Golgi-associated maturation of very low density lipoproteins involves conformational changes in apolipoprotein B, but is not dependent on apolipoprotein E

The fatty liver disease-causing protein PNPLA3-I148M alters lipid droplet-Golgi dynamics

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, recently renamed metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), is a progressive metabolic disorder that begins with aberrant triglyceride accumulation in the liver and can lead to cirrhosis and cancer. A common variant in the gene PNPLA3, encoding the protein PNPLA3-I148M, is the strongest known genetic risk factor for MASLD. Despite its discovery 20 y ago, the function of PNPLA3, and now the role of PNPLA3-I148M, remain unclear. In this study, we sought to dissect the biogenesis of PNPLA3 and PNPLA3-I148M and characterize changes induced by endogenous expression of the disease-causing variant. Contrary to bioinformatic predictions and prior studies with overexpressed proteins, we demonstrate here that PNPLA3 and PNPLA3-I148M are not endoplasmic reticulum-resident transmembrane proteins. To identify their intracellular associations, we generated a paired set of isogenic human hepatoma cells expressing PNPLA3 and PNPLA3-I148M at endogenous levels. Both proteins were enriched in lipid droplet, Golgi, and endosomal fractions. Purified PNPLA3 and PNPLA3-I148M proteins associated with phosphoinositides commonly found in these compartments. Despite a similar fractionation pattern as the wild-type variant, PNPLA3-I148M induced morphological changes in the Golgi apparatus, including increased lipid droplet-Golgi contact sites, which were also observed in I148M-expressing primary human patient hepatocytes. In addition to lipid droplet accumulation, PNPLA3-I148M expression caused significant proteomic and transcriptomic changes that resembled all stages of liver disease. Cumulatively, we validate an endogenous human cellular system for investigating PNPLA3-I148M biology and identify the Golgi apparatus as a central hub of PNPLA3-I148M-driven cellular change.

α-Tocopherol reduces VLDL secretion through modulation of intracellular ER-to-Golgi transport of VLDL

Avoiding hepatic steatosis is crucial for preventing liver dysfunction, and one mechanism by which this is accomplished is through synchronization of the rate of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) synthesis with its secretion. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-to-Golgi transport of nascent VLDL is the rate-limiting step in its secretion and is mediated by the VLDL transport vesicle (VTV). Recent in vivo studies have indicated that α-tocopherol (α-T) supplementation can reverse steatosis in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, but its effects on hepatic lipoprotein metabolism are poorly understood. Here, we investigated the impact of α-T on hepatic VLDL synthesis, secretion, and intracellular ER-to-Golgi VLDL trafficking using an in vitro model. Pulse-chase assays using [3H]-oleic acid and 100 µmol/L α-T demonstrated a disruption of early VLDL synthesis, resulting in enhanced apolipoprotein B-100 expression, decreased expression in markers for VTV budding, ER-to-Golgi VLDL transport, and reduced VLDL secretion. Additionally, an in vitro VTV budding assay indicated a significant decrease in VTV production and VTV-Golgi fusion. Confocal imaging of lipid droplet (LD) localization revealed a decrease in overall LD retention, diminished presence of ER-associated LDs, and an increase in Golgi-level LD retention. We conclude that α-T disrupts ER-to-Golgi VLDL transport by modulating the expression of specific proteins and thus reduces VLDL secretion.

The fatty liver disease-causing protein PNPLA3-I148M alters lipid droplet-Golgi dynamics

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), recently renamed metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), is a progressive metabolic disorder that begins with aberrant triglyceride accumulation in the liver and can lead to cirrhosis and cancer. A common variant in the gene PNPLA3, encoding the protein PNPLA3-I148M, is the strongest known genetic risk factor for MASLD to date. Despite its discovery twenty years ago, the function of PNPLA3, and now the role of PNPLA3-I148M, remain unclear. In this study, we sought to dissect the biogenesis of PNPLA3 and PNPLA3-I148M and characterize changes induced by endogenous expression of the disease-causing variant. Contrary to bioinformatic predictions and prior studies with overexpressed proteins, we demonstrate here that PNPLA3 and PNPLA3-I148M are not endoplasmic reticulum-resident transmembrane proteins. To identify their intracellular associations, we generated a paired set of isogenic human hepatoma cells expressing PNPLA3 and PNPLA3-I148M at endogenous levels. Both proteins were enriched in lipid droplet, Golgi, and endosomal fractions. Purified PNPLA3 and PNPLA3-I148M proteins associated with phosphoinositides commonly found in these compartments. Despite a similar fractionation pattern as the wild-type variant, PNPLA3-I148M induced morphological changes in the Golgi apparatus, including increased lipid droplet-Golgi contact sites, which were also observed in I148M-expressing primary human patient hepatocytes. In addition to lipid droplet accumulation, PNPLA3-I148M expression caused significant proteomic and transcriptomic changes that resembled all stages of liver disease. Cumulatively, we validate an endogenous human cellular system for investigating PNPLA3-I148M biology and identify the Golgi apparatus as a central hub of PNPLA3-I148M-driven cellular change.

Obstructive Sleep Apnoea and Lipid Metabolism: The Summary of Evidence and Future Perspectives in the Pathophysiology of OSA-Associated Dyslipidaemia

Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is associated with cardiovascular and metabolic comorbidities, including hypertension, dyslipidaemia, insulin resistance and atherosclerosis. Strong evidence suggests that OSA is associated with an altered lipid profile including elevated levels of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and decreased levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Intermittent hypoxia; sleep fragmentation; and consequential surges in the sympathetic activity, enhanced oxidative stress and systemic inflammation are the postulated mechanisms leading to metabolic alterations in OSA. Although the exact mechanisms of OSA-associated dyslipidaemia have not been fully elucidated, three main points have been found to be impaired: activated lipolysis in the adipose tissue, decreased lipid clearance from the circulation and accelerated de novo lipid synthesis. This is further complicated by the oxidisation of atherogenic lipoproteins, adipose tissue dysfunction, hormonal changes, and the reduced function of HDL particles in OSA. In this comprehensive review, we summarise and critically evaluate the current evidence about the possible mechanisms involved in OSA-associated dyslipidaemia.

The exchangeable apolipoproteins in lipid metabolism and obesity

Dyslipidemia, characterized by increased plasma levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C), triglyceride (TG), and reduced plasma levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), is confirmed as a hallmark of obesity and cardiovascular diseases (CVD), posing serious risks to the future health of humans. Thus, it is important to understand the molecular metabolism of dyslipidemia, which could help reduce the morbidity and mortality of obesity and CVD. Currently, several exchangeable apolipoproteins, such as apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1), apolipoprotein A5 (ApoA5), apolipoprotein E (ApoE), and apolipoprotein C3 (ApoC3), have been verified to exert vital effects on modulating lipid metabolism and homeostasis both in plasma and in cells, which consequently affect dyslipidemia. In the present review, we summarize the findings of the effect of exchangeable apolipoproteins on affecting lipid metabolism in adipocytes and hepatocytes. Furthermore, we also provide new insights into the mechanisms by which the exchangeable apolipoproteins influence the pathogenesis of dyslipidemia and its related cardio-metabolic disorders.

Differential Regulation of Lipoprotein and Hepatitis C Virus Secretion by Rab1b

Secretory cells produce diverse cargoes, yet how they regulate concomitant secretory traffic remains insufficiently explored. Rab GTPases control intracellular vesicular transport. To map secretion pathways, we generated a library of lentivirus-expressed dominant-negative Rab mutants and used it in a large-scale screen to identify regulators of hepatic lipoprotein secretion. We identified several candidate pathways, including those mediated by Rab11 and Rab8. Surprisingly, inhibition of Rab1b, the major regulator of transport from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi, differently affected the secretion of the very-low-density lipoprotein components ApoE and ApoB100, despite their final association on mature secreted lipoprotein particles. Since hepatitis C virus (HCV) incorporates ApoE and ApoB100 into its virus particle, we also investigated infectious HCV secretion and show that its regulation by Rab1b mirrors that of ApoB100. These observations reveal differential regulation of hepatocyte secretion by Rab1b and advance our understanding of lipoprotein assembly and lipoprotein and HCV secretion.

