zoonoses, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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16
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Krishnan A, Kloehn J, Lunghi M, Soldati-Favre D. Vitamin and cofactor acquisition in apicomplexans: Synthesis versus salvage. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:701-714. [PMID: 31767680 PMCID: PMC6970920 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.aw119.008150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Apicomplexa phylum comprises diverse parasitic organisms that have evolved from a free-living ancestor. These obligate intracellular parasites exhibit versatile metabolic capabilities reflecting their capacity to survive and grow in different hosts and varying niches. Determined by nutrient availability, they either use their biosynthesis machineries or largely depend on their host for metabolite acquisition. Because vitamins cannot be synthesized by the mammalian host, the enzymes required for their synthesis in apicomplexan parasites represent a large repertoire of potential therapeutic targets. Here, we review recent advances in metabolic reconstruction and functional studies coupled to metabolomics that unravel the interplay between biosynthesis and salvage of vitamins and cofactors in apicomplexans. A particular emphasis is placed on Toxoplasma gondii, during both its acute and latent stages of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarti Krishnan
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, 1 Rue Michel-Servet, 1211 Geneva 4 Switzerland
| | - Joachim Kloehn
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, 1 Rue Michel-Servet, 1211 Geneva 4 Switzerland
| | - Matteo Lunghi
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, 1 Rue Michel-Servet, 1211 Geneva 4 Switzerland
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, 1 Rue Michel-Servet, 1211 Geneva 4 Switzerland
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17
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Krishnan A, Kloehn J, Lunghi M, Soldati-Favre D. Vitamin and cofactor acquisition in apicomplexans: Synthesis versus salvage. J Biol Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)49928-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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18
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Biosynthesis of heme O in intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum and potential inhibitors of this pathway. Sci Rep 2019; 9:19261. [PMID: 31848371 PMCID: PMC6917786 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55506-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of antimalarial drugs interfere with the electron transport chain and heme-related reactions; however, the biosynthesis of heme derivatives in Plasmodium parasites has not been fully elucidated. Here, we characterized the steps that lead to the farnesylation of heme. After the identification of a gene encoding heme O synthase, we identified heme O synthesis in blood stage parasites through the incorporation of radioactive precursors. The presence of heme O synthesis in intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum was confirmed by mass spectrometry. Inabenfide and uniconazole-P appeared to interfere in heme synthesis, accordingly, parasite growth was also affected by the addition of these drugs. We conclude that heme O synthesis occurs in blood stage-P. falciparum and this pathway could be a potential target for antimalarial drugs.
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19
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Verdaguer IB, Zafra CA, Crispim M, Sussmann RA, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Prenylquinones in Human Parasitic Protozoa: Biosynthesis, Physiological Functions, and Potential as Chemotherapeutic Targets. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24203721. [PMID: 31623105 PMCID: PMC6832408 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24203721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human parasitic protozoa cause a large number of diseases worldwide and, for some of these diseases, there are no effective treatments to date, and drug resistance has been observed. For these reasons, the discovery of new etiological treatments is necessary. In this sense, parasitic metabolic pathways that are absent in vertebrate hosts would be interesting research candidates for the identification of new drug targets. Most likely due to the protozoa variability, uncertain phylogenetic origin, endosymbiotic events, and evolutionary pressure for adaptation to adverse environments, a surprising variety of prenylquinones can be found within these organisms. These compounds are involved in essential metabolic reactions in organisms, for example, prevention of lipoperoxidation, participation in the mitochondrial respiratory chain or as enzymatic cofactors. This review will describe several prenylquinones that have been previously characterized in human pathogenic protozoa. Among all existing prenylquinones, this review is focused on ubiquinone, menaquinone, tocopherols, chlorobiumquinone, and thermoplasmaquinone. This review will also discuss the biosynthesis of prenylquinones, starting from the isoprenic side chains to the aromatic head group precursors. The isoprenic side chain biosynthesis maybe come from mevalonate or non-mevalonate pathways as well as leucine dependent pathways for isoprenoid biosynthesis. Finally, the isoprenic chains elongation and prenylquinone aromatic precursors origins from amino acid degradation or the shikimate pathway is reviewed. The phylogenetic distribution and what is known about the biological functions of these compounds among species will be described, as will the therapeutic strategies associated with prenylquinone metabolism in protozoan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignasi B. Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Camila A. Zafra
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Rodrigo A.C. Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
- Centro de Formação em Ciências Ambientais, Universidade Federal do Sul da Bahia, Porto Seguro 45810-000 Bahia, Brazil
| | - Emília A. Kimura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Alejandro M. Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-11-3091-7330; Fax: +5511-3091-7417
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20
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There Is Treasure Everywhere: Reductive Plastid Evolution in Apicomplexa in Light of Their Close Relatives. Biomolecules 2019; 9:biom9080378. [PMID: 31430853 PMCID: PMC6722601 DOI: 10.3390/biom9080378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The phylum Apicomplexa (Alveolates) comprises a group of host-associated protists, predominately intracellular parasites, including devastating parasites like Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of malaria. One of the more fascinating characteristics of Apicomplexa is their highly reduced (and occasionally lost) remnant plastid, termed the apicoplast. Four core metabolic pathways are retained in the apicoplast: heme synthesis, iron–sulfur cluster synthesis, isoprenoid synthesis, and fatty acid synthesis. It has been suggested that one or more of these pathways are essential for plastid and plastid genome retention. The past decade has witnessed the discovery of several apicomplexan relatives, and next-generation sequencing efforts are revealing that they retain variable plastid metabolic capacities. These data are providing clues about the core genes and pathways of reduced plastids, while at the same time further confounding our view on the evolutionary history of the apicoplast. Here, we examine the evolutionary history of the apicoplast, explore plastid metabolism in Apicomplexa and their close relatives, and propose that the differences among reduced plastids result from a game of endosymbiotic roulette. Continued exploration of the Apicomplexa and their relatives is sure to provide new insights into the evolution of the apicoplast and apicomplexans as a whole.
