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Tanim K, Holtzhausen A, Thapa A, Huelse JM, Graham DK, Earp HS. MERTK Inhibition as a Targeted Novel Cancer Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7660. [PMID: 39062902 PMCID: PMC11277220 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25147660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2024] [Revised: 07/06/2024] [Accepted: 07/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
In this issue honoring the contributions of Greg Lemke, the Earp and Graham lab teams discuss several threads in the discovery, action, signaling, and translational/clinical potential of MERTK, originally called c-mer, a member of the TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK (TAM) family of receptor tyrosine kinases. The 30-year history of the TAM RTK family began slowly as all three members were orphan RTKs without known ligands and/or functions when discovered by three distinct alternate molecular cloning strategies in the pre-genome sequencing era. The pace of understanding their physiologic and pathophysiologic roles has accelerated over the last decade. The activation of ligands bridging externalized phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) has placed these RTKs in a myriad of processes including neurodevelopment, cancer, and autoimmunity. The field is ripe for further advancement and this article hopefully sets the stage for further understanding and therapeutic intervention. Our review will focus on progress made through the collaborations of the Earp and Graham labs over the past 30 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- K.M. Tanim
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (K.M.T.); (A.T.); (J.M.H.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Alisha Holtzhausen
- Lineburger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA;
| | - Aashis Thapa
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (K.M.T.); (A.T.); (J.M.H.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Justus M. Huelse
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (K.M.T.); (A.T.); (J.M.H.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Douglas K. Graham
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (K.M.T.); (A.T.); (J.M.H.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - H. Shelton Earp
- Lineburger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA;
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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Guillet S, Lazarov T, Jordan N, Boisson B, Tello M, Craddock B, Zhou T, Nishi C, Bareja R, Yang H, Rieux-Laucat F, Lorenzo RIF, Dyall SD, Isenberg D, D’Cruz D, Lachmann N, Elemento O, Viale A, Socci ND, Abel L, Nagata S, Huse M, Miller WT, Casanova JL, Geissmann F. ACK1 and BRK non-receptor tyrosine kinase deficiencies are associated with familial systemic lupus and involved in efferocytosis. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2024:2024.02.15.24302255. [PMID: 38883731 PMCID: PMC11177913 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.15.24302255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease, the pathophysiology and genetic basis of which are incompletely understood. Using a forward genetic screen in multiplex families with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) we identified an association between SLE and compound heterozygous deleterious variants in the non-receptor tyrosine kinases (NRTKs) ACK1 and BRK. Experimental blockade of ACK1 or BRK increased circulating autoantibodies in vivo in mice and exacerbated glomerular IgG deposits in an SLE mouse model. Mechanistically, non-receptor tyrosine kinases (NRTKs) regulate activation, migration, and proliferation of immune cells. We found that the patients' ACK1 and BRK variants impair efferocytosis, the MERTK-mediated anti-inflammatory response to apoptotic cells, in human induced Pluripotent Stem Cell (hiPSC)-derived macrophages, which may contribute to SLE pathogenesis. Overall, our data suggest that ACK1 and BRK deficiencies are associated with human SLE and impair efferocytosis in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Guillet
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
- Ecole doctorale Bio Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité.Paris, France
| | - Tomi Lazarov
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
- Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of MedicalSciences, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Natasha Jordan
- Centre for Molecular and Cellular Biology of Inflammation (CMCBI), King’s College London and Louise Coote Lupus Unit, Guy’s and Thomas’ Hospitals, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Bertrand Boisson
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, The Rockefeller University, New York, 10065 NY, USA
- University of Paris Cité, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Maria Tello
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Barbara Craddock
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-8661
| | - Ting Zhou
- SKI Stem Cell Research Core, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Chihiro Nishi
- Laboratory of Biochemistry & Immunology, World Premier International Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871
| | - Rohan Bareja
- Cary and Israel Englander Institute for Precision Medicine, Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Meyer Cancer Center Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Hairu Yang
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | | | | | - Sabrina D. Dyall
- Department of Biosciences and Ocean Studies, Faculty of Science, University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius
| | - David Isenberg
- Centre for Rheumatology, Division of Medicine, University College London, The Rayne Building, University College London
| | - David D’Cruz
- Centre for Molecular and Cellular Biology of Inflammation (CMCBI), King’s College London and Louise Coote Lupus Unit, Guy’s and Thomas’ Hospitals, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Nico Lachmann
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, REBIRTH Cluster of Excellence, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
| | - Olivier Elemento
- Cary and Israel Englander Institute for Precision Medicine, Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Meyer Cancer Center Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Agnes Viale
- Marie-Josée & Henry R. Kravis Center for Molecular Oncology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Nicholas D. Socci
- Marie-Josée & Henry R. Kravis Center for Molecular Oncology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
- Bioinformatics Core, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Laurent Abel
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, The Rockefeller University, New York, 10065 NY, USA
- University of Paris Cité, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Shigekazu Nagata
- Laboratory of Biochemistry & Immunology, World Premier International Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871
| | - Morgan Huse
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - W. Todd Miller
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-8661
| | - Jean-Laurent Casanova
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, The Rockefeller University, New York, 10065 NY, USA
- University of Paris Cité, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York, 10065 NY, USA
- Lab of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, INSERM, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, Paris, France, EU
- Department of Pediatrics, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, Paris, France, EU
| | - Frederic Geissmann
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
- Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of MedicalSciences, New York, New York 10065, USA
- Centre for Molecular and Cellular Biology of Inflammation (CMCBI), King’s College London and Louise Coote Lupus Unit, Guy’s and Thomas’ Hospitals, London SE1 1UL, UK
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Ghosh S, Finnemann SC, Vollrath D, Rothlin CV. In the Eyes of the Beholder-New Mertk Knockout Mouse and Re-Evaluation of Phagocytosis versus Anti-Inflammatory Functions of MERTK. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5299. [PMID: 38791338 PMCID: PMC11121519 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25105299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Greg Lemke's laboratory was one of the pioneers of research into the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Not only was Tyro3 cloned in his laboratory, but his group also extensively studied mice knocked out for individual or various combinations of the TAM RTKs Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk. Here we primarily focus on one of the paralogs-MERTK. We provide a historical perspective on rodent models of loss of Mertk function and their association with retinal degeneration and blindness. We describe later studies employing mouse genetics and the generation of newer knockout models that point out incongruencies with the inference that loss of MERTK-dependent phagocytosis is sufficient for severe, early-onset photoreceptor degeneration in mice. This discussion is meant to raise awareness with regards to the limitations of the original Mertk knockout mouse model generated using 129 derived embryonic stem cells and carrying 129 derived alleles and the role of these alleles in modifying Mertk knockout phenotypes or even displaying Mertk-independent phenotypes. We also suggest molecular approaches that can further Greg Lemke's scintillating legacy of dissecting the molecular functions of MERTK-a protein that has been described to function in phagocytosis as well as in the negative regulation of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourav Ghosh
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Silvia C. Finnemann
- Center for Cancer, Genetic Diseases and Gene Regulation, Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, NY 10458, USA;
| | - Douglas Vollrath
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA;
| | - Carla V. Rothlin
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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Iida M, Crossman BE, Kostecki KL, Glitchev CE, Kranjac CA, Crow MT, Adams JM, Liu P, Ong I, Yang DT, Kang I, Salgia R, Wheeler DL. MerTK Drives Proliferation and Metastatic Potential in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5109. [PMID: 38791148 PMCID: PMC11121248 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25105109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is characterized by the absence of the estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and receptor tyrosine kinase HER2 expression. Due to the limited number of FDA-approved targeted therapies for TNBC, there is an ongoing need to understand the molecular underpinnings of TNBC for the development of novel combinatorial treatment strategies. This study evaluated the role of the MerTK receptor tyrosine kinase on proliferation and invasion/metastatic potential in TNBC. Immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated MerTK expression in 58% of patient-derived TNBC xenografts. The stable overexpression of MerTK in human TNBC cell lines induced an increase in proliferation rates, robust in vivo tumor growth, heightened migration/invasion potential, and enhanced lung metastases. NanoString nCounter analysis of MerTK-overexpressing SUM102 cells (SUM102-MerTK) revealed upregulation of several signaling pathways, which ultimately drive cell cycle progression, reduce apoptosis, and enhance cell survival. Proteomic profiling indicated increased endoglin (ENG) production in SUM102-MerTK clones, suggesting that MerTK creates a conducive environment for increased proliferative and metastatic activity via elevated ENG expression. To determine ENG's role in increasing proliferation and/or metastatic potential, we knocked out ENG in a SUM102-MerTK clone with CRISPR technology. Although this ENG knockout clone exhibited similar in vivo growth to the parental SUM102-MerTK clone, lung metastasis numbers were significantly decreased ~4-fold, indicating that MerTK enhances invasion and metastasis through ENG. Our data suggest that MerTK regulates a unique proliferative signature in TNBC, promoting robust tumor growth and increased metastatic potential through ENG upregulation. Targeting MerTK and ENG simultaneously may provide a novel therapeutic approach for TNBC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Iida
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.I.); (B.E.C.); (K.L.K.); (C.E.G.); (C.A.K.); (M.T.C.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Bridget E. Crossman
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.I.); (B.E.C.); (K.L.K.); (C.E.G.); (C.A.K.); (M.T.C.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Kourtney L. Kostecki
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.I.); (B.E.C.); (K.L.K.); (C.E.G.); (C.A.K.); (M.T.C.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Christine E. Glitchev
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.I.); (B.E.C.); (K.L.K.); (C.E.G.); (C.A.K.); (M.T.C.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Carlene A. Kranjac
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.I.); (B.E.C.); (K.L.K.); (C.E.G.); (C.A.K.); (M.T.C.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Madisen T. Crow
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.I.); (B.E.C.); (K.L.K.); (C.E.G.); (C.A.K.); (M.T.C.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Jillian M. Adams
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.I.); (B.E.C.); (K.L.K.); (C.E.G.); (C.A.K.); (M.T.C.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Peng Liu
- Departments of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53726, USA; (P.L.); (I.O.)
- Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53792, USA
| | - Irene Ong
- Departments of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53726, USA; (P.L.); (I.O.)
- Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53792, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - David T. Yang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
| | - Irene Kang
- Department of Medical Oncology and Experimental Therapeutics, Comprehensive Cancer Center, City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA; (I.K.); (R.S.)
| | - Ravi Salgia
- Department of Medical Oncology and Experimental Therapeutics, Comprehensive Cancer Center, City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA; (I.K.); (R.S.)
| | - Deric L. Wheeler
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.I.); (B.E.C.); (K.L.K.); (C.E.G.); (C.A.K.); (M.T.C.); (J.M.A.)
- Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53792, USA
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5
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Diachenko AI, Rodin IA, Krasnova TN, Klychnikov OI, Nefedova LN. The Role of Vitamin K in the Development of Neurodegenerative Diseases. BIOCHEMISTRY. BIOKHIMIIA 2024; 89:S57-S70. [PMID: 38621744 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297924140049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are a growing global health problem with enormous consequences for individuals and society. The most common neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, can be caused by both genetic factors (mutations) and epigenetic changes caused by the environment, in particular, oxidative stress. One of the factors contributing to the development of oxidative stress that has an important effect on the nervous system is vitamin K, which is involved in redox processes. However, its role in cells is ambiguous: accumulation of high concentrations of vitamin K increases the content of reactive oxygen species increases, while small amounts of vitamin K have a protective effect and activate the antioxidant defense systems. The main function of vitamin K is its involvement in the gamma carboxylation of the so-called Gla proteins. Some Gla proteins are expressed in the nervous system and participate in its development. Vitamin K deficiency can lead to a decrease or loss of function of Gla proteins in the nervous system. It is assumed that the level of vitamin K in the body is associated with specific changes involved in the development of dementia and cognitive abilities. Vitamin K also influences the sphingolipid profile in the brain, which also affects cognitive function. The role of vitamin K in the regulation of biochemical processes at the cellular and whole-organism levels has been studied insufficiently. Further research can lead to the discovery of new targets for vitamin K and development of personalized diets and therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna I Diachenko
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Igor A Rodin
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Tatiana N Krasnova
- Faculty of Fundamental Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Oleg I Klychnikov
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Lidia N Nefedova
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia.
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6
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Li V, Binder MD, Kilpatrick TJ. The Tolerogenic Influence of Dexamethasone on Dendritic Cells Is Accompanied by the Induction of Efferocytosis, Promoted by MERTK. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15903. [PMID: 37958886 PMCID: PMC10650502 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242115903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Many treatments for autoimmune diseases, caused by the loss of immune self-tolerance, are broadly immunosuppressive. Dendritic cells (DCs) can be induced to develop anti-inflammatory/tolerogenic properties to suppress aberrant self-directed immunity by promoting immune tolerance in an antigen-specific manner. Dexamethasone can generate tolerogenic DCs and upregulates MERTK expression. As MERTK can inhibit inflammation, we investigated whether dexamethasone's tolerogenic effects are mediated via MERTK, potentially providing a novel therapeutic approach. Monocyte-derived DCs were treated with dexamethasone, and with and without MERTK ligands or MERTK inhibitors. Flow cytometry was used to assess effects of MERTK modulation on co-stimulatory molecule expression, efferocytosis, cytokine secretion and T cell proliferation. The influence on expression of Rab17, which coordinates the diversion of efferocytosed material away from cell surface presentation, was assessed. Dexamethasone-treated DCs had upregulated MERTK expression, decreased expression of co-stimulatory molecules, maturation and proliferation of co-cultured T cells and increased uptake of myelin debris. MERTK ligands did not potentiate these properties, whilst specific MERTK inhibition only reversed dexamethasone's effect on myelin uptake. Cells undergoing efferocytosis had higher Rab17 expression. Dexamethasone-enhanced efferocytosis in DCs is MERTK-dependent and could exert its tolerogenic effects by increasing Rab17 expression to prevent the presentation of efferocytosed material on the cell surface to activate adaptive immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivien Li
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (M.D.B.); (T.J.K.)
| | - Michele D. Binder
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (M.D.B.); (T.J.K.)
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Trevor J. Kilpatrick
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (M.D.B.); (T.J.K.)
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Ubil E, Zahid KR. Structure and functions of Mer, an innate immune checkpoint. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1244170. [PMID: 37936688 PMCID: PMC10626544 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1244170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy is a promising therapeutic tool that promotes the elimination of cancerous cells by a patient's own immune system. However, in the clinical setting, the number of cancer patients benefitting from immunotherapy is limited. Identification and targeting of other immune subsets, such as tumor-associated macrophages, and alternative immune checkpoints, like Mer, may further limit tumor progression and therapy resistance. In this review, we highlight the key roles of macrophage Mer signaling in immune suppression. We also summarize the role of pro-inflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotypes in tumor onset and progression and how Mer structure and activation can be targeted therapeutically to alter activation state. Preclinical and clinical studies focusing on Mer kinase inhibition have demonstrated the potential of targeting this innate immune checkpoint, leading to improved anti-tumor responses and patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Ubil
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
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Burstyn-Cohen T, Fresia R. TAM receptors in phagocytosis: Beyond the mere internalization of particles. Immunol Rev 2023; 319:7-26. [PMID: 37596991 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK constitute the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases, activated by their ligands GAS6 and PROS1. TAMs are necessary for adult homeostasis in the immune, nervous, reproductive, skeletal, and vascular systems. Among additional cellular functions employed by TAMs, phagocytosis is central for tissue health. TAM receptors are dominant in providing phagocytes with the molecular machinery necessary to engulf diverse targets, including apoptotic cells, myelin debris, and portions of live cells in a phosphatidylserine-dependent manner. Simultaneously, TAMs drive the release of anti-inflammatory and tissue repair molecules. Disruption of the TAM-driven phagocytic pathway has detrimental consequences, resulting in autoimmunity, male infertility, blindness, and disrupted vascular integrity, and which is thought to contribute to neurodegenerative diseases. Although structurally and functionally redundant, the TAM receptors and ligands underlie complex signaling cascades, of which several key aspects are yet to be elucidated. We discuss similarities and differences between TAMs and other phagocytic pathways, highlight future directions and how TAMs can be harnessed therapeutically to modulate phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Burstyn-Cohen
- The Institute for Biomedical and Oral Research, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Roberta Fresia
- The Institute for Biomedical and Oral Research, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
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9
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Su C, Himes JE, Kirsch DG. Relationship between the tumor microenvironment and the efficacy of the combination of radiotherapy and immunotherapy. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 378:201-232. [PMID: 37438018 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2023.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Activating and recruiting the immune system is critical for successful cancer treatment. Since the discovery of immune checkpoint inhibitors, immunotherapy has become the standard of care for many types of cancers. However, many patients fail to respond to immunotherapy. Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms of resistance and adjuvant therapies that can help sensitize patients to immunotherapies. Here, we will discuss how radiotherapy can change the tumor microenvironment and work synergistically with immunotherapy. We will examine different pre-clinical models focusing on their limitations and their unique advantages in studying the efficacy of treatments and the tumor microenvironment. We will also describe emerging findings from clinical trials testing the combination of immunotherapy and radiotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Su
- Molecular Cancer Biology Program and Medical Scientist Training Program, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Jonathon E Himes
- Molecular Cancer Biology Program and Medical Scientist Training Program, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - David G Kirsch
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States; Department of Pharmacology & Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States.