Reticulon 3 regulates very low density lipoprotein secretion by controlling very low density lipoprotein transport vesicle biogenesis

Secretion of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) by the liver is an important physiological process; however, the rate of VLDL secretion is determined by its transport from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the Golgi. This transport event is facilitated by a specialized ER-derived vesicle, the VLDL transport vesicle (VTV). We have reported earlier a detailed VTV proteome, which revealed that reticulon 3 (RTN3) is uniquely present in the VTV. Our immunoblotting and electron microscopic data demonstrate that RTN3 is enriched in the VTV; however, other ER-derived vesicles do not contain RTN3. Co-immunoprecipitation data coupled with confocal microscopic analyses strongly suggest that RTN3 interacts with VLDL core protein, apoB100, at the ER level. Our data show that either blocking of RTN3 using specific antibodies or RTN3 knockdown resulted in significant reduction in VTV biogenesis from hepatic ER membranes. Additionally, VLDL secretion from hepatocytes was significantly decreased when RTN3 was silenced by RTN3 siRNA. We conclude that RTN3 regulates VLDL secretion by controlling VTV-mediated ER-to-Golgi transport of nascent VLDL.

Can modulators of apolipoproteinB biogenesis serve as an alternate target for cholesterol-lowering drugs?

Understanding the molecular defects underlying cardiovascular disease is necessary for the development of therapeutics. The most common method to lower circulating lipids, which reduces the incidence of cardiovascular disease, is statins, but other drugs are now entering the clinic, some of which have been approved. Nevertheless, patients cannot tolerate some of these therapeutics, the drugs are costly, and/or the treatments are approved for only rare forms of disease. Efforts to find alternative treatments have focused on other factors, such as apolipoproteinB (apoB), which transports cholesterol in the blood stream. The levels of apoB are regulated by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) associated degradation as well as by a post ER degradation pathway in model systems, and we suggest that these events provide novel therapeutic targets. We discuss first how cardiovascular disease arises and how cholesterol is regulated, and then summarize the mechanisms of action of existing treatments for cardiovascular disease. We then review the apoB biosynthetic pathway, focusing on steps that might be amenable to therapeutic interventions.

Knockout of the Golgi stacking proteins GRASP55 and GRASP65 impairs Golgi structure and function

GRASP55 and GRASP65 were knocked out, and it was found that double knockout of GRASP proteins disperses the Golgi stack into single cisternae and tubulovesicular structures, accelerates protein trafficking, and impairs accurate glycosylation of proteins and lipids.

Golgi reassembly stacking protein of 65 kDa (GRASP65) and Golgi reassembly stacking protein of 55 kDa (GRASP55) were originally identified as Golgi stacking proteins; however, subsequent GRASP knockdown experiments yielded inconsistent results with respect to the Golgi structure, indicating a limitation of RNAi-based depletion. In this study, we have applied the recently developed clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 technology to knock out GRASP55 and GRASP65, individually or in combination, in HeLa and HEK293 cells. We show that double knockout of GRASP proteins disperses the Golgi stack into single cisternae and tubulovesicular structures, accelerates protein trafficking, and impairs accurate glycosylation of proteins and lipids. These results demonstrate a critical role for GRASPs in maintaining the stacked structure of the Golgi, which is required for accurate posttranslational modifications in the Golgi. Additionally, the GRASP knockout cell lines developed in this study will be useful tools for studying the role of GRASP proteins in other important cellular processes.

Green fluorescent protein-tagged apolipoprotein E: A useful marker for the study of hepatic lipoprotein egress

Apolipoprotein E (ApoE), a component of very-low-density and high-density lipoproteins, participates in many aspects of lipid transport in the bloodstream. Underscoring its important functions, ApoE isoforms have been associated with metabolic and circulatory disease. ApoE is also incorporated into hepatitis C virus (HCV) particles, and promotes their production and infectivity. Live cell imaging analysis of ApoE behavior during secretion from producing cells thus has the potential to reveal important details regarding lipoprotein and HCV particle biogenesis and secretion from cells. However, this approach requires expression of fluorescently tagged ApoE constructs that need to faithfully reproduce known ApoE behaviors. Herein, we evaluate the usefulness of using an ApoE-GFP fusion protein in studying hepatocyte-derived, ApoE-containing lipoproteins and HCV particles. We show that while ApoE-GFP alone is not sufficient to support infectious HCV production, it nonetheless colocalizes intracellularly and associates with secreted untagged lipoprotein components. Furthermore, its rate of secretion from hepatic cells is indistinguishable from that of untagged ApoE. ApoE-GFP thus represents a useful marker for ApoE-containing hepatic lipoproteins.

Silencing of Small Valosin-containing Protein-interacting Protein (SVIP) Reduces Very Low Density Lipoprotein (VLDL) Secretion from Rat Hepatocytes by Disrupting Its Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)-to-Golgi Trafficking

The transport of nascent very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) particles from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the Golgi determines their secretion by the liver and is mediated by a specialized ER-derived vesicle, the VLDL transport vesicle (VTV). Our previous studies have shown that the formation of ER-derived VTV requires proteins in addition to coat complex II proteins. The VTV proteome revealed that a 9-kDa protein, small valosin-containing protein-interacting protein (SVIP), is uniquely present in these specialized vesicles. Our biochemical and morphological data indicate that the VTV contains SVIP. Using confocal microscopy and co-immunoprecipitation assays, we show that SVIP co-localizes with apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB100) and specifically interacts with VLDL apoB100 and coat complex II proteins. Treatment of ER membranes with myristic acid in the presence of cytosol increases SVIP recruitment to the ER in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, we show that myristic acid treatment of hepatocytes increases both VTV budding and VLDL secretion. To determine the role of SVIP in VTV formation, we either blocked the SVIP protein using specific antibodies or silenced SVIP by siRNA in hepatocytes. Our results show that both blocking and silencing of SVIP lead to significant reduction in VTV formation. Additionally, we show that silencing of SVIP reduces VLDL secretion, suggesting a physiological role of SVIP in intracellular VLDL trafficking and secretion. We conclude that SVIP acts as a novel regulator of VTV formation by interacting with its cargo and coat proteins and has significant implications in VLDL secretion by hepatocytes.

Host restriction factors for hepatitis C virus

Host-hepatitis C virus (HCV) interactions have both informed fundamental concepts of viral replication and pathogenesis and provided novel insights into host cell biology. These findings are illustrated by the recent discovery of host-encoded factors that restrict HCV infection. In this review, we briefly discuss these restriction factors in different steps of HCV infection. In each case, we discuss how these restriction factors were identified, the mechanisms by which they inhibit HCV infection and their potential contribution to viral pathogenesis.

In Vitro Analysis of the Very-Low Density Lipoprotein Export from the Trans-Golgi Network

The movement of mature VLDL particles from the TGN to the plasma membrane (PM) is a complex physiological process that plays a critical role in hepatic lipid homeostasis. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating these intracellular transport events had not been studied until recently because of the lack of appropriate molecular assays and techniques. This unit provides a detailed description of cell-free approaches and techniques to study the TGN-to-PM transport of the mature VLDL at the molecular level. A major emphasis is placed on the preparation and purification of sub-cellular organelles because the success of in vitro assays for the vesicle formation and fusion depends on the quality of the isolated TGN, hepatic PM and hepatic cytosol. A number of critical factors that control the formation of mature VLDL-containing vesicle, the PG-VTV, from the TGN and their subsequent targeting to and fusion with the hepatic PM have been discussed.