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21
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Cordy RJ, Patrapuvich R, Lili LN, Cabrera-Mora M, Chien JT, Tharp GK, Khadka M, Meyer EV, Lapp SA, Joyner CJ, Garcia A, Banton S, Tran V, Luvira V, Rungin S, Saeseu T, Rachaphaew N, Pakala SB, DeBarry JD, Kissinger JC, Ortlund EA, Bosinger SE, Barnwell JW, Jones DP, Uppal K, Li S, Sattabongkot J, Moreno A, Galinski MR. Distinct amino acid and lipid perturbations characterize acute versus chronic malaria. JCI Insight 2019; 4:125156. [PMID: 31045574 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.125156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic malaria is a major public health problem and significant challenge for disease eradication efforts. Despite its importance, the biological factors underpinning chronic malaria are not fully understood. Recent studies have shown that host metabolic state can influence malaria pathogenesis and transmission, but its role in chronicity is not known. Here, with the goal of identifying distinct modifications in the metabolite profiles of acute versus chronic malaria, metabolomics was performed on plasma from Plasmodium-infected humans and nonhuman primates with a range of parasitemias and clinical signs. In rhesus macaques infected with Plasmodium coatneyi, significant alterations in amines, carnitines, and lipids were detected during a high parasitemic acute phase and many of these reverted to baseline levels once a low parasitemic chronic phase was established. Plasmodium gene expression, studied in parallel in the macaques, revealed transcriptional changes in amine, fatty acid, lipid and energy metabolism genes, as well as variant antigen genes. Furthermore, a common set of amines, carnitines, and lipids distinguished acute from chronic malaria in plasma from human Plasmodium falciparum cases. In summary, distinct host-parasite metabolic environments have been uncovered that characterize acute versus chronic malaria, providing insights into the underlying host-parasite biology of malaria disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Joice Cordy
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Loukia N Lili
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Institute for Next Generation Healthcare, Icahn School of Medicine, Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Monica Cabrera-Mora
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Jung-Ting Chien
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Gregory K Tharp
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Manoj Khadka
- Emory Integrated Lipidomics Core, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Esmeralda Vs Meyer
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Stacey A Lapp
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Chester J Joyner
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - AnaPatricia Garcia
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Sophia Banton
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - ViLinh Tran
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Viravarn Luvira
- Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Siriwan Rungin
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Teerawat Saeseu
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | | | | | | | - Jessica C Kissinger
- Institute of Bioinformatics.,Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, and.,Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Eric A Ortlund
- Emory Integrated Lipidomics Core, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Steven E Bosinger
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - John W Barnwell
- Malaria Branch, Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Dean P Jones
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Karan Uppal
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Shuzhao Li
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | - Alberto Moreno
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Mary R Galinski
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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22
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Sharma D, Dada R, Tejavath KK, Rai P, Soni R, Yaragorla S, Bhatt TK. A paradigm towards the antimalarial quest: in silico identification and biological evaluation of novel inhibitors targeting 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2019; 38:295-301. [PMID: 30688162 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2019.1570342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Drista Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer, India
| | | | | | - Praveen Rai
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer, India
| | - Rani Soni
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer, India
| | | | - Tarun Kumar Bhatt
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer, India
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23
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He L, He P, Luo X, Li M, Yu L, Guo J, Zhan X, Zhu G, Zhao J. The MEP pathway in Babesia orientalis apicoplast, a potential target for anti-babesiosis drug development. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:452. [PMID: 30081952 PMCID: PMC6090808 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3038-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The apicomplexan parasite Babesia orientalis, the causative agent of water buffalo babesiosis in China, is widespread in central and south China, resulting in a huge economic loss annually. Currently, there is no effective vaccine or drug against this disease. Babesia bovis and Plasmodium falciparum were reported to possess an apicoplast which contains the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway inhibitable by fosmidomycin, suggesting that the pathway could serve as a drug target for screening new drugs. However, it remains unknown in B. orientalis. METHODS Primers were designed according to the seven MEP pathway genes of Babesia microti and Babesia bovis. The genes were cloned, sequenced and analyzed. The open reading frames (ORFs) of the first two enzyme genes, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase (BoDXS) and 1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (BoDXR), were cloned into the pET-32a expression vector and expressed as a Trx-tag fusion protein. Rabbit anti-rBoDXS and rabbit anti-rBoDXR antibodies were generated. Western blot was performed to identify the native proteins of BoDXS and BoDXR in B. orientalis. Fosmidomycin and geranylgeraniol were used for inhibition assay and rescue assay, respectively, in the in vitro cultivation of B. orientalis. RESULTS The seven enzyme genes of the B. orientalis MEP pathway (DXS, DXR, IspD, IspE, IspF, IspG and IspH) were cloned and sequenced, with a full length of 2094, 1554, 1344, 1521, 654, 1932 and 1056 bp, respectively. BoDXS and BoDXR were expressed as Trx-tag fusion proteins, with a size of 95 and 67 kDa, respectively. Western blot identified a 77 kDa band for the native BoDXS and a 49 kDa band for the native BoDXR. The drug assay results showed that fosmidomycin could inhibit the growth of B. orientalis, and geranylgeraniol could reverse the effect of fosmidomycin. CONCLUSIONS Babesia orientalis has the isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway, which could be a potential drug target for controlling and curing babesiosis. Considering the high price and instability of fosmidomycin, further studies should focus on the screening of stable and cheap drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan He
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China
| | - Pei He
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaoying Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
| | - Muxiao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
| | - Long Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
| | - Jiaying Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
| | - Xueyan Zhan
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
| | - Guan Zhu
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas USA
| | - Junlong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China
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24
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Deciphering the role of IspD (2‑C‑methyl‑D‑erythritol 4‑phosphate cytidyltransferase) enzyme as a potential therapeutic drug target against Plasmodium vivax. Gene 2018; 675:240-253. [PMID: 29958953 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2018.06.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Biosynthesis of isoprenoids (MEP Pathway) in apicoplast has an important role during the erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium, as it is the sole pathway to provide the major isoprene units required as metabolic precursor for various housekeeping activities. With the intensifying need to identify a novel therapeutic drug target against Plasmodium, the MEP pathway and its components are considered as potential therapeutic targets, due to the difference in the isoprenoid synthesis route (MVA) functional in the host cells. While few major components have already been studied from this pathway for their potential as a drug target, IspD (2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate cytidyltransferase) enzyme, the enzyme catalyzing the third step of the pathway has only been tested against a synthetic compound from Malaria box called MMV008138, which also has not shown adequate inhibitory activity against P. vivax IspD. In the present study, to validate the potential of PvIspD as a drug target, various antimicrobial agents were screened for their inhibition possibilities, using in-vitro High Throughput Screening (HTS) technique. Shortlisted antimicrobial drug molecules like Cefepime, Tunicamycin and Rifampicin were further validated by in-vitro biochemical enzyme inhibition assays where they showed activity at nanomolar concentrations suggesting them or their derivatives as prospective future antimalarials. This study also confirmed the in-vivo expression of PvIspD protein during asexual stages by sub-cellular localization in apicoplast and explores the importance of the IspD enzyme in the development of new therapeutics.