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10
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Mercau ME, Akalu YT, Mazzoni F, Gyimesi G, Alberto EJ, Kong Y, Hafler BP, Finnemann SC, Rothlin CV, Ghosh S. Inflammation of the retinal pigment epithelium drives early-onset photoreceptor degeneration in Mertk-associated retinitis pigmentosa. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eade9459. [PMID: 36662852 PMCID: PMC9858494 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.ade9459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Severe, early-onset photoreceptor (PR) degeneration associated with MERTK mutations is thought to result from failed phagocytosis by retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Notwithstanding, the severity and onset of PR degeneration in mouse models of Mertk ablation are determined by the hypomorphic expression or the loss of the Mertk paralog Tyro3. Here, we find that loss of Mertk and reduced expression/loss of Tyro3 led to RPE inflammation even before eye-opening. Incipient RPE inflammation cascaded to involve microglia activation and PR degeneration with monocyte infiltration. Inhibition of RPE inflammation with the JAK1/2 inhibitor ruxolitinib mitigated PR degeneration in Mertk-/- mice. Neither inflammation nor severe, early-onset PR degeneration was observed in mice with defective phagocytosis alone. Thus, inflammation drives severe, early-onset PR degeneration-associated with Mertk loss of function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria E. Mercau
- Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Yemsratch T. Akalu
- Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Francesca Mazzoni
- Center for Cancer, Genetic Diseases and Gene Regulation, Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, NY 10458, USA
| | - Gavin Gyimesi
- Center for Cancer, Genetic Diseases and Gene Regulation, Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, NY 10458, USA
| | - Emily J. Alberto
- Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Yong Kong
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, W. M. Keck Foundation Biotechnology Resource Laboratory, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Brian P. Hafler
- Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Silvia C. Finnemann
- Center for Cancer, Genetic Diseases and Gene Regulation, Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, NY 10458, USA
| | - Carla V. Rothlin
- Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Sourav Ghosh
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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11
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Decoding Functional High-Density Lipoprotein Particle Surfaceome Interactions. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23169506. [PMID: 36012766 PMCID: PMC9409371 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23169506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
High-density lipoprotein (HDL) is a mixture of complex particles mediating reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) and several cytoprotective activities. Despite its relevance for human health, many aspects of HDL-mediated lipid trafficking and cellular signaling remain elusive at the molecular level. During HDL’s journey throughout the body, its functions are mediated through interactions with cell surface receptors on different cell types. To characterize and better understand the functional interplay between HDL particles and tissue, we analyzed the surfaceome-residing receptor neighborhoods with which HDL potentially interacts. We applied a combination of chemoproteomic technologies including automated cell surface capturing (auto-CSC) and HATRIC-based ligand–receptor capturing (HATRIC-LRC) on four different cellular model systems mimicking tissues relevant for RCT. The surfaceome analysis of EA.hy926, HEPG2, foam cells, and human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) revealed the main currently known HDL receptor scavenger receptor B1 (SCRB1), as well as 155 shared cell surface receptors representing potential HDL interaction candidates. Since vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) was recently found as a regulatory factor of transendothelial transport of HDL, we next analyzed the VEGF-modulated surfaceome of HAEC using the auto-CSC technology. VEGF-A treatment led to the remodeling of the surfaceome of HAEC cells, including the previously reported higher surfaceome abundance of SCRB1. In total, 165 additional receptors were found on HAEC upon VEGF-A treatment representing SCRB1 co-regulated receptors potentially involved in HDL function. Using the HATRIC-LRC technology on human endothelial cells, we specifically aimed for the identification of other bona fide (co-)receptors of HDL beyond SCRB1. HATRIC-LRC enabled, next to SCRB1, the identification of the receptor tyrosine-protein kinase Mer (MERTK). Through RNA interference, we revealed its contribution to endothelial HDL binding and uptake. Furthermore, subsequent proximity ligation assays (PLAs) demonstrated the spatial vicinity of MERTK and SCRB1 on the endothelial cell surface. The data shown provide direct evidence for a complex and dynamic HDL receptome and that receptor nanoscale organization may influence binding and uptake of HDL.
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12
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Holley JM, Stanbouly S, Pecaut MJ, Willey JS, Delp M, Mao XW. Characterization of gene expression profiles in the mouse brain after 35 days of spaceflight mission. NPJ Microgravity 2022; 8:35. [PMID: 35948598 PMCID: PMC9365836 DOI: 10.1038/s41526-022-00217-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been proposed that neuroinflammatory response plays an important role in the neurovascular remodeling in the brain after stress. The goal of the present study was to characterize changes in the gene expression profiles associated with neuroinflammation, neuronal function, metabolism and stress in mouse brain tissue. Ten-week old male C57BL/6 mice were launched to the International Space Station (ISS) on SpaceX-12 for a 35-day mission. Within 38 ± 4 h of splashdown, mice were returned to Earth alive. Brain tissues were collected for analysis. A novel digital color-coded barcode counting technology (NanoStringTM) was used to evaluate gene expression profiles in the spaceflight mouse brain. A set of 54 differently expressed genes (p < 0.05) significantly segregates the habitat ground control (GC) group from flight (FLT) group. Many pathways associated with cellular stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and metabolism were significantly altered by flight conditions. A decrease in the expression of genes important for oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelin sheath maintenance was observed. Moreover, mRNA expression of many genes related to anti-viral signaling, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and bacterial immune response were significantly downregulated. Here we report that significantly altered immune reactions may be closely associated with spaceflight-induced stress responses and have an impact on the neuronal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob M Holley
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Biomedical Engineering Sciences (BMES), Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, 92350, USA
| | - Seta Stanbouly
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Biomedical Engineering Sciences (BMES), Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, 92350, USA
| | - Michael J Pecaut
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Biomedical Engineering Sciences (BMES), Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, 92350, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Willey
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Wake Forest University, School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, 27101, USA
| | - Michael Delp
- Department of Nutrition, Food and Exercise Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Xiao Wen Mao
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Biomedical Engineering Sciences (BMES), Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, 92350, USA.
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13
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Jung H, Lee SY, Lim S, Choi HR, Choi Y, Kim M, Kim S, Lee Y, Han KH, Chung WS, Kim CH. Anti-inflammatory clearance of amyloid-β by a chimeric Gas6 fusion protein. Nat Med 2022; 28:1802-1812. [PMID: 35927581 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-022-01926-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Clearing amyloid-β (Aβ) through immunotherapy is one of the most promising therapeutic approaches to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although several monoclonal antibodies against Aβ have been shown to substantially reduce Aβ burden in patients with AD, their effects on improving cognitive function remain marginal. In addition, a significant portion of patients treated with Aβ-targeting antibodies experience brain edema and microhemorrhage associated with antibody-mediated Fc receptor activation in the brain. Here, we develop a phagocytosis inducer for Aβ consisting of a single-chain variable fragment of an Aβ-targeting monoclonal antibody fused with a truncated receptor binding domain of growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6), a bridging molecule for the clearance of dead cells via TAM (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK) receptors. This chimeric fusion protein (αAβ-Gas6) selectively eliminates Aβ plaques through TAM receptor-dependent phagocytosis without inducing NF-kB-mediated inflammatory responses or reactive gliosis. Furthermore, αAβ-Gas6 can induce synergistic clearance of Aβ by activating both microglial and astrocytic phagocytosis, resulting in better behavioral outcomes with substantially reduced synapse elimination and microhemorrhage in AD and cerebral amyloid angiopathy model mice compared with Aβ antibody treatment. Our results suggest that αAβ-Gas6 could be a novel immunotherapeutic agent for AD that overcomes the side effects of conventional antibody therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyuncheol Jung
- Department of Biological SciencesKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Se Young Lee
- Department of Biological SciencesKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongjoon Lim
- Department of Biological SciencesKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeong Ryeol Choi
- Department of Biological SciencesKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeseong Choi
- Department of Biological SciencesKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Minjin Kim
- Department of Biological SciencesKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Segi Kim
- Department of Biological SciencesKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yujean Lee
- Department of Biological SciencesKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Ho Han
- Department of Biological SciencesKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Hannam University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Won-Suk Chung
- Department of Biological SciencesKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea. .,KAIST Stem Cell Center, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.
| | - Chan Hyuk Kim
- Department of Biological SciencesKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea.