Hepatitis C virus and lipid droplets: finding a niche

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) causes serious liver disease in chronically infected individuals. Infectious virions are released from hepatocytes as lipoprotein complexes, indicating that the virus interacts with very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) assembly to propagate. The primary source of lipid for incorporation into VLDL is cytoplasmic lipid droplets (LDs). This organelle is targeted by two virus-encoded proteins as part of a process essential for virion morphogenesis. Moreover, LDs regulate infection. A common condition in HCV-infected individuals is steatosis, characterized by an accumulation of LDs. The mechanisms underlying development of steatosis include direct effects of the virus on lipid metabolism. This review reveals new insights into HCV infection and a further twist to the growing list of functions performed by LDs.

Mature VLDL triggers the biogenesis of a distinct vesicle from the trans-Golgi network for its export to the plasma membrane

Post-Golgi trafficking of mature VLDL (very-low-density lipoprotein) is crucial in maintaining normal TAG (triacylglycerol) homoeostasis of hepatocytes; however, the mechanism that regulates the exit of mature VLDL from the TGN (trans-Golgi network) is not known. We developed an in vitro TGN-budding assay that allowed us to examine the formation of secretory vesicles from the TGN in primary rat hepatocytes. We isolated TAG-rich PG-VTVs (post-TGN VLDL transport vesicles) using a continuous sucrose density gradient. PG-VTVs were distributed in low-density fractions, whereas protein transport vesicles were present in relatively higher-density fractions of the same sucrose gradient. EM revealed large intact PG-VTVs ranging 300-350 nm in size. The biogenesis of PG-VTVs from the TGN required cytosol, ATP, GTP hydrolysis and incubation at 37°C. PG-VTVs concentrated the VLDL proteins: apolipoproteins apoB100, apoAIV, apoAI and apoE, but did not contain either albumin or transferrin. Proteinase K treatment did not degrade VLDL core proteins, suggesting that PG-VTVs were sealed. PG-VTVs were able to fuse with and deliver VLDL to the PM (plasma membrane) in a vectorial manner. We conclude that we have identified a new TGN-derived vesicle, the PG-VTV, which specifically transports mature VLDL from the TGN to the PM.

Apolipoprotein B100 quality control and the regulation of hepatic very low density lipoprotein secretion

Apolipoprotein B (apoB) is the main protein component of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) and is necessary for the assembly and secretion of these triglyceride (TG)-rich particles. Following release from the liver, VLDL is converted to low density lipoprotein (LDL) in the plasma and increased production of VLDL can therefore play a detrimental role in cardiovascular disease. Increasing evidence has helped to establish VLDL assembly as a target for the treatment of dyslipidemias. Multiple factors are involved in the folding of the apoB protein and the formation of a secretion-competent VLDL particle. Failed VLDL assembly can initiate quality control mechanisms in the hepatocyte that target apoB for degradation. ApoB is a substrate for endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation (ERAD) by the ubiquitin proteasome system and for autophagy. Efficient targeting and disposal of apoB is a regulated process that modulates VLDL secretion and partitioning of TG. Emerging evidence suggests that significant overlap exists between these degradative pathways. For example, the insulin-mediated targeting of apoB to autophagy and postprandial activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR) may employ the same cellular machinery and regulatory cues. Changes in the quality control mechanisms for apoB impact hepatic physiology and pathology states, including insulin resistance and fatty liver. Insulin signaling, lipid metabolism and the hepatic UPR may impact VLDL production, particularly during the postprandial state. In this review we summarize our current understanding of VLDL assembly, apoB degradation, quality control mechanisms and the role of these processes in liver physiology and in pathologic states.

A regulator of secretory vesicle size, Kelch-like protein 12, facilitates the secretion of apolipoprotein B100 and very-low-density lipoproteins--brief report

OBJECTIVE

One of the major risk factors for atherosclerosis is the plasma level of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), which is a product of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL). Hepatic apolipoprotein B100 (apoB100) is the essential component that provides structural stability to VLDL particles. Newly translated apoB100 is partially lipidated in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), forming nascent apoB100-VLDL particles. These particles are further modified to form fully mature VLDLs in the Golgi apparatus. Therefore, the transport of nascent VLDL from the ER to the Golgi represents a critical step during VLDL maturation and secretion and in regulating serum LDL cholesterol levels. Our previous studies showed that apoB100 exits the ER in coat complex II vesicles (COPII), but the cohort of related factors that control trafficking is poorly defined.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Expression levels of Kelch-like protein 12 (KLHL12), an adaptor protein known to assist COPII-dependent transport of procollagen, were manipulated by using a KLHL12-specific small interfering RNA and a KLHL12 expression plasmid in the rat hepatoma cell line, McArdle RH7777. KLHL12 knockdown decreased the secreted and intracellular pools of apoB100, an effect that was attenuated in the presence of an autophagy inhibitor. KLHL12 knockdown also significantly reduced secretion of the most lipidated apoB100-VLDL species and led to the accumulation of apoB100 in the ER. Consistent with these data, KLHL12 overexpression increased apoB100 recovery and apoB100-VLDL secretion. Images obtained from confocal microscopy revealed colocalization of apoB100 and KLHL12, further supporting a direct link between KLHL12 function and VLDL trafficking from the ER.

CONCLUSIONS

KLHL12 plays a critical role in facilitating the ER exit and secretion of apoB100-VLDL particles, suggesting that KLHL12 modulation would influence plasma lipid levels.

Docosahexaenoic acid impairs the maturation of very low density lipoproteins in rat hepatic cells

One mechanism of the lipid-lowering effects of the fish oil n-3 fatty acids [e.g., docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)] in cell and animal models is induced hepatic apolipoprotein B100 (apoB) presecretory degradation. This degradation occurs post-endoplasmic reticulum, but whether DHA induces it before or after intracellular VLDL formation remains unanswered. We found in McA-RH7777 rat hepatic cells that DHA and oleic acid (OA) treatments allowed formation of pre-VLDL particles and their transport to the Golgi, but, in contrast to OA, with DHA pre-VLDL particles failed to quantitatively assemble into fully lipidated (mature) VLDL. This failure required lipid peroxidation and was accompanied by the formation of apoB aggregates (known to be degraded by autophagy). Preventing the exit of proteins from the Golgi blocked the aggregation of apoB but did not restore VLDL maturation, indicating that failure to fully lipidate apoB preceded its aggregation. ApoB autophagic degradation did not appear to require an intermediate step of cytosolic aggresome formation. Taken with other examples in the literature, the results of this study suggest that pre-VLDL particles that are competent to escape endoplasmic reticulum quality control mechanisms but fail to mature in the Golgi remain subject to quality control surveillance late in the secretory pathway.

Virion assembly and release

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) particles exhibit several unusual properties that are not found in other enveloped RNA viruses, most notably their low buoyant density and interaction with serum lipoproteins. With the advent of systems to grow HCV in cell culture, the molecular basis of HCV particle assembly and release can now be addressed. The process of virus assembly involves protein-protein interactions between viral structural and nonstructural proteins and the coordinated action of host factors. This chapter reviews our current understanding of these interactions and factors.