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Bartee D, Wheadon MJ, Freel Meyers CL. Synthesis and Evaluation of Fluoroalkyl Phosphonyl Analogues of 2- C-Methylerythritol Phosphate as Substrates and Inhibitors of IspD from Human Pathogens. J Org Chem 2018; 83:9580-9591. [PMID: 29870251 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.8b00686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Targeting essential bacterial processes beyond cell wall, protein, nucleotide, and folate syntheses holds promise to reveal new antimicrobial agents and expand the potential drugs available for combination therapies. The synthesis of isoprenoid precursors, isopentenyl diphosphate (IDP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMADP), is vital for all organisms; however, humans use the mevalonate pathway for production of IDP/DMADP while many pathogens, including Plasmodium falciparum and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, use the orthogonal methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway. Toward developing novel antimicrobial agents, we have designed and synthesized a series of phosphonyl analogues of MEP and evaluated their abilities to interact with IspD, both as inhibitors of the natural reaction and as antimetabolite alternative substrates that could be processed enzymatically to form stable phosphonyl analogues as potential inhibitors of downstream MEP pathway intermediates. In this compound series, the S-monofluoro MEP analogue displays the most potent inhibitory activity against Escherichia coli IspD and is the best substrate for both the E. coli and P. falciparum IspD orthologues with a Km approaching that of the natural substrate for the E. coli enzyme. This work represents a first step toward the development of phosphonyl MEP antimetabolites to modulate early isoprenoid biosynthesis in human pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bartee
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences , The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine , Baltimore , Maryland 21205 , United States
| | - Michael J Wheadon
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences , The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine , Baltimore , Maryland 21205 , United States
| | - Caren L Freel Meyers
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences , The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine , Baltimore , Maryland 21205 , United States
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Ghavami M, Merino EF, Yao ZK, Elahi R, Simpson ME, Fernández-Murga ML, Butler JH, Casasanta MA, Krai PM, Totrov MM, Slade DJ, Carlier PR, Cassera MB. Biological Studies and Target Engagement of the 2- C-Methyl-d-Erythritol 4-Phosphate Cytidylyltransferase (IspD)-Targeting Antimalarial Agent (1 R,3 S)-MMV008138 and Analogs. ACS Infect Dis 2018; 4:549-559. [PMID: 29072835 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.7b00159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Malaria continues to be one of the deadliest diseases worldwide, and the emergence of drug resistance parasites is a constant threat. Plasmodium parasites utilize the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway to synthesize isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), which are essential for parasite growth. Previously, we and others identified that the Malaria Box compound MMV008138 targets the apicoplast and that parasite growth inhibition by this compound can be reversed by supplementation of IPP. Further work has revealed that MMV008138 targets the enzyme 2- C-methyl-d-erythritol 4-phosphate cytidylyltransferase (IspD) in the MEP pathway, which converts MEP and cytidine triphosphate (CTP) to cytidinediphosphate methylerythritol (CDP-ME) and pyrophosphate. In this work, we sought to gain insight into the structure-activity relationships by probing the ability of MMV008138 analogs to inhibit PfIspD recombinant enzyme. Here, we report PfIspD inhibition data for fosmidomycin (FOS) and 19 previously disclosed analogs and report parasite growth and PfIspD inhibition data for 27 new analogs of MMV008138. In addition, we show that MMV008138 does not target the recently characterized human IspD, reinforcing MMV008138 as a prototype of a new class of species-selective IspD-targeting antimalarial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Ghavami
- Department of Chemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Hahn Hall South, 800 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Emilio F. Merino
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, 120 Green Street, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Zhong-Ke Yao
- Department of Chemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Hahn Hall South, 800 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Rubayet Elahi
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Morgan E. Simpson
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Maria L. Fernández-Murga
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Joshua H. Butler
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, 120 Green Street, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Michael A. Casasanta
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Priscilla M. Krai
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Maxim M. Totrov
- Molsoft LLC, 11199 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Daniel J. Slade
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Paul R. Carlier
- Department of Chemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Hahn Hall South, 800 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Maria Belen Cassera
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, 120 Green Street, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