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14
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Abstract
The daily removal of billions of apoptotic cells in the human body via the process of efferocytosis is essential for homeostasis. To allow for this continuous efferocytosis, rapid phenotypic changes occur in the phagocytes enabling them to engulf and digest the apoptotic cargo. In addition, efferocytosis is actively anti-inflammatory and promotes resolution. Owing to its ubiquitous nature and the sheer volume of cell turnover, efferocytosis is a point of vulnerability. Aberrations in efferocytosis are associated with numerous inflammatory pathologies, including atherosclerosis, cancer and infections. The recent exciting discoveries defining the molecular machinery involved in efferocytosis have opened many avenues for therapeutic intervention, with several agents now in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parul Mehrotra
- Unit for Cell Clearance in Health and Disease, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kodi S Ravichandran
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
- The Center for Cell Clearance, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
- Division of Immunobiology, Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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15
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Yurdagul A. Crosstalk Between Macrophages and Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells in Atherosclerotic Plaque Stability. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2022; 42:372-380. [PMID: 35172605 PMCID: PMC8957544 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.121.316233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Most acute cardiovascular events are due to plaque rupture, with atheromas containing large necrotic cores and thin fibrous caps being more susceptible to rupture and lesions with small necrotic cores and thick fibrous caps being more protected from rupture. Atherosclerotic plaques are comprised various extracellular matrix proteins, modified lipoprotein particles, and cells of different origins, that is, vascular cells and leukocytes. Although much has been revealed about the mechanisms that lead to plaque instability, several key areas remain incompletely understood. This In-Focus Review highlights processes related to cellular crosstalk and the role of the tissue microenvironment in determining cell function and plaque stability. Recent advances highlight critical underpinnings of atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability, particularly impairments in the ability of macrophages to clear dead cells and phenotypic switching of vascular smooth muscle cells. However, these processes do not occur in isolation, as crosstalk between macrophages and vascular smooth muscle cells and interactions with their surrounding microenvironment play a significant role in determining plaque stability. Understanding these aspects of cellular crosstalk within an atherosclerotic plaque may shed light on how to modify cell behavior and identify novel approaches to transform rupture-prone atheromas into stable lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arif Yurdagul
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences, Shreveport
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16
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Wang J, Yu C, Zhuang J, Qi W, Jiang J, Liu X, Zhao W, Cao Y, Wu H, Qi J, Zhao RC. The role of phosphatidylserine on the membrane in immunity and blood coagulation. Biomark Res 2022; 10:4. [PMID: 35033201 PMCID: PMC8760663 DOI: 10.1186/s40364-021-00346-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The negatively charged aminophospholipid, phosphatidylserine (PtdSer), is located in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane in normal cells, and may be exposed to the outer leaflet under some immune and blood coagulation processes. Meanwhile, Ptdser exposed to apoptotic cells can be recognized and eliminated by various immune cells, whereas on the surface of activated platelets Ptdser interacts with coagulation factors prompting enhanced production of thrombin which significantly facilitates blood coagulation. In the case where PtdSer fails in exposure or mistakenly occurs, there are occurrences of certain immunological and haematological diseases, such as the Scott syndrome and Systemic lupus erythematosus. Besides, viruses (e.g., Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Ebola virus (EBOV)) can invade host cells through binding the exposed PtdSer. Most recently, the Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been similarly linked to PtdSer or its receptors. Therefore, it is essential to comprehensively understand PtdSer and its functional characteristics. Therefore, this review summarizes Ptdser, its eversion mechanism; interaction mechanism, particularly with its immune receptors and coagulation factors; recognition sites; and its function in immune and blood processes. This review illustrates the potential aspects for the underlying pathogenic mechanism of PtdSer-related diseases, and the discovery of new therapeutic strategies as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiao Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China.
| | - Changxin Yu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Junyi Zhuang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Wenxin Qi
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Jiawen Jiang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Xuanting Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Wanwei Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Yiyang Cao
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Hao Wu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Jingxuan Qi
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Robert Chunhua Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China.
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, No. 5 Dongdansantiao, Beijing, 100005, China.
- Centre of Excellence in Tissue Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory of New Drug Development and Clinical Trial of Stem Cell Therapy (BZ0381), Beijing, China.
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17
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Lahey KC, Gadiyar V, Hill A, Desind S, Wang Z, Davra V, Patel R, Zaman A, Calianese D, Birge RB. Mertk: An emerging target in cancer biology and immuno-oncology. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 368:35-59. [PMID: 35636929 PMCID: PMC9994207 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2022.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Mertk, a type I Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) and member of the TAM (Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk) family of homologous tyrosine kinases, has important roles in signal transduction both homeostatically on normal cells as well as patho-physiologically on both tumor-associated macrophages and malignant cells by its overexpression in a wide array of cancers. The main ligands of Mertk are Vitamin K-modified endogenous proteins Gas6 and Protein S (ProS1), heterobifunctional modular proteins that bind Mertk via two carboxyl-terminal laminin-like globular (LG) domains, and an N-terminal Gla domain that binds anionic phospholipids, whereby externalized phosphatidylserine (PS) on stressed viable and caspase-activated apoptotic cells is most emblematic. Recent studies indicate that Vitamin K-dependent γ-carboxylation on the N-terminal Gla domain of Gas6 and Protein S is necessary for PS binding and Mertk activation, implying that Mertk is preferentially active in tissues where there is high externalized PS, such as the tumor microenvironment (TME) and acute virally infected tissues. Once stimulated, activated Mertk can provide a survival advantage for cancer cells as well as drive compensatory proliferation. On monocytes and tumor-associated macrophages, Mertk promotes efferocytosis and acts as an inhibitory receptor that impairs host anti-tumor immunity, functioning akin to a myeloid checkpoint inhibitor. In recent years, inhibition of Mertk has been implicated in a dual role to enhance the sensitivity of cancer cells to cytotoxic agents along with improving host anti-tumor immunity with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy. Here, we examine the rationale of Mertk-targeted immunotherapies, the current and potential therapeutic strategies, the clinical status of Mertk-specific therapies, and potential challenges and obstacles for Mertk-focused therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin C Lahey
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States.
| | - Varsha Gadiyar
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Amanda Hill
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Samuel Desind
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Ziren Wang
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Viralkumar Davra
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Radhey Patel
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Ahnaf Zaman
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - David Calianese
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Raymond B Birge
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States.
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18
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Efferocytosis induces macrophage proliferation to help resolve tissue injury. Cell Metab 2021; 33:2445-2463.e8. [PMID: 34784501 PMCID: PMC8665147 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2021.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Apoptotic cell clearance by macrophages (efferocytosis) promotes resolution signaling pathways, which can be triggered by molecules derived from the phagolysosomal degradation of apoptotic cells. We show here that nucleotides derived from the hydrolysis of apoptotic cell DNA by phagolysosomal DNase2a activate a DNA-PKcs-mTORC2/Rictor pathway that increases Myc to promote non-inflammatory macrophage proliferation. Efferocytosis-induced proliferation expands the pool of resolving macrophages in vitro and in mice, including zymosan-induced peritonitis, dexamethasone-induced thymocyte apoptosis, and atherosclerosis regression. In the dexamethasone-thymus model, hematopoietic Rictor deletion blocked efferocytosing macrophage proliferation, apoptotic cell clearance, and tissue resolution. In atherosclerosis regression, silencing macrophage Rictor or DNase2a blocked efferocyte proliferation, apoptotic cell clearance, and plaque stabilization. In view of previous work showing that other types of apoptotic cell cargo can promote resolution in individual efferocytosing macrophages, the findings here suggest that signaling-triggered apoptotic cell-derived nucleotides can amplify this benefit by increasing the number of these macrophages.