Insulin-dependent apolipoprotein B degradation is mediated by autophagy and involves class I and class III phosphatidylinositide 3-kinases

Insulin acutely stimulates the degradation of apolipoprotein B (apo B) which decreases very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) secretion by liver. Insulin-dependent apo B degradation (IDAD) occurs following phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) activation and involves lysosomal degradation. Insulin suppression of apo B secretion is blocked by over-expression of phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN) in McArdle RH7777 (McA) cells suggesting the importance of Class I PI3K generated PI (3,4,5) triphosphate (PIP3) in IDAD. Classical autophagy inhibitors including 3-methyladenine, L-asparagine and bafilomycin A1 also blocked the ability of insulin to suppress apo B secretion by rat hepatocytes (RH) suggesting that IDAD occurs through an autophagy-related mechanism. IDAD is also blocked following over-expression in McA cells of a dominant negative kinase-defective Vps34, a class III PI3K that generates PI 3-monophosphate required for autophagy. Vps34 inhibition of IDAD occurs without altering insulin-dependent S473 phosphorylation of Akt indicating PI3K/PIP3/Akt signaling is intact. Cellular p62/SQSTM1, an inverse indicator of autophagy, is increased with insulin treatment consistent with the known ability of insulin to inhibit autophagy, and therefore the role of insulin in utilizing components of autophagy for apo B degradation is unexpected. Thapsigargan, an inducer of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and a recently demonstrated autophagy inhibitor, blocked apo B secretion which contrasted with other autophagy inhibitors and mutant Vps34 results which were permissive with respect to apo B secretion. Pulse chase studies indicated that intact B100 and B48 proteins were retained in cells treated with thapsigargan consistent with their accumulation in autophagosomal vacuoles. Differences between IDAD and ER stress-coupled autophagy mediated by thapsgargin suggest that IDAD involves an unique form of autophagy. Insulin action resulting in hepatic apo B degradation is novel and important in understanding regulation of hepatic VLDL metabolism.

CideB protein is required for the biogenesis of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) transport vesicle

Nascent very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) exits the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in a specialized ER-derived vesicle, the VLDL transport vesicle (VTV). Similar to protein transport vesicles (PTVs), VTVs require coat complex II (COPII) proteins for their biogenesis from the ER membranes. Because the size of the VTV is large, we hypothesized that protein(s) in addition to COPII components might be required for VTV biogenesis. Our proteomic analysis, supported by Western blotting data, shows that a 26-kDa protein, CideB, is present in the VTV but not in other ER-derived vesicles such as PTV and pre-chylomicron transport vesicle. Western blotting and immunoelectron microscopy analyses suggest that CideB is concentrated in the VTV. Our co-immunoprecipitation data revealed that CideB specifically interacts with VLDL structural protein, apolipoprotein B100 (apoB100), but not with albumin, a PTV cargo protein. Confocal microscopic data indicate that CideB co-localizes with apoB100 in the ER. Additionally, CideB interacts with COPII components, Sar1 and Sec24. To investigate the role of CideB in VTV biogenesis, we performed an in vitro ER budding assay. We show that the blocking of CideB inhibits VTV budding, indicating a direct requirement of CideB in VTV formation. To confirm our findings, we knocked down CideB in primary hepatocytes and isolated ER and cytosol to examine whether they support VTV budding. Our data suggest that CideB knockdown significantly reduces VTV biogenesis. These findings suggest that CideB forms an intricate COPII coat and regulates the VTV biogenesis.

Lipoprotein metabolism in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), an escalating health problem worldwide, covers a spectrum of pathologies characterized by fatty accumulation in hepatocytes in early stages, with potential progression to liver inflammation, fibrosis, and failure. A close, yet poorly understood link exists between NAFLD and dyslipidemia, a constellation of abnormalities in plasma lipoproteins including triglyceride-rich very low density lipoproteins. Apolipoproteins are a group of primarily liver-derived proteins found in serum lipoproteins; they not only play an extracellular role in lipid transport between vital organs through circulation, but also play an important intracellular role in hepatic lipoprotein assembly and secretion. The liver functions as the central hub for lipoprotein metabolism, as it dictates lipoprotein production and to a significant extent modulates lipoprotein clearance. Lipoprotein metabolism is an integral component of hepatocellular lipid homeostasis and is implicated in the pathogenesis, potential diagnosis, and treatment of NAFLD.

Phosphoinositides in the hepatitis C virus life cycle

Eukaryotes possess seven different phosphoinositides (PIPs) that help form the unique signatures of various intracellular membranes. PIPs serve as docking sites for the recruitment of specific proteins to mediate membrane alterations and integrate various signaling cascades. The spatio-temporal regulation of PI kinases and phosphatases generates distinct intracellular hubs of PIP signaling. Hepatitis C virus (HCV), like other plus-strand RNA viruses, promotes the rearrangement of intracellular membranes to assemble viral replication complexes. HCV stimulates enrichment of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) pools near endoplasmic reticulum (ER) sites by activating PI4KIIIα, the kinase responsible for generation of ER-specific PI4P pools. Inhibition of PI4KIIIα abrogates HCV replication. PI4P, the most abundant phosphoinositide, predominantly localizes to the Golgi and plays central roles in Golgi secretory functions by recruiting effector proteins involved in transport vesicle generation. The PI4P effector proteins also include the lipid-transfer and structural proteins such as ceramide transfer protein (CERT), oxysterol binding protein (OSBP) and Golgi phosphoprotein 3 (GOLPH3) that help maintain Golgi-membrane composition and structure. Depletion of Golgi-specific PI4P pools by silencing PI4KIIIβ, expression of dominant negative CERT and OSBP mutants, or silencing GOLPH3 perturb HCV secretion. In this review we highlight the role of PIPs and specifically PI4P in the HCV life cycle.

Proteomic analysis of the very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) transport vesicles

The VLDL transport vesicle (VTV) mediates the transport of nascent VLDL particles from the ER to the Golgi and plays a key role in VLDL-secretion from the liver. The functionality of VTV is controlled by specific proteins; however, full characterization and proteomic profiling of VTV remain to be carried out. Here, we report the first proteomic profile of VTVs. VTVs were purified to their homogeneity and characterized biochemically and morphologically. Thin section transmission electron microscopy suggests that the size of VTV ranges between 100 nm to 120 nm and each vesicle contains only one VLDL particle. Immunoblotting data indicate VTV concentrate apoB100, apoB48 and apoAIV but exclude apoAI. Proteomic analysis based on 2D-gel coupled with MALDI-TOF identified a number of vesicle-related proteins, however, many important VTV proteins could only be identified using LC-MS/MS methodology. Our data strongly indicate that VTVs greatly differ in their proteome with their counterparts of intestinal origin, the PCTVs. For example, VTV contains Sec22b, SVIP, ApoC-I, reticulon 3, cideB, LPCAT3 etc. which are not present in PCTV. The VTV proteome reported here will provide a basic tool to study the mechanisms underlying VLDL biogenesis, maturation, intracellular trafficking and secretion from the liver.

Intrahepatic role of exchangeable apolipoproteins in lipoprotein assembly and secretion

Exchangeable apolipoproteins, composed mainly of amphipathic α-helices, are associated with various plasma lipoproteins and play an important role in the metabolism of those lipoproteins to which they bind. Accumulating experimental evidence suggests that exchangeable apolipoproteins, such as apoE, apoA-IV, and apoC-III, also play a role intracellularly in facilitating lipid recruitment at different stages of very low-density lipoprotein assembly and trafficking through the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi secretory compartments. Experimental evidence also suggests that apoA-I may become lipidated intracellularly through mechanisms dependent on or independent of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1. Thus, expression of these secretory proteins may exert an impact on hepatic triglyceride and cholesterol homeostasis during their transit from the endoplasmic reticulum through the Golgi apparatus. This review summarizes findings related to the modulation of intracellular assembly of very low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein by exchangeable apolipoproteins.