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Kadian K, Vijay S, Gupta Y, Rawal R, Singh J, Anvikar A, Pande V, Sharma A. Structural modeling identifies Plasmodium vivax 4-diphosphocytidyl-2C-methyl-d-erythritol kinase (IspE) as a plausible new antimalarial drug target. Parasitol Int 2018; 67:375-385. [PMID: 29550587 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2018.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Malaria parasites utilize Methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway for synthesis of isoprenoid precursors which are essential for maturation and survival of parasites during erythrocytic and gametocytic stages. The absence of MEP pathway in the human host establishes MEP pathway enzymes as a repertoire of essential drug targets. The fourth enzyme, 4-diphosphocytidyl-2C-methyl-d-erythritol kinase (IspE) has been proved essential in pathogenic bacteria, however; it has not yet been studied in any Plasmodium species. This study was undertaken to investigate genetic polymorphism and concomitant structural implications of the Plasmodium vivax IspE (PvIspE) by employing sequencing, modeling and bioinformatics approach. We report that PvIspE gene displayed six non-synonymous mutations which were restricted to non-conserved regions within the gene from seven topographically distinct malaria-endemic regions of India. Phylogenetic studies reflected that PvIspE occupies unique status within Plasmodia genus and reflects that Plasmodium vivax IspE gene has a distant and non-conserved relation with human ortholog Mevalonate Kinase (MAVK). Structural modeling analysis revealed that all PvIspE Indian isolates have critically conserved canonical galacto-homoserine-mevalonate-phosphomevalonate kinase (GHMP) domain within the active site lying in a deep cleft sandwiched between ATP and CDPME-binding domains. The active core region was highly conserved among all clinical isolates, may be due to >60% β-pleated rigid architecture. The mapped structural analysis revealed the critically conserved active site of PvIspE, both sequence, and spacially among all Indian isolates; showing no significant changes in the active site. Our study strengthens the candidature of Plasmodium vivax IspE enzyme as a future target for novel antimalarials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavita Kadian
- Protein Biochemistry and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Sector-8, Dwarka, New Delhi, India
| | - Sonam Vijay
- Protein Biochemistry and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Sector-8, Dwarka, New Delhi, India
| | - Yash Gupta
- Protein Biochemistry and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Sector-8, Dwarka, New Delhi, India
| | - Ritu Rawal
- Protein Biochemistry and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Sector-8, Dwarka, New Delhi, India
| | - Jagbir Singh
- Protein Biochemistry and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Sector-8, Dwarka, New Delhi, India
| | - Anup Anvikar
- Epidemiology and Clinical Research, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Sector-8, Dwarka, New Delhi, India
| | - Veena Pande
- Department of Biotechnology, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Arun Sharma
- Protein Biochemistry and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Sector-8, Dwarka, New Delhi, India.
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28
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Perillyl alcohol exhibits in vitro inhibitory activity against Plasmodium falciparum and protects against experimental cerebral malaria. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2018; 51:370-377. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2017.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Mène-Saffrané L. Vitamin E Biosynthesis and Its Regulation in Plants. Antioxidants (Basel) 2017; 7:E2. [PMID: 29295607 PMCID: PMC5789312 DOI: 10.3390/antiox7010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2017] [Revised: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin E is one of the 13 vitamins that are essential to animals that do not produce them. To date, six natural organic compounds belonging to the chemical family of tocochromanols-four tocopherols and two tocotrienols-have been demonstrated as exhibiting vitamin E activity in animals. Edible plant-derived products, notably seed oils, are the main sources of vitamin E in the human diet. Although this vitamin is readily available, independent nutritional surveys have shown that human populations do not consume enough vitamin E, and suffer from mild to severe deficiency. Tocochromanols are mostly produced by plants, algae, and some cyanobacteria. Tocochromanol metabolism has been mainly studied in higher plants that produce tocopherols, tocotrienols, plastochromanol-8, and tocomonoenols. In contrast to the tocochromanol biosynthetic pathways that are well characterized, our understanding of the physiological and molecular mechanisms regulating tocochromanol biosynthesis is in its infancy. Although it is known that tocochromanol biosynthesis is strongly conditioned by the availability in homogentisate and polyprenyl pyrophosphate, its polar and lipophilic biosynthetic precursors, respectively, the mechanisms regulating their biosyntheses are barely known. This review summarizes our current knowledge of tocochromanol biosynthesis in plants, and highlights future challenges regarding the understanding of its regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Mène-Saffrané
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée, 10, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
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30
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Sharma D, Soni R, Rai P, Sharma B, Bhatt TK. Relict plastidic metabolic process as a potential therapeutic target. Drug Discov Today 2017; 23:134-140. [PMID: 28987288 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2017.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The alignment of the evolutionary history of parasites with that of plants provides a different panorama in the drug development process. The housing of different metabolic processes, essential for parasite survival, adds to the indispensability of the apicoplast. The different pathways responsible for fueling the apicoplast and parasite offer a myriad of proteins responsible for the apicoplast function. The studies emphasizing the target-based approaches might help in the discovery of antimalarials. The different putative drug targets and their roles are highlighted. In addition, the origin of the apicoplast and metabolic processes are reviewed and the different drugs acting upon the enzymes of the apicoplast are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drista Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Rani Soni
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Praveen Rai
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Bhaskar Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Tarun Kumar Bhatt
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India.