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19
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Ohta S, Tago K, Kuchimaru T, Funakoshi-Tago M, Horie H, Aoki-Ohmura C, Matsugi J, Yanagisawa K. The role of MerTK in promoting cell migration is enhanced by the oncogenic Ras/IL-33 signaling axis. FEBS J 2021; 289:1950-1967. [PMID: 34743410 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Ras genes are frequently mutated in many cancer types; however, there are currently no conclusively effective anticancer drugs against Ras-induced cancer. Therefore, the downstream effectors of Ras signaling need to be identified for the development of promising novel therapeutic approaches. We previously reported that oncogenic Ras induced the expression of NF-HEV/IL-33, a member of the interleukin-1 family, and showed that intracellular IL-33 was required for oncogenic Ras-induced cellular transformation. In the present study, we demonstrated that the c-Mer proto-oncogene tyrosine kinase (MerTK), a receptor tyrosine kinase, played essential roles in oncogenic Ras/IL-33 signaling. The expression of MerTK was enhanced in transformed NIH-3T3 cells by the expression of oncogenic Ras, H-Ras (G12V), in an IL-33-dependent manner. In human colorectal cancer tissues, MerTK expression also correlated with IL-33 expression. The knockdown of IL-33 or MerTK effectively attenuated the migration of NIH-3T3 cells transformed by H-Ras (G12V) and A549, LoVo, and HCT116 cells harboring an oncogenic K-Ras mutation. Furthermore, the suppression of Ras-induced cell migration by the knockdown of IL-33 was rescued by the enforced expression of MerTK. The present results also revealed that MerTK was effectively phosphorylated in NIH-3T3 cells transformed by Ras (G12V). Ras signaling was essential for the tyrosine phosphorylation of MerTK, and the kinase activity of MerTK was indispensable for accelerating cell migration. Collectively, the present results reveal a novel role for MerTK in cancer malignancy, which may be utilized to develop novel therapeutic strategies that target Ras-transformed cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Ohta
- Department of Biochemistry, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Kenji Tago
- Department of Biochemistry, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
| | | | | | - Hisanaga Horie
- Department of Surgery, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
| | | | - Jitsuhiro Matsugi
- Department of Biochemistry, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Ken Yanagisawa
- Department of Biochemistry, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
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20
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Al-Zaeed N, Budai Z, Szondy Z, Sarang Z. TAM kinase signaling is indispensable for proper skeletal muscle regeneration in mice. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:611. [PMID: 34120143 PMCID: PMC8197762 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-03892-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle regeneration following injury results from the proliferation and differentiation of myogenic stem cells, called satellite cells, located beneath the basal lamina of the muscle fibers. Infiltrating macrophages play an essential role in the process partly by clearing the necrotic cell debris, partly by producing cytokines that guide myogenesis. Infiltrating macrophages are at the beginning pro-inflammatory, but phagocytosis of dead cells induces a phenotypic change to become healing macrophages that regulate inflammation, myoblast fusion and growth, fibrosis, vascularization and return to homeostasis. The TAM receptor kinases Mer and Axl are known efferocytosis receptors in macrophages functioning in tolerogenic or inflammatory conditions, respectively. Here we investigated their involvement in the muscle regeneration process by studying the muscle repair following cardiotoxin-induced injury in Mer-/- mice. We found that Axl was the only TAM kinase receptor expressed on the protein level by skeletal muscle and C2C12 myoblast cells, while Mer was the dominant TAM kinase receptor in the CD45+ cells, and its expression significantly increased during repair. Mer ablation did not affect the skeletal muscle weight or structure, but following injury it resulted in a delay in the clearance of necrotic muscle cell debris, in the healing phenotype conversion of macrophages and consequently in a significant delay in the full muscle regeneration. Administration of the TAM kinase inhibitor BMS-777607 to wild type mice mimicked the effect of Mer ablation on the muscle regeneration process, but in addition, it resulted in a long-persisting necrotic area. Finally, in vitro inhibition of TAM kinase signaling in C2C12 myoblasts resulted in decreased viability and in impaired myotube growth. Our work identifies Axl as a survival and growth receptor in the mouse myoblasts, and reveals the contribution of TAM kinase-mediated signaling to the skeletal muscle regeneration both in macrophages and in myoblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nour Al-Zaeed
- grid.7122.60000 0001 1088 8582Doctoral School of Molecular Cell and Immune Biology, University of Debrecen, 1 Egyetem square, Debrecen, H-4032 Hungary
| | - Zsófia Budai
- grid.7122.60000 0001 1088 8582Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 1 Egyetem square, Debrecen, H-4032 Hungary
| | - Zsuzsa Szondy
- grid.7122.60000 0001 1088 8582Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 1 Egyetem square, Debrecen, H-4032 Hungary ,grid.7122.60000 0001 1088 8582Dental Biochemistry, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Debrecen, 1 Egyetem square, Debrecen, H-4032 Hungary
| | - Zsolt Sarang
- grid.7122.60000 0001 1088 8582Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 1 Egyetem square, Debrecen, H-4032 Hungary
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21
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Vago JP, Amaral FA, van de Loo FAJ. Resolving inflammation by TAM receptor activation. Pharmacol Ther 2021; 227:107893. [PMID: 33992683 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2021.107893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The control of inflammation is strictly regulated to ensure the adequate intensity and duration of an inflammatory response, enabling the removal of the trigger factors and the restoration of the integrity of the tissues and their functions. This process is coordinated by anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving mediators that regulate the cellular and molecular events necessary to restore homeostasis, and defects in this control are associated with the development of chronic and autoimmune diseases. The TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases-Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK-plays an essential role in efferocytosis, a key process for the resolution of inflammation. However, new studies have demonstrated that TAM receptor activation not only reduces the synthesis of pro-inflammatory mediators by different cell types in response to some stimuli but also stimulates the production of anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving molecules that control the inflammation. This review provides a comprehensive view of TAM receptor family members as important players in controlling inflammatory responses through anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana P Vago
- Experimental Rheumatology, Department of Rheumatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Flávio A Amaral
- Experimental Rheumatology, Department of Rheumatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Fons A J van de Loo
- Experimental Rheumatology, Department of Rheumatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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22
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Zhou L, Matsushima GK. Tyro3, Axl, Mertk receptor-mediated efferocytosis and immune regulation in the tumor environment. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 361:165-210. [PMID: 34074493 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2021.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Three structurally related tyrosine receptor cell surface kinases, Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAM) have been recognized to modulate immune function, tissue homeostasis, cardiovasculature, and cancer. The TAM receptor family appears to operate in adult mammals across multiple cell types, suggesting both widespread and specific regulation of cell functions and immune niches. TAM family members regulate tissue homeostasis by monitoring the presence of phosphatidylserine expressed on stressed or apoptotic cells. The detection of phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells requires intermediary molecules that opsonize the dying cells and tether them to TAM receptors on phagocytes. This complex promotes the engulfment of apoptotic cells, also known as efferocytosis, that leads to the resolution of inflammation and tissue healing. The immune mechanisms dictating these processes appear to fall upon specific family members or may involve a complex of different receptors acting cooperatively to resolve and repair damaged tissues. Here, we focus on the role of TAM receptors in triggering efferocytosis and its consequences in the regulation of immune responses in the context of inflammation and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liwen Zhou
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Glenn K Matsushima
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; UNC Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; UNC Integrative Program for Biological & Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.
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Zheng DJ, Abou Taka M, Heit B. Role of Apoptotic Cell Clearance in Pneumonia and Inflammatory Lung Disease. Pathogens 2021; 10:134. [PMID: 33572846 PMCID: PMC7912081 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10020134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pneumonia and inflammatory diseases of the pulmonary system such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma continue to cause significant morbidity and mortality globally. While the etiology of these diseases is highly different, they share a number of similarities in the underlying inflammatory processes driving disease pathology. Multiple recent studies have identified failures in efferocytosis-the phagocytic clearance of apoptotic cells-as a common driver of inflammation and tissue destruction in these diseases. Effective efferocytosis has been shown to be important for resolving inflammatory diseases of the lung and the subsequent restoration of normal lung function, while many pneumonia-causing pathogens manipulate the efferocytic system to enhance their growth and avoid immunity. Moreover, some treatments used to manage these patients, such as inhaled corticosteroids for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and the prevalent use of statins for cardiovascular disease, have been found to beneficially alter efferocytic activity in these patients. In this review, we provide an overview of the efferocytic process and its role in the pathophysiology and resolution of pneumonia and other inflammatory diseases of the lungs, and discuss the utility of existing and emerging therapies for modulating efferocytosis as potential treatments for these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Jiao Zheng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N0M 2N0, Canada; (D.J.Z.); (M.A.T.)
| | - Maria Abou Taka
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N0M 2N0, Canada; (D.J.Z.); (M.A.T.)
| | - Bryan Heit
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N0M 2N0, Canada; (D.J.Z.); (M.A.T.)