Intracellular trafficking and secretion of VLDL

Steady increase in the incidence of atherosclerosis is becoming a major concern not only in the United States but also in other countries. One of the major risk factors for the development of atherosclerosis is high concentrations of plasma low-density lipoprotein, which are metabolic products of very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL). VLDLs are synthesized and secreted by the liver. In this review, we discuss various stages through which VLDL particles go from their biogenesis to secretion in the circulatory system. Once VLDLs are synthesized in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum, they are transported to the Golgi. The transport of nascent VLDLs from the endoplasmic reticulum to Golgi is a complex multistep process, which is mediated by a specialized transport vesicle, the VLDL transport vesicle. The VLDL transport vesicle delivers VLDLs to the cis-Golgi lumen where nascent VLDLs undergo a number of essential modifications. The mature VLDL particles are then transported to the plasma membrane and secreted in the circulatory system. Understanding of molecular mechanisms and identification of factors regulating the complex intracellular VLDL trafficking will provide insight into the pathophysiology of various metabolic disorders associated with abnormal VLDL secretion and identify potential new therapeutic targets.

Lumenal lipid metabolism: implications for lipoprotein assembly

Overproduction of apolipoprotein B (apoB)-containing lipoproteins by the liver and the intestine is 1 of the hallmarks of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes and a well-established risk factor of cardiovascular disease. The assembly of apoB lipoproteins is regulated by the availability of lipids that form the neutral lipid core (triacylglycerol and cholesteryl ester) and the limiting lipoprotein monolayer (phospholipids and cholesterol). Although tremendous advances have been made over the past decade toward understanding neutral lipid and phospholipid biosynthesis and neutral lipid storage in cytosolic lipid droplets (LDs), little is known about the mechanisms that govern the transfer of lipids to the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum for apoB lipidation. ApoB-synthesizing organs can deposit synthesized neutral lipids into at least 3 different types of LDs, each decorated with a subset of specific proteins: perilipin-decorated cytosolic LDs, and 2 types of LDs formed in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum, the secretion-destined LDs containing apoB, and resident lumenal LDs coated with microsomal triglyceride transfer protein and exchangeable apolipoproteins. This brief review will address the current knowledge of lumenal lipid metabolism in the context of apoB assembly and lipid storage.

Role of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) and its binding protein GOLPH3 in hepatitis C virus secretion

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA replicates within the ribonucleoprotein complex, assembled on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-derived membranous structures closely juxtaposed to the lipid droplets that facilitate the post-replicative events of virion assembly and maturation. It is widely believed that the assembled virions piggy-back onto the very low density lipoprotein particles for secretion. Lipid phosphoinositides are important modulators of intracellular trafficking. Golgi-localized phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) recruits proteins involved in Golgi trafficking to the Golgi membrane and promotes anterograde transport of secretory proteins. Here, we sought to investigate the role of Golgi-localized PI4P in the HCV secretion process. Depletion of the Golgi-specific PI4P pool by Golgi-targeted PI4P phosphatase hSac1 K2A led to significant reduction in HCV secretion without any effect on replication. We then examined the functional role of a newly identified PI4P binding protein GOLPH3 in the viral secretion process. GOLPH3 is shown to maintain a tensile force on the Golgi, required for vesicle budding via its interaction with an unconventional myosin, MYO18A. Silencing GOLPH3 led to a dramatic reduction in HCV virion secretion, as did the silencing of MYO18A. The reduction in virion secretion was accompanied by a concomitant accumulation of intracellular virions, suggesting a stall in virion egress. HCV-infected cells displayed a fragmented and dispersed Golgi pattern, implicating involvement in virion morphogenesis. These studies establish the role of PI4P and its interacting protein GOLPH3 in HCV secretion and strengthen the significance of the Golgi secretory pathway in this process.

Opposing roles of cell death-inducing DFF45-like effector B and perilipin 2 in controlling hepatic VLDL lipidation

Regulation of hepatic very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) assembly and maturation is crucial in controlling lipid homeostasis and in the development of metabolic disorders, including obesity, hepatic steatosis, and insulin resistance. Cideb, a member of cell death-inducing DFF45-like effector (CIDE) protein family, has been previously shown to promote VLDL lipidation and maturation. However, the precise subcellular location of Cideb-mediated VLDL lipidation and the factors modulating its activity remain elusive. In addition to its localization to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and lipid droplets (LD), we observed that Cideb was also localized to the Golgi apparatus. Mature and lipid-rich VLDL particles did not accumulate in the Golgi apparatus in Cideb(-/-) livers. Interestingly, we observed that hepatic perilipin 2/adipose differentiation-related protein (ADRP) levels were markedly increased in Cideb(-/-) mice. Liver-specific knockdown of perilipin 2 in Cideb(-/-) mice resulted in the reduced accumulation of hepatic triglycerides (TAG), increased VLDL-TAG secretion, and the accumulation of mature TAG-rich VLDL in the Golgi apparatus. These data reveal that Cideb and perilipin 2 play opposing roles in controlling VLDL lipidation and hepatic lipid homeostasis.

Hepatic ABCA1 and VLDL triglyceride production

Elevated plasma triglyceride (TG) and reduced high density lipoprotein (HDL) concentrations are prominent features of metabolic syndrome (MS) and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Individuals with Tangier disease also have elevated plasma TG concentrations and a near absence of HDL, resulting from mutations in ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1), which facilitates the efflux of cellular phospholipid and free cholesterol to assemble with apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I), forming nascent HDL particles. In this review, we summarize studies focused on the regulation of hepatic very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) TG production, with particular attention on recent evidence connecting hepatic ABCA1 expression to VLDL, LDL, and HDL metabolism. Silencing ABCA1 in McArdle rat hepatoma cells results in diminished assembly of large (>10nm) nascent HDL particles, diminished PI3 kinase activation, and increased secretion of large, TG-enriched VLDL1 particles. Hepatocyte-specific ABCA1 knockout (HSKO) mice have a similar plasma lipid phenotype as Tangier disease subjects, with a two-fold elevation of plasma VLDL TG, 50% lower LDL, and 80% reduction in HDL concentrations. This lipid phenotype arises from increased hepatic secretion of VLDL1 particles, increased hepatic uptake of plasma LDL by the LDL receptor, elimination of nascent HDL particle assembly by the liver, and hypercatabolism of apoA-I by the kidney. These studies highlight a novel role for hepatic ABCA1 in the metabolism of all three major classes of plasma lipoproteins and provide a metabolic link between elevated TG and reduced HDL levels that are a common feature of Tangier disease, MS, and T2D. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Triglyceride Metabolism and Disease.

ApoA-IV modulates the secretory trafficking of apoB and the size of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins

Although the evidence linking apoA-IV expression and triglyceride (TG)-rich lipoprotein assembly and secretion is compelling, the intracellular mechanisms by which apoA-IV could modulate these processes remain poorly understood. We therefore examined the functional impact of apoA-IV expression on endogenous apoB, TG, and VLDL secretion in stably transfected McA-RH7777 rat hepatoma cells. Expression of apoA-IV modified with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention signal KDEL (apoA-IV-KDEL) dramatically decreased both the rate and efficiency of endogenous apoB secretion, suggesting a presecretory interaction between apoA-IV-KDEL and apoB or apoB-containing lipoproteins. Expression of native apoA-IV using either a constitutive or tetracycline-inducible promoter delayed the initial rate of apoB secretion and reduced the final secretion efficiency by ∼40%. However, whereas apoA-IV-KDEL reduced TG secretion by 75%, expression of native apoA-IV caused a 20-35% increase in TG secretion, accompanied by a ∼55% increase in VLDL-associated apoB, an increase in the TG:phospholipid ratio of secreted d < 1.006 lipoproteins, and a 10.1 nm increase in peak VLDL(1) particle diameter. Native apoA-IV expression had a negligible impact on expression of the MTP gene. These data suggest that by interacting with apoB in the secretory pathway, apoA-IV alters the trafficking kinetics of apoB-containing TG-rich lipoproteins through cellular lipidation compartments, which in turn, enhances particle expansion and increases TG secretion.