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31
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Sussmann RAC, Fotoran WL, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Plasmodium falciparum uses vitamin E to avoid oxidative stress. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:461. [PMID: 29017543 PMCID: PMC5634829 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2402-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plasmodium falciparum is sensitive to oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo, and many drugs such as artemisinin, chloroquine and cercosporin interfere in the parasite's redox system. To minimize the damage caused by reactive radicals, antioxidant enzymes and their substrates found in parasites and in erythrocytes must be functionally active. It was shown that P. falciparum synthesizes vitamin E and that usnic acid acts as an inhibitor of its biosynthesis. Vitamin E is a potent antioxidant that protects polyunsaturated fatty acids from lipid peroxidation, and this activity can be measured by detecting its oxidized product and by evaluating reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. RESULTS Here, we demonstrated that ROS levels increased in P. falciparum when vitamin E biosynthesis was inhibited by usnic acid treatment and decreased to basal levels if exogenous vitamin E was added. Furthermore, we used metabolic labelling to demonstrate that vitamin E biosynthesized by the parasite acts as an antioxidant since we could detect its radiolabeled oxidized product. The treatment with chloroquine or cercosporin of the parasites increased the ratio between α-tocopherolquinone and α-tocopherol. CONCLUSIONS Our findings demonstrate that vitamin E produced endogenously by P. falciparum is active as an antioxidant, probably protecting the parasite from the radicals generated by drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo A C Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wesley L Fotoran
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Emilia A Kimura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro M Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Edwards RL, Brothers RC, Wang X, Maron MI, Ziniel PD, Tsang PS, Kraft TE, Hruz PW, Williamson KC, Dowd CS, John ARO. MEPicides: potent antimalarial prodrugs targeting isoprenoid biosynthesis. Sci Rep 2017; 7:8400. [PMID: 28827774 PMCID: PMC5567135 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-07159-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergence of Plasmodium falciparum resistant to frontline therapeutics has prompted efforts to identify and validate agents with novel mechanisms of action. MEPicides represent a new class of antimalarials that inhibit enzymes of the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis, including the clinically validated target, deoxyxylulose phosphate reductoisomerase (Dxr). Here we describe RCB-185, a lipophilic prodrug with nanomolar activity against asexual parasites. Growth of P. falciparum treated with RCB-185 was rescued by isoprenoid precursor supplementation, and treatment substantially reduced metabolite levels downstream of the Dxr enzyme. In addition, parasites that produced higher levels of the Dxr substrate were resistant to RCB-185. Notably, environmental isolates resistant to current therapies remained sensitive to RCB-185, the compound effectively treated sexually-committed parasites, and was both safe and efficacious in malaria-infected mice. Collectively, our data demonstrate that RCB-185 potently and selectively inhibits Dxr in P. falciparum, and represents a promising lead compound for further drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel L Edwards
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Robert C Brothers
- Department of Chemistry, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Xu Wang
- Department of Chemistry, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Maxim I Maron
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Peter D Ziniel
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Patricia S Tsang
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Thomas E Kraft
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center, Munich, Nonnenwald, Penzberg, Germany
| | - Paul W Hruz
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Kim C Williamson
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Cynthia S Dowd
- Department of Chemistry, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Audrey R Odom John
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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Saito AY, Marin Rodriguez AA, Menchaca Vega DS, Sussmann RA, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Antimalarial activity of the terpene nerolidol. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2016; 48:641-646. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2016.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Price KE, Armstrong CM, Imlay LS, Hodge DM, Pidathala C, Roberts NJ, Park J, Mikati M, Sharma R, Lawrenson AS, Tolia NH, Berry NG, O'Neill PM, John ARO. Molecular Mechanism of Action of Antimalarial Benzoisothiazolones: Species-Selective Inhibitors of the Plasmodium spp. MEP Pathway enzyme, IspD. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36777. [PMID: 27857147 PMCID: PMC5114681 DOI: 10.1038/srep36777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway is an essential metabolic pathway found in malaria parasites, but absent in mammals, making it a highly attractive target for the discovery of novel and selective antimalarial therapies. Using high-throughput screening, we have identified 2-phenyl benzo[d]isothiazol-3(2H)-ones as species-selective inhibitors of Plasmodium spp. 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate cytidyltransferase (IspD), the third catalytic enzyme of the MEP pathway. 2-Phenyl benzo[d]isothiazol-3(2H)-ones display nanomolar inhibitory activity against P. falciparum and P. vivax IspD and prevent the growth of P. falciparum in culture, with EC50 values below 400 nM. In silico modeling, along with enzymatic, genetic and crystallographic studies, have established a mechanism-of-action involving initial non-covalent recognition of inhibitors at the IspD binding site, followed by disulfide bond formation through attack of an active site cysteine residue on the benzo[d]isothiazol-3(2H)-one core. The species-selective inhibitory activity of these small molecules against Plasmodium spp. IspD and cultured parasites suggests they have potential as lead compounds in the pursuit of novel drugs to treat malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn E Price
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK
| | - Christopher M Armstrong
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Leah S Imlay
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Dana M Hodge
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - C Pidathala
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK
| | - Natalie J Roberts
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK
| | - Jooyoung Park
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Marwa Mikati
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Raman Sharma
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK
| | | | - Niraj H Tolia
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Neil G Berry
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK
| | - Paul M O'Neill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK
| | - Audrey R Odom John
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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35