- Robarts Research Institute, London, ON N6A 5K8, Canada
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Inflammatory M1-like macrophages polarized by NK-4 undergo enhanced phenotypic switching to an anti-inflammatory M2-like phenotype upon co-culture with apoptotic cells. JOURNAL OF INFLAMMATION-LONDON 2021; 18:2. [PMID: 33413430 PMCID: PMC7791770 DOI: 10.1186/s12950-020-00267-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Background NK-4 has been used to promote wound healing since the early-1950s; however, the mechanism of action of NK-4 is unknown. In this study, we examined whether NK-4 exerts a regulatory effect on macrophages, which play multiple roles during wound healing from the initial inflammatory phase until the tissue regeneration phase. Results NK-4 treatment of THP-1 macrophages induced morphological features characteristic of classically-activated M1 macrophages, an inflammatory cytokine profile, and increased expression of the M1 macrophage-associated molecules CD38 and CD86. Interestingly, NK-4 augmented TNF-α production by THP-1 macrophages in combination with LPS, Pam3CSK4, or poly(I:C). Furthermore, NK-4 treatment enhanced THP-1 macrophage phagocytosis of latex beads. These results indicate that NK-4 drives macrophage polarization toward an inflammatory M1-like phenotype with increased phagocytic activity. Efferocytosis is a crucial event for resolution of the inflammatory phase in wound healing. NK-4-treated THP-1 macrophages co-cultured with apoptotic Jurkat E6.1 (Apo-J) cells switched from an M1-like phenotype to an M2-like phenotype, as seen in the inverted ratio of TNF-α to IL-10 produced in response to LPS. We identified two separate mechanisms that are involved in this phenotypic switch. First, recognition of phosphatidylserine molecules on Apo-J cells by THP-1 macrophages downregulates TNF-α production. Second, phagocytosis of Apo-J cells by THP-1 macrophages and activation of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway upregulates IL-10 production. Conclusion It is postulated that the phenotypic switch from a proinflammatory M1-like phenotype to an anti-inflammatory M2-like phenotype is dysregulated due to impaired efferocytosis of apoptotic neutrophils at the wound site. Our results demonstrate that NK-4 improves phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, suggesting its potential as a therapeutic strategy to resolve sustained inflammation in chronic wounds.
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25
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Llopiz D, Ruiz M, Silva L, Repáraz D, Aparicio B, Egea J, Lasarte JJ, Redin E, Calvo A, Angel M, Berzofsky JA, Stroncek D, Sarobe P. Inhibition of adjuvant-induced TAM receptors potentiates cancer vaccine immunogenicity and therapeutic efficacy. Cancer Lett 2020; 499:279-289. [PMID: 33232788 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2020.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Analyzing immunomodulatory elements operating during antitumor vaccination in prostate cancer patients and murine models we identified IL-10-producing DC as a subset with poorer immunogenicity and clinical efficacy. Inhibitory TAM receptors MER and AXL were upregulated on murine IL-10+ DC. Thus, we analyzed conditions inducing these molecules and the potential benefit of their blockade during vaccination. MER and AXL upregulation was more efficiently induced by a vaccine containing Imiquimod than by a poly(I:C)-containing vaccine. Interestingly, MER expression was found on monocyte-derived DC, and was dependent on IL-10. TAM blockade improved Imiquimod-induced DC activation in vitro and in vivo, resulting in increased vaccine-induced T-cell responses, which were further reinforced by concomitant IL-10 inhibition. In different tumor models, a triple therapy (including vaccination, TAM inhibition and IL-10 blockade) provided the strongest therapeutic effect, associated with enhanced T-cell immunity and enhanced CD8+ T cell tumor infiltration. Finally, MER levels in DC used for vaccination in cancer patients correlated with IL-10 expression, showing an inverse association with vaccine-induced clinical response. These results suggest that TAM receptors upregulated during vaccination may constitute an additional target in combinatorial therapeutic vaccination strategies.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Animals
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cancer Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Cancer Vaccines/immunology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Dendritic Cells/drug effects
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/immunology
- Humans
- Imiquimod/administration & dosage
- Immunogenicity, Vaccine/drug effects
- Immunotherapy/methods
- Interleukin-10/metabolism
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/drug effects
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/immunology
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/metabolism
- Male
- Melanoma, Experimental/immunology
- Melanoma, Experimental/pathology
- Melanoma, Experimental/therapy
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Poly I-C/administration & dosage
- Prostatic Neoplasms/immunology
- Prostatic Neoplasms/pathology
- Prostatic Neoplasms/therapy
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/genetics
- Pyrimidines
- Quinolines
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Up-Regulation/drug effects
- Up-Regulation/immunology
- c-Mer Tyrosine Kinase/antagonists & inhibitors
- c-Mer Tyrosine Kinase/genetics
- Axl Receptor Tyrosine Kinase
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Llopiz
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Marta Ruiz
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Leyre Silva
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - David Repáraz
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Belén Aparicio
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Josune Egea
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Juan J Lasarte
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Esther Redin
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; CIBERONC, ISCIII, Madrid, Spain; Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Alfonso Calvo
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; CIBERONC, ISCIII, Madrid, Spain; Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Matthew Angel
- Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA; Center for Cancer Research Collaborative Bioinformatics Resource, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., FNLCR, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Jay A Berzofsky
- Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - David Stroncek
- Center for Cellular Engineering, Department of Transfusion Medicine, NIH Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Pablo Sarobe
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
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Kumar V. Toll-like receptors in sepsis-associated cytokine storm and their endogenous negative regulators as future immunomodulatory targets. Int Immunopharmacol 2020; 89:107087. [PMID: 33075714 PMCID: PMC7550173 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2020.107087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Sepsis infects more than 48.9 million people world-wide, with 19.7 million deaths. Cytokine storm plays a significant role in sepsis, along with severe COVID-19. TLR signaling pathways plays a crucial role in generating the cytokine storm. Endogenous negative regulators of TLR signaling are crucial to regulate cytokine storm.
Cytokine storm generates during various systemic acute infections, including sepsis and current pandemic called COVID-19 (severe) causing devastating inflammatory conditions, which include multi-organ failure or multi-organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) and death of the patient. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are one of the major pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) expressed by immune cells as well as non-immune cells, including neurons, which play a crucial role in generating cytokine storm. They recognize microbial-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs, expressed by pathogens) and damage or death-associate molecular patterns (DAMPs; released and/expressed by damaged/killed host cells). Upon recognition of MAMPs and DAMPs, TLRs activate downstream signaling pathways releasing several pro-inflammatory mediators [cytokines, chemokines, interferons, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS or RNS)], which cause acute inflammation meant to control the pathogen and repair the damage. Induction of an exaggerated response due to genetic makeup of the host and/or persistence of the pathogen due to its evasion mechanisms may lead to severe systemic inflammatory condition called sepsis in response to the generation of cytokine storm and organ dysfunction. The activation of TLR-induced inflammatory response is hardwired to the induction of several negative feedback mechanisms that come into play to conclude the response and maintain immune homeostasis. This state-of-the-art review describes the importance of TLR signaling in the onset of the sepsis-associated cytokine storm and discusses various host-derived endogenous negative regulators of TLR signaling pathways. The subject is very important as there is a vast array of genes and processes implicated in these negative feedback mechanisms. These molecules and mechanisms can be targeted for developing novel therapeutic drugs for cytokine storm-associated diseases, including sepsis, severe COVID-19, and other inflammatory diseases, where TLR-signaling plays a significant role.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Kumar
- Children Health Clinical Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Mater Research, University of Queensland, ST Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4078, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, ST Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4078, Australia.