Molecular determinants and dynamics of hepatitis C virus secretion

The current model of hepatitis C virus (HCV) production involves the assembly of virions on or near the surface of lipid droplets, envelopment at the ER in association with components of VLDL synthesis, and egress via the secretory pathway. However, the cellular requirements for and a mechanistic understanding of HCV secretion are incomplete at best. We combined an RNA interference (RNAi) analysis of host factors for infectious HCV secretion with the development of live cell imaging of HCV core trafficking to gain a detailed understanding of HCV egress. RNAi studies identified multiple components of the secretory pathway, including ER to Golgi trafficking, lipid and protein kinases that regulate budding from the trans-Golgi network (TGN), VAMP1 vesicles and adaptor proteins, and the recycling endosome. Our results support a model wherein HCV is infectious upon envelopment at the ER and exits the cell via the secretory pathway. We next constructed infectious HCV with a tetracysteine (TC) tag insertion in core (TC-core) to monitor the dynamics of HCV core trafficking in association with its cellular cofactors. In order to isolate core protein movements associated with infectious HCV secretion, only trafficking events that required the essential HCV assembly factor NS2 were quantified. TC-core traffics to the cell periphery along microtubules and this movement can be inhibited by nocodazole. Sub-populations of TC-core localize to the Golgi and co-traffic with components of the recycling endosome. Silencing of the recycling endosome component Rab11a results in the accumulation of HCV core at the Golgi. The majority of dynamic core traffics in association with apolipoprotein E (ApoE) and VAMP1 vesicles. This study identifies many new host cofactors of HCV egress, while presenting dynamic studies of HCV core trafficking in infected cells.

The current model of HCV egress is that virions assemble at lipid droplets, envelope at the ER and then likely exit the hepatocyte via the secretory pathway in association with apolipoproteins. To gain a more detailed insight into infectious HCV release, we combined an RNAi analysis of host factors that are required for infectious HCV secretion with live cell imaging of HCV core trafficking. Using this approach, we identified numerous components of the secretory pathway that are both required for infectious HCV release and co-traffic with HCV core. The dynamics of HCV core trafficking, both in terms of frequency of transport, particle velocity, and the corresponding run lengths were quantified. We observe that dynamic core movements in the periphery require NS2, a viral protein required for virion assembly. Core co-traffics with multiple components of the secretory pathway, including the Golgi, recycling endosome, microtubules, VAMP1 secretory vesicles, and ApoE. This study identifies new molecular determinants of HCV secretion and describes the dynamics of their movements with HCV core in real time.

Protein disulfide isomerases contribute differentially to the endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation of apolipoprotein B and other substrates

ER-associated degradation (ERAD) rids the early secretory pathway of misfolded or misprocessed proteins. Some members of the protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) family appear to facilitate ERAD substrate selection and retrotranslocation, but a thorough characterization of PDIs during the degradation of diverse substrates has not been undertaken, in part because there are 20 PDI family members in mammals. PDIs can also exhibit disulfide redox, isomerization, and/or chaperone activity, but which of these activities is required for the ERAD of different substrate classes is unknown. We therefore examined the fates of unique substrates in yeast, which expresses five PDIs. Through the use of a yeast expression system for apolipoprotein B (ApoB), which is disulfide rich, we discovered that Pdi1 interacts with ApoB and facilitates degradation through its chaperone activity. In contrast, Pdi1's redox activity was required for the ERAD of CPY* (a misfolded version of carboxypeptidase Y that has five disulfide bonds). The ERAD of another substrate, the alpha subunit of the epithelial sodium channel, was Pdi1 independent. Distinct effects of mammalian PDI homologues on ApoB degradation were then observed in hepatic cells. These data indicate that PDIs contribute to the ERAD of proteins through different mechanisms and that PDI diversity is critical to recognize the spectrum of potential ERAD substrates.

Mechanisms and genetic determinants regulating sterol absorption, circulating LDL levels, and sterol elimination: implications for classification and disease risk

This review integrates historical biochemical and modern genetic findings that underpin our understanding of the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) dyslipidemias that bear on human disease. These range from life-threatening conditions of infancy through severe coronary heart disease of young adulthood, to indolent disorders of middle- and old-age. We particularly focus on the biological aspects of those gene mutations and variants that impact on sterol absorption and hepatobiliary excretion via specific membrane transporter systems (NPC1L1, ABCG5/8); the incorporation of dietary sterols (MTP) and of de novo synthesized lipids (HMGCR, TRIB1) into apoB-containing lipoproteins (APOB) and their release into the circulation (ANGPTL3, SARA2, SORT1); and receptor-mediated uptake of LDL and of intestinal and hepatic-derived lipoprotein remnants (LDLR, APOB, APOE, LDLRAP1, PCSK9, IDOL). The insights gained from integrating the wealth of genetic data with biological processes have important implications for the classification of clinical and presymptomatic diagnoses of traditional LDL dyslipidemias, sitosterolemia, and newly emerging phenotypes, as well as their management through both nutritional and pharmaceutical means.

Ubiquitination regulates the assembly of VLDL in HepG2 cells and is the committing step of the apoB-100 ERAD pathway

Apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB-100) is degraded by endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD) when lipid availability limits assembly of VLDLs. The ubiquitin ligase gp78 and the AAA-ATPase p97 have been implicated in the proteasomal degradation of apoB-100. To study the relationship between ERAD and VLDL assembly, we used small interfering RNA (siRNA) to reduce gp78 expression in HepG2 cells. Reduction of gp78 decreased apoB-100 ubiquitination and cytosolic apoB-ubiquitin conjugates. Radiolabeling studies revealed that gp78 knockdown increased secretion of newly synthesized apoB-100 and, unexpectedly, enhanced VLDL assembly, as the shift in apoB-100 density in gp78-reduced cells was accompanied by increased triacylglycerol (TG) secretion. To explore the mechanisms by which gp78 reduction might enhance VLDL assembly, we compared the effects of gp78 knockdown with those of U0126, a mitogen-activated protein kinase/ERK kinase1/2 inhibitor that enhances apoB-100 secretion in HepG2 cells. U0126 treatment increased secretion of both apoB100 and TG and decreased the ubiquitination and cellular accumu-lation of apoB-100. Furthermore, p97 knockdown caused apoB-100 to accumulate in the cell, but if gp78 was concomitantly reduced or assembly was enhanced by U0126 treatment, cellular apoB-100 returned toward baseline. This indicates that ubiquitination commits apoB-100 to p97-mediated retrotranslocation during ERAD. Thus, decreasing ubiquitination of apoB-100 enhances VLDL assembly, whereas improving apoB-100 lipidation decreases its ubiquitination, suggesting that ubiquitination has a regulatory role in VLDL assembly.

Protein kinase D negatively regulates hepatitis C virus secretion through phosphorylation of oxysterol-binding protein and ceramide transfer protein

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA replicates its genome on specialized endoplasmic reticulum modified membranes termed membranous web and utilizes lipid droplets for initiating the viral nucleocapsid assembly. HCV maturation and/or the egress pathway requires host sphingolipid synthesis, which occur in the Golgi. Ceramide transfer protein (CERT) and oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP) play a crucial role in sphingolipid biosynthesis. Protein kinase D (PKD), a serine/threonine kinase, is recruited to the trans-Golgi network where it influences vesicular trafficking to the plasma membrane by regulation of several important mediators via phosphorylation. PKD attenuates the function of both CERT and OSBP by phosphorylation at their respective Ser(132) and Ser(240) residues (phosphorylation inhibition). Here, we investigated the functional role of PKD in HCV secretion. Our studies show that HCV gene expression down-regulated PKD activation. PKD depletion by shRNA or inhibition by pharmacological inhibitor Gö6976 enhanced HCV secretion. Overexpression of a constitutively active form of PKD suppressed HCV secretion. The suppression by PKD was subverted by the ectopic expression of nonphosphorylatable serine mutant CERT S132A or OSBP S240A. These observations imply that PKD negatively regulates HCV secretion/release by attenuating OSBP and CERT functions by phosphorylation inhibition. This study identifies the key role of the Golgi components in the HCV maturation process.