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Saggu GS, Pala ZR, Garg S, Saxena V. New Insight into Isoprenoids Biosynthesis Process and Future Prospects for Drug Designing in Plasmodium. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1421. [PMID: 27679614 PMCID: PMC5020098 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The MEP (Methyl Erythritol Phosphate) isoprenoids biosynthesis pathway is an attractive drug target to combat malaria, due to its uniqueness and indispensability for the parasite. It is functional in the apicoplast of Plasmodium and its products get transported to the cytoplasm, where they participate in glycoprotein synthesis, electron transport chain, tRNA modification and several other biological processes. Several compounds have been tested against the enzymes involved in this pathway and amongst them Fosmidomycin, targeted against IspC (DXP reductoisomerase) enzyme and MMV008138 targeted against IspD enzyme have shown good anti-malarial activity in parasite cultures. Fosmidomycin is now-a-days prescribed clinically, however, less absorption, shorter half-life, and toxicity at higher doses, limits its use as an anti-malarial. The potential of other enzymes of the pathway as candidate drug targets has also been determined. This review details the various drug molecules tested against these targets with special emphasis to Plasmodium. We corroborate that MEP pathway functional within the apicoplast of Plasmodium is a major drug target, especially during erythrocytic stages. However, the major bottlenecks, bioavailability and toxicity of the new molecules needs to be addressed, before considering any new molecule as a potent antimalarial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gagandeep S Saggu
- Molecular Parasitology and Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
| | - Zarna R Pala
- Molecular Parasitology and Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
| | - Shilpi Garg
- Molecular Parasitology and Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
| | - Vishal Saxena
- Molecular Parasitology and Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
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36
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Chakraborty A. Understanding the biology of the Plasmodium falciparum apicoplast; an excellent target for antimalarial drug development. Life Sci 2016; 158:104-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2016.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2016] [Revised: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Gabriel HB, de Azevedo MF, Palmisano G, Wunderlich G, Kimura EA, Katzin AM, Alves JMP. Single-target high-throughput transcription analyses reveal high levels of alternative splicing present in the FPPS/GGPPS from Plasmodium falciparum. Sci Rep 2015; 5:18429. [PMID: 26688062 PMCID: PMC4685265 DOI: 10.1038/srep18429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a tropical disease with significant morbidity and mortality. A better understanding of the metabolism of its most important etiological agent, Plasmodium falciparum, is paramount to the development of better treatment and other mitigation measures. Farnesyldiphosphate synthase/geranylgeranyldiphosphate synthase (FPPS/GGPPS) is a key enzyme in the synthesis of isoprenic chains present in many essential structures. In P. falciparum, as well as a handful of other organisms, FPPS/GGPPS has been shown to be a bifunctional enzyme. By genetic tagging and microscopy, we observed a changing localization of FPPS/GGPPS in blood stage parasites. Given the great importance of alternative splicing and other transcriptional phenomena in gene regulation and the generation of protein diversity, we have investigated the processing of the FPPS/GGPPS transcript in P. falciparum by high-throughput sequencing methods in four time-points along the intraerythrocytic cycle of P. falciparum. We have identified levels of transcript diversity an order of magnitude higher than previously observed in this organism, as well as a few stage-specific splicing events. Our data suggest that alternative splicing in P. falciparum is an important feature for gene regulation and the generation of protein diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heloisa B Gabriel
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mauro F de Azevedo
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Giuseppe Palmisano
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gerhard Wunderlich
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Emília A Kimura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro M Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João M P Alves
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Park J, Guggisberg AM, Odom AR, Tolia NH. Cap-domain closure enables diverse substrate recognition by the C2-type haloacid dehalogenase-like sugar phosphatase Plasmodium falciparum HAD1. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA. SECTION D, BIOLOGICAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 2015; 71:1824-34. [PMID: 26327372 PMCID: PMC4556313 DOI: 10.1107/s1399004715012067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Haloacid dehalogenases (HADs) are a large enzyme superfamily of more than 500,000 members with roles in numerous metabolic pathways. Plasmodium falciparum HAD1 (PfHAD1) is a sugar phosphatase that regulates the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway for isoprenoid synthesis in malaria parasites. However, the structural determinants for diverse substrate recognition by HADs are unknown. Here, crystal structures were determined of PfHAD1 in complex with three sugar phosphates selected from a panel of diverse substrates that it utilizes. Cap-open and cap-closed conformations are observed, with cap closure facilitating substrate binding and ordering. These structural changes define the role of cap movement within the major subcategory of C2 HAD enzymes. The structures of an HAD bound to multiple substrates identifies binding and specificity-determining residues that define the structural basis for substrate recognition and catalysis within the HAD superfamily. While the substrate-binding region of the cap domain is flexible in the open conformations, this region becomes ordered and makes direct interactions with the substrate in the closed conformations. These studies further inform the structural and biochemical basis for catalysis within a large superfamily of HAD enzymes with diverse functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jooyoung Park
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Ann M. Guggisberg
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Audrey R. Odom
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Niraj H. Tolia
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
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39
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Bartee D, Morris F, Al-Khouja A, Freel Meyers CL. Hydroxybenzaldoximes Are D-GAP-Competitive Inhibitors of E. coli 1-Deoxy-D-Xylulose-5-Phosphate Synthase. Chembiochem 2015; 16:1771-81. [PMID: 26174207 PMCID: PMC4609000 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201500119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DXP) synthase is the first enzyme in the methylerythritol phosphate pathway to essential isoprenoids in pathogenic bacteria and apicomplexan parasites. In bacterial pathogens, DXP lies at a metabolic branch point, serving also as a precursor in the biosynthesis of vitamins B1 and B6, which are critical for central metabolism. In an effort to identify new bisubstrate analogue inhibitors that exploit the large active site and distinct mechanism of DXP synthase, a library of aryl mixed oximes was prepared and evaluated. Trihydroxybenzaldoximes emerged as reversible, low-micromolar inhibitors, competitive against D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (D-GAP) and either uncompetitive or noncompetitive against pyruvate. Hydroxybenzaldoximes are the first class of D-GAP-competitive DXP synthase inhibitors, offering new tools for mechanistic studies of DXP synthase and a new direction for the development of antimicrobial agents targeting isoprenoid biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bartee
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205 (USA)
| | - Francine Morris
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205 (USA)
- Present address: Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, 1301 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461 (USA)
| | - Amer Al-Khouja
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205 (USA)
| | - Caren L Freel Meyers
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205 (USA).