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27
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Cai B, Kasikara C. TAM receptors and their ligand-mediated activation: Role in atherosclerosis. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2020; 357:21-33. [PMID: 33234243 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2020.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
TAM family tyrosine kinase receptors including Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK are the key efferocytosis receptors presenting on antigen-presenting cell that mediate the clearance of apoptotic cells. They are thought to regulate inflammatory diseases by modulating inflammatory response and efferocytosis. Recent studies have revealed novel roles of TAM receptors in the biosynthesis of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) and inflammation resolution. In this chapter, we discuss the central roles of TAM signaling in atherosclerosis focusing on their regulation in efferocytosis and inflammation resolution and highlight the unique therapeutic potential of SPMs in blocking the progression of atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bishuang Cai
- Division of Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States.
| | - Canan Kasikara
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
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28
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Gadiyar V, Lahey KC, Calianese D, Devoe C, Mehta D, Bono K, Desind S, Davra V, Birge RB. Cell Death in the Tumor Microenvironment: Implications for Cancer Immunotherapy. Cells 2020; 9:cells9102207. [PMID: 33003477 PMCID: PMC7599747 DOI: 10.3390/cells9102207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The physiological fate of cells that die by apoptosis is their prompt and efficient removal by efferocytosis. During these processes, apoptotic cells release intracellular constituents that include purine nucleotides, lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), and Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) that induce migration and chemo-attraction of phagocytes as well as mitogens and extracellular membrane-bound vesicles that contribute to apoptosis-induced compensatory proliferation and alteration of the extracellular matrix and the vascular network. Additionally, during efferocytosis, phagocytic cells produce a number of anti-inflammatory and resolving factors, and, together with apoptotic cells, efferocytic events have a homeostatic function that regulates tissue repair. These homeostatic functions are dysregulated in cancers, where, aforementioned events, if not properly controlled, can lead to cancer progression and immune escape. Here, we summarize evidence that apoptosis and efferocytosis are exploited in cancer, as well as discuss current translation and clinical efforts to harness signals from dying cells into therapeutic strategies.
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29
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Huelse J, Fridlyand D, Earp S, DeRyckere D, Graham DK. MERTK in cancer therapy: Targeting the receptor tyrosine kinase in tumor cells and the immune system. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 213:107577. [PMID: 32417270 PMCID: PMC9847360 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The receptor tyrosine kinase MERTK is aberrantly expressed in numerous human malignancies, and is a novel target in cancer therapeutics. Physiologic roles of MERTK include regulation of tissue homeostasis and repair, innate immune control, and platelet aggregation. However, aberrant expression in a wide range of liquid and solid malignancies promotes neoplasia via growth factor independence, cell cycle progression, proliferation and tumor growth, resistance to apoptosis, and promotion of tumor metastases. Additionally, MERTK signaling contributes to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment via induction of an anti-inflammatory cytokine profile and regulation of the PD-1 axis, as well as regulation of macrophage, myeloid-derived suppressor cell, natural killer cell and T cell functions. Various MERTK-directed therapies are in preclinical development, and clinical trials are underway. In this review we discuss MERTK inhibition as an emerging strategy for cancer therapy, focusing on MERTK expression and function in neoplasia and its role in mediating resistance to cytotoxic and targeted therapies as well as in suppressing anti-tumor immunity. Additionally, we review preclinical and clinical pharmacological strategies to target MERTK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justus Huelse
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Diana Fridlyand
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Shelton Earp
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Deborah DeRyckere
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Douglas K. Graham
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
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30
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De Maeyer RPH, van de Merwe RC, Louie R, Bracken OV, Devine OP, Goldstein DR, Uddin M, Akbar AN, Gilroy DW. Blocking elevated p38 MAPK restores efferocytosis and inflammatory resolution in the elderly. Nat Immunol 2020; 21:615-625. [PMID: 32251403 PMCID: PMC7983074 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-020-0646-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Increasing age alters innate immune-mediated responses; however, the mechanisms underpinning these changes in humans are not fully understood. Using a human dermal model of acute inflammation, we found that, although inflammatory onset is similar between young and elderly individuals, the resolution phase was substantially impaired in elderly individuals. This arose from a reduction in T cell immunoglobulin mucin receptor-4 (TIM-4), a phosphatidylserine receptor expressed on macrophages that enables the engulfment of apoptotic bodies, so-called efferocytosis. Reduced TIM-4 in elderly individuals was caused by an elevation in macrophage p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity. Administering an orally active p38 inhibitor to elderly individuals rescued TIM-4 expression, cleared apoptotic bodies and restored a macrophage resolution phenotype. Thus, inhibiting p38 in elderly individuals rejuvenated their resolution response to be more similar to that of younger people. This is the first resolution defect identified in humans that has been successfully reversed, thereby highlighting the tractability of targeting pro-resolution biology to treat diseases driven by chronic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rikah Louie
- Division of Medicine, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Oliver P Devine
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, UK
| | - Daniel R Goldstein
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Mohib Uddin
- Respiratory Global Medicines Development, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Arne N Akbar
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, UK
| | - Derek W Gilroy
- Division of Medicine, University College London, London, UK.
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31
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Zhou Y, Yao Y, Deng Y, Shao A. Regulation of efferocytosis as a novel cancer therapy. Cell Commun Signal 2020; 18:71. [PMID: 32370748 PMCID: PMC7199874 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-020-00542-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Efferocytosis is a physiologic phagocytic clearance of apoptotic cells, which modulates inflammatory responses and the immune environment and subsequently facilitates immune escape of cancer cells, thus promoting tumor development and progression. Efferocytosis is an equilibrium formed by perfect coordination among “find-me”, “eat-me” and “don’t-eat-me” signals. These signaling pathways not only affect the proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and angiogenesis of tumor cells but also regulate adaptive responses and drug resistance to antitumor therapies. Therefore, efferocytosis-related molecules and pathways are potential targets for antitumor therapy. Besides, supplementing conventional chemotherapy, radiotherapy and other immunotherapies with efferocytosis-targeted therapy could enhance the therapeutic efficacy, reduce off-target toxicity, and promote patient outcome. Video abstract
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunxiang Zhou
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yihan Yao
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yongchuan Deng
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Anwen Shao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
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32
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Zheng G, Li LF, Zhang Y, Qu L, Wang W, Li M, Yu S, Zhou M, Luo Y, Sun Y, Munir M, Li S, Qiu HJ. MERTK is a host factor that promotes classical swine fever virus entry and antagonizes innate immune response in PK-15 cells. Emerg Microbes Infect 2020; 9:571-581. [PMID: 32172658 PMCID: PMC7144274 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2020.1738278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Classical swine fever virus (CSFV) is a member of the genus Pestivirus in the Flaviviridae family. To date, the host factors required for CSFV entry remain poorly characterized. To identify the functional membrane protein(s) involved in CSFV infection, we analyzed the transcriptomic data from previous studies describing gene expression profiles for CSFV, and found twelve novel candidate proteins. One of these proteins, MERTK, significantly reduced CSFV protein expression by RNA interference screening using a recombinant CSFV that contains a luciferase reporter to measure CSFV protein expression. Furthermore, our results demonstrated that either anti-MERTK antibodies or soluble MERTK ectodomain could reduce CSFV infection in PK-15 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Mechanistically, MERTK interacted with the E2 protein of CSFV and facilitated virus entry. After virus entry, MERTK downregulates of mRNA expression of IFN-β and promotes CSFV infection. Interestingly, the soluble MERTK ectodomain could also reduce the infection of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), another pestivirus. Taken together, our results suggested that MERTK is a CSFV entry factor that synergistically dampens innate immune responses in PK-15 cells and is also involved in BVDV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanglai Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Lian-Feng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuexiu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenjing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Miao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Shaoxiong Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Mo Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuzi Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Muhammad Munir
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, United Kingdom
| | - Su Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Hua-Ji Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
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33
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Kulkarni HS, Scozzi D, Gelman AE. Recent advances into the role of pattern recognition receptors in transplantation. Cell Immunol 2020; 351:104088. [PMID: 32183988 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2020.104088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are germline-encoded sensors best characterized for their critical role in host defense. However, there is accumulating evidence that organ transplantation induces the release or display of molecular patterns of cellular injury and death that trigger PRR-mediated inflammatory responses. There are also new insights that indicate PRRs are able to distinguish between self and non-self, suggesting the existence of non-clonal mechanisms of allorecognition. Collectively, these reports have spurred considerable interest into whether PRRs or their ligands can be targeted to promote transplant survival. This review examines the mounting evidence that PRRs play in transplant-mediated inflammation. Given the large number of PRRs, we will focus on members from four families: the complement system, toll-like receptors, the formylated peptide receptor, and scavenger receptors through examining reports of their activity in experimental models of cellular and solid organ transplantation as well as in the clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hrishikesh S Kulkarni
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Davide Scozzi
- Department of Surgery, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Andrew E Gelman