A novel role for ABCA1-generated large pre-beta migrating nascent HDL in the regulation of hepatic VLDL triglyceride secretion

In Tangier disease, absence of ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) results in reduced plasma HDL and elevated triglyceride (TG) levels. We hypothesized that hepatocyte ABCA1 regulates VLDL TG secretion through nascent HDL production. Silencing of ABCA1 expression in oleate-stimulated rat hepatoma cells resulted in: 1) decreased large nascent HDL (>10 nm diameter) and increased small nascent HDL (<10 nm) formation, 2) increased large buoyant VLDL1 particle secretion, and 3) decreased phosphatidylinositol-3 (PI3) kinase activation. Nascent HDL-containing conditioned medium from rat hepatoma cells or HEK293 cells transfected with ABCA1 was effective in increasing PI3 kinase activation and reducing VLDL TG secretion in ABCA1-silenced hepatoma cells. Addition of isolated large nascent HDL particles to ABCA1-silenced hepatoma cells inhibited VLDL TG secretion to a greater extent than small nascent HDL. Similarly, addition of recombinant HDL, but not human plasma HDL, was effective in attenuating TG secretion and increasing PI3 kinase activation in ABCA1-silenced cells. Collectively, these data suggest that large nascent HDL particles, assembled by hepatic ABCA1, generate a PI3 kinase-mediated autocrine signal that attenuates VLDL maturation and TG secretion. This pathway may explain the elevated plasma TG concentration that occurs in most Tangier subjects and may also account, in part, for the inverse relationship between plasma HDL and TG concentrations in individuals with compromised ABCA1 function.

The identification of the SNARE complex required for the fusion of VLDL-transport vesicle with hepatic cis-Golgi

VLDLs (very-low-density lipoproteins) are synthesized in the liver and play an important role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Following their biogenesis in hepatic ER (endoplasmic reticulum), nascent VLDLs are exported to the Golgi which is a physiologically regulatable event. We have previously shown that a unique ER-derived vesicle, the VTV (VLDL-transport vesicle), mediates the targeted delivery of VLDL to the Golgi lumen. Because VTVs are different from other ER-derived transport vesicles in their morphology and biochemical composition, we speculated that a distinct set of SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor-attachment protein receptor) proteins would form a SNARE complex which would eventually facilitate the docking/fusion of VTVs with Golgi. Our results show that Sec22b is concentrated in VTVs as compared with the ER. Electron microscopic results show that Sec22b co-localizes with p58 and Sar1 on the VTV surface. Pre-treatment of VTV with antibodies against Sec22b inhibited VTV-Golgi fusion, indicating its role as a v-SNARE (vesicle SNARE). To isolate the SNARE complex, we developed an in vitro docking assay in which VTVs were allowed to dock with the Golgi, but fusion was prevented to stabilize the SNARE complex. After the docking reaction, VTV-Golgi complexes were collected, solubilized in 2% Triton X-100 and the SNARE complex was co-immunoprecipitated using anti-Sec22b or GOS28 antibodies. A approximately 110 kDa complex was identified in non-boiled samples that was dissociated upon boiling. The components of the complex were identified as Sec22b, syntaxin 5, rBet1 and GOS28. Antibodies against each SNARE component significantly inhibited VTV-Golgi fusion. We conclude that the SNARE complex required for VTV-Golgi fusion is composed of Sec22b, syntaxin 5, rBet1 and GOS28.

Recent progress in understanding protein and lipid factors affecting hepatic VLDL assembly and secretion

Excess lipid induced metabolic disorders are one of the major existing challenges for the society. Among many different causes of lipid disorders, overproduction and compromised catabolism of triacylglycerol-rich very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) have become increasingly prevalent leading to hyperlipidemia worldwide. This review provides the latest understanding in different aspects of VLDL assembly process, including structure-function relationships within apoB, mutations in APOB causing hypobetalipoproteinemia, significance of modulating microsomal triglyceride-transfer protein activity in VLDL assembly, alterations of VLDL assembly by different fatty acid species, and hepatic proteins involved in vesicular trafficking, and cytosolic lipid droplet metabolism that contribute to VLDL assembly. The role of lipoprotein receptors and exchangeable apolipoproteins that promote or diminish VLDL assembly and secretion is discussed. New understanding on dysregulated insulin signaling as a consequence of excessive triacylglycerol-rich VLDL in the plasma is also presented. It is hoped that a comprehensive view of protein and lipid factors that contribute to molecular and cellular events associated with VLDL assembly and secretion will assist in the identification of pharmaceutical targets to reduce disease complications related to hyperlipidemia.

Targeted deletion of hepatocyte ABCA1 leads to very low density lipoprotein triglyceride overproduction and low density lipoprotein hypercatabolism

Loss of ABCA1 activity in Tangier disease (TD) is associated with abnormal apoB lipoprotein (Lp) metabolism in addition to the complete absence of high density lipoprotein (HDL). We used hepatocyte-specific ABCA1 knock-out (HSKO) mice to test the hypothesis that hepatic ABCA1 plays dual roles in regulating Lp metabolism and nascent HDL formation. HSKO mice recapitulated the TD lipid phenotype with postprandial hypertriglyceridemia, markedly decreased LDL, and near absence of HDL. Triglyceride (TG) secretion was 2-fold higher in HSKO compared with wild type mice, primarily due to secretion of larger TG-enriched VLDL secondary to reduced hepatic phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling. HSKO mice also displayed delayed clearance of postprandial TG and reduced post-heparin plasma lipolytic activity. In addition, hepatic LDLr expression and plasma LDL catabolism were increased 2-fold in HSKO compared with wild type mice. Last, adenoviral repletion of hepatic ABCA1 in HSKO mice normalized plasma VLDL TG and hepatic phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling, with a partial recovery of HDL cholesterol levels, providing evidence that hepatic ABCA1 is involved in the reciprocal regulation of apoB Lp production and HDL formation. These findings suggest that altered apoB Lp metabolism in TD subjects may result from hepatic VLDL TG overproduction and increased hepatic LDLr expression and highlight hepatic ABCA1 as an important regulatory factor for apoB-containing Lp metabolism.

Functional analysis of the missense APOC3 mutation Ala23Thr associated with human hypotriglyceridemia

We have shown that expression of apolipoprotein (apo) C-III promotes VLDL secretion from transfected McA-RH7777 cells under lipid-rich conditions. To determine structural elements within apoC-III that confer to this function, we contrasted wild-type apoC-III with a mutant Ala23Thr originally identified in hypotriglyceridemia subjects. Although synthesis of [(3)H]glycerol-labeled TAG was comparable between cells expressing wild-type apoC-III (C3wt cells) or Ala23Thr mutant (C3AT cells), secretion of [(3)H]TAG from C3AT cells was markedly decreased. The lowered [(3)H]TAG secretion was associated with an inability of C3AT cells to assemble VLDL(1). Moreover, [(3)H]TAG within the microsomal lumen in C3AT cells was 60% higher than that in C3wt cells, yet the activity of microsomal triglyceride-transfer protein in C3AT cells was not elevated. The accumulated [(3)H]TAG in C3AT microsomal lumen was mainly associated with lumenal IDL/LDL-like lipoproteins. Phenotypically, this [(3)H]TAG fractionation profiling resembled what was observed in cells treated with brefeldin A, which at low dose specifically blocked the second-step VLDL(1) maturation. Furthermore, lumenal [(35)S]Ala23Thr protein accumulated in IDL/LDL fractions and was absent in VLDL fractions in C3AT cells. These results suggest that the presence of Ala23Thr protein in lumenal IDL/LDL particles might prevent effective fusion between lipid droplets and VLDL precursors. Thus, the current study reveals an important structural element residing within the N-terminal region of apoC-III that governs the second step VLDL(1) maturation.