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Khadka M, Salem M, Leblond JD. Sterol Composition and Biosynthetic Genes of Vitrella brassicaformis
, a Recently Discovered Chromerid: Comparison to Chromera velia
and Phylogenetic Relationship with Apicomplexan Parasites. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2015; 62:786-98. [DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Revised: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Khadka
- Department of Biology; Middle Tennessee State University; PO Box 60 Murfreesboro Tennessee 37132
| | - Mohamed Salem
- Department of Biology; Middle Tennessee State University; PO Box 60 Murfreesboro Tennessee 37132
| | - Jeffrey D. Leblond
- Department of Biology; Middle Tennessee State University; PO Box 60 Murfreesboro Tennessee 37132
- Ecology and Evolution Group; Middle Tennessee State University; PO Box 60 Murfreesboro Tennessee 37132
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Imlay LS, Armstrong CM, Masters MC, Li T, Price KE, Edwards RL, Mann KM, Li LX, Stallings CL, Berry NG, O’Neill PM, Odom AR. Plasmodium IspD (2-C-Methyl-D-erythritol 4-Phosphate Cytidyltransferase), an Essential and Druggable Antimalarial Target. ACS Infect Dis 2015; 1:157-167. [PMID: 26783558 DOI: 10.1021/id500047s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
As resistance to current therapies spreads, novel antimalarials are urgently needed. In this work, we examine the potential for therapeutic intervention via the targeting of Plasmodium IspD (2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate cytidyltransferase), the second dedicated enzyme of the essential methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway for isoprenoid biosynthesis. Enzymes of this pathway represent promising therapeutic targets because the pathway is not present in humans. The Malaria Box compound, MMV008138, inhibits Plasmodium falciparum growth, and PfIspD has been proposed as a candidate intracellular target. We find that PfIspD is the sole intracellular target of MMV008138 and characterize the mode of inhibition and target-based resistance, providing chemical validation of this target. Additionally, we find that the Pf ISPD genetic locus is refractory to disruption in malaria parasites, providing independent genetic validation for efforts targeting this enzyme. This work provides compelling support for IspD as a druggable target for the development of additional, much-needed antimalarial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ting Li
- College of Medicine, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43614, United States
| | - Kathryn E. Price
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K
| | | | | | | | | | - Neil G. Berry
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K
| | - Paul M. O’Neill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K
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42
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Kelly M, Su CY, Schaber C, Crowley JR, Hsu FF, Carlson JR, Odom AR. Malaria parasites produce volatile mosquito attractants. mBio 2015; 6:e00235-15. [PMID: 25805727 PMCID: PMC4453533 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00235-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum contains a nonphotosynthetic plastid organelle that possesses plant-like metabolic pathways. Plants use the plastidial isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway to produce volatile odorants, known as terpenes. In this work, we describe the volatile chemical profile of cultured malaria parasites. Among the identified compounds are several plant-like terpenes and terpene derivatives, including known mosquito attractants. We establish the molecular identity of the odorant receptors of the malaria mosquito vector Anopheles gambiae, which responds to these compounds. The malaria parasite produces volatile signals that are recognized by mosquitoes and may thereby mediate host attraction and facilitate transmission. IMPORTANCE Malaria is a key global health concern. Mosquitoes that transmit malaria are more attracted to malaria parasite-infected mammalian hosts. These studies aimed to understand the chemical signals produced by malaria parasites; such an understanding may lead to new transmission-blocking strategies or noninvasive malaria diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Kelly
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Chih-Ying Su
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Chad Schaber
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jan R Crowley
- Mass Spectrometry Resource, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Fong-Fu Hsu
- Mass Spectrometry Resource, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - John R Carlson
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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43
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Squalestatin is an inhibitor of carotenoid biosynthesis in Plasmodium falciparum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015; 59:3180-8. [PMID: 25779575 DOI: 10.1128/aac.04500-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing resistance of malaria parasites to almost all available drugs calls for the characterization of novel targets and the identification of new compounds. Carotenoids are polyisoprenoids from plants, algae, and some bacteria, and they are biosynthesized by Plasmodium falciparum but not by mammalian cells. Biochemical and reverse genetics approaches were applied to demonstrate that phytoene synthase (PSY) is a key enzyme for carotenoid biosynthesis in P. falciparum and is essential for intraerythrocytic growth. The known PSY inhibitor squalestatin reduces biosynthesis of phytoene and kills parasites during the intraerythrocytic cycle. PSY-overexpressing parasites showed increased biosynthesis of phytoene and its derived product phytofluene and presented a squalestatin-resistant phenotype, suggesting that this enzyme is the primary target of action of this drug in the parasite.
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44
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Isoprenoid precursor biosynthesis is the essential metabolic role of the apicoplast during gametocytogenesis in Plasmodium falciparum. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2014; 14:128-39. [PMID: 25446055 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00198-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The malaria parasite harbors a relict plastid called the apicoplast and its discovery opened a new avenue for drug discovery and development due to its unusual, nonmammalian metabolism. The apicoplast is essential during the asexual intraerythrocytic and hepatic stages of the parasite, and there is strong evidence supporting its essential metabolic role during the mosquito stages of the parasite. Supply of the isoprenoid building blocks isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) is the essential metabolic function of the apicoplast during the asexual intraerythrocytic stages. However, the metabolic role of the apicoplast during gametocyte development, the malaria stages transmitted to the mosquito, remains unknown. In this study, we showed that production of IPP for isoprenoid biosynthesis is the essential metabolic function of the apicoplast during gametocytogenesis, by obtaining normal gametocytes lacking the apicoplast when supplemented with IPP. When IPP supplementation was removed early in gametocytogenesis, developmental defects were observed, supporting the essential role of isoprenoids for normal gametocytogenesis. Furthermore, mosquitoes infected with gametocytes lacking the apicoplast developed fewer and smaller oocysts that failed to produce sporozoites. This finding further supports the essential role of the apicoplast in establishing a successful infection in the mosquito vector. Our study supports isoprenoid biosynthesis as a valid drug target for development of malaria transmission-blocking inhibitors.