Apolipoproteins A-I, A-II and E are independently distributed among intracellular and newly secreted HDL of human hepatoma cells

Whereas hepatocytes secrete the major human plasma high density lipoproteins (HDL)-protein, apo A-I, as lipid-free and lipidated species, the biogenic itineraries of apo A-II and apo E are unknown. Human plasma and HepG2 cell-derived apo A-II and apo E occur as monomers, homodimers and heterodimers. Dimerization of apo A-II, which is more lipophilic than apo A-I, is catalyzed by lipid surfaces. Thus, we hypothesized that lipidation of intracellular and secreted apo A-II exceeds that of apo A-I, and once lipidated, apo A-II dimerizes. Fractionation of HepG2 cell lysate and media by size exclusion chromatography showed that intracellular apo A-II and apo E are fully lipidated and occur on nascent HDL and VLDL respectively, while only 45% of intracellular apo A-I is lipidated. Secreted apo A-II and apo E occur on small HDL and on LDL and large HDL respectively. HDL particles containing both apo A-II and apo A-I form only after secretion from both HepG2 and Huh7 hepatoma cells. Apo A-II dimerizes intracellularly while intracellular apo E is monomeric but after secretion associates with HDL and subsequently dimerizes. Thus, HDL apolipoproteins A-I, A-II and E have distinct intracellular and post-secretory pathways of hepatic lipidation and dimerization in the process of HDL formation. These early forms of HDL are expected to follow different apolipoprotein-specific pathways through plasma remodeling and reverse cholesterol transport.

Role of oxysterol binding protein in hepatitis C virus infection

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA genome replicates within the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex in the modified membranous structures extended from endoplasmic reticulum. A proteomic analysis of HCV RNP complexes revealed the association of oxysterol binding protein (OSBP) as one of the components of these complexes. OSBP interacted with the N-terminal domain I of the HCV NS5A protein and colocalized to the Golgi compartment with NS5A. An OSBP-specific short hairpin RNA that partially downregulated OSBP expression resulted in a decrease of the HCV particle release in culture supernatant with little effect on viral RNA replication. The pleckstrin homology (PH) domain located in the N-terminal region of OSBP targeted this protein to the Golgi apparatus. OSBP deletion mutation in the PH (DeltaPH) domain failed to localize to the Golgi apparatus and inhibited the HCV particle release. These studies suggest a possible functional role of OSBP in the HCV maturation process.

The many intersecting pathways underlying apolipoprotein B secretion and degradation

Because the levels of secreted apolipoprotein B (apoB) directly correlate with circulating serum cholesterol levels, there is a pressing need to define how the biosynthesis of this protein is regulated. Most commonly, the concentration of a secreted, circulating protein corresponds to transcriptionally and/or translationally regulated events. By contrast, circulating apoB levels are controlled by degradative pathways in the cell that select the protein for disposal. This article summarizes recent findings on two apoB disposal pathways, endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation and autophagy, and describes a role for post-ER degradation in the increased circulating lipid levels in insulin-resistant diabetics.

Structural and dynamic interfacial properties of the lipoprotein initiating domain of apolipoprotein B

To better understand the earliest steps in the assembly of triglyceride (TG)-rich lipoproteins, we compared the biophysical and interfacial properties of two closely related apolipoprotein B (apoB) truncation mutants, one of which contains the complete lipoprotein initiating domain (apoB20.1; residues 1-912), and one of which, by virtue of a 50 amino acid C-terminal truncation, is incapable of forming nascent lipoproteins (apoB19; residues 1-862). Spectroscopic studies detected no major differences in secondary structure, and only minor differences in conformation and thermodynamic stability, between the two truncation mutants. Monolayer studies revealed that both apoB19 and apoB20.1 bound to and penetrated egg phosphatidylcholine (EPC) monolayers; however, the interfacial exclusion pressure of apoB20.1 was higher than apoB19 (25.1 mN/m vs. 22.8 mN/m). Oil drop tensiometry revealed that both proteins bound rapidly to the hydrophobic triolein/water interface, reducing interfacial tension by approximately 20 mN/m. However, when triolein drops were first coated with phospholipids (PL), apoB20.1 bound with faster kinetics than apoB19 and also displayed greater interfacial elasticity (26.9 +/- 0.8 mN/m vs. 22.9 +/- 0.8 mN/m). These data establish that the transition of apoB to assembly competence is accompanied by increases in surface activity and elasticity, but not by significant changes in global structure.

VLDL exits from the endoplasmic reticulum in a specialized vesicle, the VLDL transport vesicle, in rat primary hepatocytes

The movement of VLDL [very-LDL (low-density lipoprotein)] from the ER (endoplasmic reticulum) to the Golgi is required for its eventual secretion from hepatocytes and represents a potential target in controlling elevated concentrations of its metabolite LDL, the major determinant of atherosclerosis. To study this process, an in vitro ER-budding assay was developed to examine the generation of the VTV (VLDL transport vesicle) and PTV (protein transport vesicles) using ER isolated from [(14)C]TAG (triacylglycerol) and [(3)H]protein-labelled primary rat hepatocytes. VTVs do not contain albumin, as determined by immunoblots. VTVs were distributed in light-density fractions, whereas PTVs were mainly in the mid-portion of the sucrose gradient. Electron microscopy revealed that VTVs were larger ( approximately 100-120 nm) in size than PTVs ( approximately 55-70 nm). ER from 0.4 mM OA (oleic acid)-treated hepatocytes budded VTVs of a lighter density as compared with VTVs budded from ER of 0.1 mM or 0.004 mM OA-treated hepatocytes. The generation of VTVs from rat hepatic ER required cytosol, ATP, Sar1 (a GTPase) and incubation at 37 degrees C. Proteinase K treatment did not degrade the VTV cargo protein, apoB100 (apolipoprotein 100), indicating that VTVs were sealed. Immunoblots showed that VTV concentrated apoB100, Sar1 and rSec22b, and excluded albumin and calnexin. VTVs were shown to fuse with cis-Golgi and delivered their cargo to the Golgi lumen, as determined by in vitro fusion, and acquired endoglycosidase H resistance. These results suggest that a new ER-derived transport vesicle (VTV) has been identified and characterized which transports nascent VLDL from the hepatic ER to the Golgi.

Cytokine secretion requires phosphatidylcholine synthesis

Choline cytidylyltransferase (CCT) is the rate-limiting enzyme in the phosphatidylcholine biosynthetic pathway. Here, we demonstrate that CCTα-mediated phosphatidylcholine synthesis is required to maintain normal Golgi structure and function as well as cytokine secretion from the Golgi complex. CCTα is localized to the trans-Golgi region and its expression is increased in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated wild-type macrophages. Although LPS triggers transient reorganization of Golgi morphology in wild-type macrophages, similar structural alterations persist in CCTα-deficient cells. Pro–tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-6 remain lodged in the secretory compartment of CCTα-deficient macrophages after LPS stimulation. However, the lysosomal-mediated secretion pathways for interleukin-1β secretion and constitutive apolipoprotein E secretion are unaltered. Exogenous lysophosphatidylcholine restores LPS-stimulated secretion from CCTα-deficient cells, and elevated diacylglycerol levels alone do not impede secretion of pro–tumor necrosis factor α or interleukin-6. These results identify CCTα as a key component in membrane biogenesis during LPS-stimulated cytokine secretion from the Golgi complex.