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45
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Guggisberg AM, Amthor RE, Odom AR. Isoprenoid biosynthesis in Plasmodium falciparum. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2014; 13:1348-59. [PMID: 25217461 PMCID: PMC4248697 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00160-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Malaria kills nearly 1 million people each year, and the protozoan parasite Plasmodium falciparum has become increasingly resistant to current therapies. Isoprenoid synthesis via the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway represents an attractive target for the development of new antimalarials. The phosphonic acid antibiotic fosmidomycin is a specific inhibitor of isoprenoid synthesis and has been a helpful tool to outline the essential functions of isoprenoid biosynthesis in P. falciparum. Isoprenoids are a large, diverse class of hydrocarbons that function in a variety of essential cellular processes in eukaryotes. In P. falciparum, isoprenoids are used for tRNA isopentenylation and protein prenylation, as well as the synthesis of vitamin E, carotenoids, ubiquinone, and dolichols. Recently, isoprenoid synthesis in P. falciparum has been shown to be regulated by a sugar phosphatase. We outline what is known about isoprenoid function and the regulation of isoprenoid synthesis in P. falciparum, in order to identify valuable directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Guggisberg
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Rachel E Amthor
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Audrey R Odom
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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46
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Exploring Drug Targets in Isoprenoid Biosynthetic Pathway for Plasmodium falciparum. Biochem Res Int 2014; 2014:657189. [PMID: 24864210 PMCID: PMC4017727 DOI: 10.1155/2014/657189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2013] [Revised: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Emergence of rapid drug resistance to existing antimalarial drugs in Plasmodium falciparum has created the need for prediction of novel targets as well as leads derived from original molecules with improved activity against a validated drug target. The malaria parasite has a plant plastid-like apicoplast. To overcome the problem of falciparum malaria, the metabolic pathways in parasite apicoplast have been used as antimalarial drug targets. Among several pathways in apicoplast, isoprenoid biosynthesis is one of the important pathways for parasite as its multiplication in human erythrocytes requires isoprenoids. Therefore targeting this pathway and exploring leads with improved activity is a highly attractive approach. This report has explored progress towards the study of proteins and inhibitors of isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway. For more comprehensive analysis, antimalarial drug-protein interaction has been covered.
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47
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Dellas N, Thomas ST, Manning G, Noel JP. Discovery of a metabolic alternative to the classical mevalonate pathway. eLife 2013; 2:e00672. [PMID: 24327557 PMCID: PMC3857490 DOI: 10.7554/elife.00672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Eukarya, Archaea, and some Bacteria encode all or part of the essential mevalonate (MVA) metabolic pathway clinically modulated using statins. Curiously, two components of the MVA pathway are often absent from archaeal genomes. The search for these missing elements led to the discovery of isopentenyl phosphate kinase (IPK), one of two activities necessary to furnish the universal five-carbon isoprenoid building block, isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP). Unexpectedly, we now report functional IPKs also exist in Bacteria and Eukarya. Furthermore, amongst a subset of species within the bacterial phylum Chloroflexi, we identified a new enzyme catalyzing the missing decarboxylative step of the putative alternative MVA pathway. These results demonstrate, for the first time, a functioning alternative MVA pathway. Key to this pathway is the catalytic actions of a newly uncovered enzyme, mevalonate phosphate decarboxylase (MPD) and IPK. Together, these two discoveries suggest that unforeseen variation in isoprenoid metabolism may be widespread in nature. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00672.001.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikki Dellas
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, United States
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48
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Antiapicoplast and gametocytocidal screening to identify the mechanisms of action of compounds within the malaria box. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 58:811-9. [PMID: 24247137 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01500-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains a significant infectious disease that causes millions of clinical cases and >800,000 deaths per year. The Malaria Box is a collection of 400 commercially available chemical entities that have antimalarial activity. The collection contains 200 drug-like compounds, based on their oral absorption and the presence of known toxicophores, and 200 probe-like compounds, which are intended to represent a broad structural diversity. These compounds have confirmed activities against the asexual intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum and low cytotoxicities, but their mechanisms of action and their activities in other stages of the parasite's life cycle remain to be determined. The apicoplast is considered to be a promising source of malaria-specific targets, and its main function during intraerythrocytic stages is to provide the isoprenoid precursor isopentenyl diphosphate, which can be used for phenotype-based screens to identify compounds targeting this organelle. We screened 400 compounds from the Malaria Box using apicoplast-targeting phenotypic assays to identify their potential mechanisms of action. We identified one compound that specifically targeted the apicoplast. Further analyses indicated that the molecular target of this compound may differ from those of the current antiapicoplast drugs, such as fosmidomycin. Moreover, in our efforts to elucidate the mechanisms of action of compounds from the Malaria Box, we evaluated their activities against other stages of the life cycle of the parasite. Gametocytes are the transmission stage of the malaria parasite and are recognized as a priority target in efforts to eradicate malaria. We identified 12 compounds that were active against gametocytes with 50% inhibitory concentration values of <1 μM.
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49
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Targeting the vitamin biosynthesis pathways for the treatment of malaria. Future Med Chem 2013; 5:769-79. [PMID: 23651091 DOI: 10.4155/fmc.13.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The most severe form of malaria is Malaria tropica, caused by Plasmodium falciparum. There are more than 1 billion people that are exposed to malaria parasites leading to more than 500,000 deaths annually. Vaccines are not available and the increasing drug resistance of the parasite prioritizes the need for novel drug targets and chemotherapeutics, which should be ideally designed to target selectively the parasite. In this sense, parasite-specific pathways, such as the vitamin biosyntheses, represent perfect drug-target characteristics because they are absent in humans. In the past, the vitamin B9 (folate) metabolism has been exploited by antifolates to treat infections caused by malaria parasites. Recently, two further vitamin biosynthesis pathways - for the vitamins B6 (pyridoxine) and B1 (thiamine) - have been identified in Plasmodium and analyzed for their suitability to discover new drugs. In this review, the current status of the druggability of plasmodial vitamin biosynthesis pathways is summarized.
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50
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Targeting lipid biosynthesis and salvage in apicomplexan parasites for improved chemotherapies. Nat Rev Microbiol 2013; 11:823-35. [DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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