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA; Department of Surgery, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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Cai B, Dongiovanni P, Corey KE, Wang X, Shmarakov IO, Zheng Z, Kasikara C, Davra V, Meroni M, Chung RT, Rothlin CV, Schwabe RF, Blaner WS, Birge RB, Valenti L, Tabas I. Macrophage MerTK Promotes Liver Fibrosis in Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis. Cell Metab 2020; 31:406-421.e7. [PMID: 31839486 PMCID: PMC7004886 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2019.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is emerging as a leading cause of chronic liver disease. However, therapeutic options are limited by incomplete understanding of the mechanisms of NASH fibrosis, which is mediated by activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). In humans, human genetic studies have shown that hypomorphic variations in MERTK, encoding the macrophage c-mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK) receptor, provide protection against liver fibrosis, but the mechanisms remain unknown. We now show that holo- or myeloid-specific Mertk targeting in NASH mice decreases liver fibrosis, congruent with the human genetic data. Furthermore, ADAM metallopeptidase domain 17 (ADAM17)-mediated MerTK cleavage in liver macrophages decreases during steatosis to NASH transition, and mice with a cleavage-resistant MerTK mutant have increased NASH fibrosis. Macrophage MerTK promotes an ERK-TGFβ1 pathway that activates HSCs and induces liver fibrosis. These data provide insights into the role of liver macrophages in NASH fibrosis and provide a plausible mechanism underlying MERTK as a genetic risk factor for NASH fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bishuang Cai
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | - Paola Dongiovanni
- General Medicine and Metabolic Diseases, Fondazione Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano 20122, Italy
| | - Kathleen E Corey
- Liver Center, Gastrointestinal Division, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Xiaobo Wang
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Igor O Shmarakov
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Ze Zheng
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Canan Kasikara
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Viralkumar Davra
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Marica Meroni
- General Medicine and Metabolic Diseases, Fondazione Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano 20122, Italy
| | - Raymond T Chung
- Liver Center, Gastrointestinal Division, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Carla V Rothlin
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine and Department of Pharmacology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Robert F Schwabe
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - William S Blaner
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Raymond B Birge
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Luca Valenti
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano 20122, Italy; Translational Medicine - Transfusion Medicine and Hematology, Fondazione Ca' Granda IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano 20122, Italy
| | - Ira Tabas
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Departments of Pathology & Cell Biology and Physiology & Cellular Biophysics, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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35
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Li Y, Wittchen ES, Monaghan-Benson E, Hahn C, Earp HS, Doerschuk CM, Burridge K. The role of endothelial MERTK during the inflammatory response in lungs. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0225051. [PMID: 31805065 PMCID: PMC6894824 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0225051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
As a key homeostasis regulator in mammals, the MERTK receptor tyrosine kinase is crucial for efferocytosis, a process that requires remodeling of the cell membrane and adjacent actin cytoskeleton. Membrane and cytoskeletal reorganization also occur in endothelial cells during inflammation, particularly during neutrophil transendothelial migration (TEM) and during changes in permeability. However, MERTK’s function in endothelial cells remains unclear. This study evaluated the contribution of endothelial MERTK to neutrophil TEM and endothelial barrier function. In vitro experiments using primary human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells found that neutrophil TEM across the endothelial monolayers was enhanced when MERTK expression in endothelial cells was reduced by siRNA knockdown. Examination of endothelial barrier function revealed increased passage of dextran across the MERTK-depleted monolayers, suggesting that MERTK helps maintain endothelial barrier function. MERTK knockdown also altered adherens junction structure, decreased junction protein levels, and reduced basal Rac1 activity in endothelial cells, providing potential mechanisms of how MERTK regulates endothelial barrier function. To study MERTK’s function in vivo, inflammation in the lungs of global Mertk-/- mice was examined during acute pneumonia. In response to P. aeruginosa, more neutrophils were recruited to the lungs of Mertk-/- than wildtype mice. Vascular leakage of Evans blue dye into the lung tissue was also greater in Mertk-/- mice. To analyze endothelial MERTK’s involvement in these processes, we generated inducible endothelial cell-specific (iEC) Mertk-/- mice. When similarly challenged with P. aeruginosa, iEC Mertk-/- mice demonstrated no difference in neutrophil TEM into the inflamed lungs or in vascular permeability compared to control mice. These results suggest that deletion of MERTK in human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells in vitro and in all cells in vivo aggravates the inflammatory response. However, selective MERTK deletion in endothelial cells in vivo failed to replicate this response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yitong Li
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Erika S Wittchen
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Monaghan-Benson
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Cornelia Hahn
- Marsico Lung Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America.,Division of Pulmonary Diseases and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - H Shelton Earp
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Claire M Doerschuk
- Marsico Lung Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America.,Division of Pulmonary Diseases and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America.,Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Keith Burridge
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America.,Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
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Caetano MS, Younes AI, Barsoumian HB, Quigley M, Menon H, Gao C, Spires T, Reilly TP, Cadena AP, Cushman TR, Schoenhals JE, Li A, Nguyen QN, Cortez MA, Welsh JW. Triple Therapy with MerTK and PD1 Inhibition Plus Radiotherapy Promotes Abscopal Antitumor Immune Responses. Clin Cancer Res 2019; 25:7576-7584. [PMID: 31540976 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-19-0795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Radiotherapy (RT) traditionally has been used for local tumor control in the treatment of cancer. The recent discovery that radiotherapy can have anticancer effects on the immune system has led to recognition of its ability to sensitize the tumor microenvironment to immunotherapy. However, radiation can also prompt adverse immunosuppressive effects that block aspects of systemic response at other tumor sites. Our hypothesis was that inhibition of the MER proto-oncogene tyrosine kinase (MerTK) in combination with anti-programmed cell death-1 (α-PD1) checkpoint blockade will enhance immune-mediated responses to radiotherapy. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We tested the efficacy of this triple therapy (Radiation + α-PD1 + α-MerTK mAbs) in 129Sv/Ev mice with bilateral lung adenocarcinoma xenografts. Primary tumors were treated with stereotactic radiotherapy (36 Gy in 3 12-Gy fractions), and tumors were monitored for response. RESULTS The triple therapy significantly delayed abscopal tumor growth, improved survival rates, and reduced numbers of lung metastases. We further found that the triple therapy increased the activated CD8+ and NK cells populations measured by granzyme B expression with upregulation of CD8+CD103+ tissue-resident memory cells (TRM) within the abscopal tumor microenvironment relative to radiation only. CONCLUSIONS The addition of α-PD1 + α-MerTK mAbs to radiotherapy could alter the cell death to be more immunogenic and generate adaptive immune response via increasing the retention of TRM cells in the tumor islets of the abscopal tumors which was proven to play a major role in survival of non-small cell lung cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauricio S Caetano
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Ahmed I Younes
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | | | - Michael Quigley
- Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMS), Redwood City, California and Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Hari Menon
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Chan Gao
- Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMS), Redwood City, California and Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Thomas Spires
- Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMS), Redwood City, California and Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Timothy P Reilly
- Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMS), Redwood City, California and Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Alexandra P Cadena
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Taylor R Cushman
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas.,University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - Jonathan E Schoenhals
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas.,University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas
| | - Ailin Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas.,Department of Radiation Oncology, First Hospital of China Medical University, China
| | - Quynh-Nhu Nguyen
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Maria Angelica Cortez
- Department of Experimental Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - James W Welsh
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas.
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37
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Arienti S, Barth ND, Dorward DA, Rossi AG, Dransfield I. Regulation of Apoptotic Cell Clearance During Resolution of Inflammation. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:891. [PMID: 31456686 PMCID: PMC6701246 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Programmed cell death (apoptosis) has an important role in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis as well as the progression and ultimate resolution of inflammation. During apoptosis, the cell undergoes morphological and biochemical changes [e.g., phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) exposure, caspase activation, changes in mitochondrial membrane potential and DNA cleavage] that act to shut down cellular function and mark the cell for phagocytic clearance. Tissue phagocytes bind and internalize apoptotic cells, bodies, and vesicles, providing a mechanism for the safe disposal of apoptotic material. Phagocytic removal of apoptotic cells before they undergo secondary necrosis reduces the potential for bystander damage to adjacent tissue and importantly initiates signaling pathways within the phagocytic cell that act to dampen inflammation. In a pathological context, excessive apoptosis or failure to clear apoptotic material results in secondary necrosis with the release of pro-inflammatory intracellular contents. In this review, we consider some of the mechanisms by which phagocytosis of apoptotic cells can be controlled. We suggest that matching apoptotic cell load with the capacity for apoptotic cell clearance within tissues may be important for therapeutic strategies that target the apoptotic process for treatment of inflammatory disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Arienti
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Nicole D Barth
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David A Dorward
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Adriano G Rossi
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Ian Dransfield
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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38
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Clark R, Usselmann L, Brown MR, Goeppert AU, Corrigan A. A flexible high content imaging assay for profiling macrophage efferocytosis. J Immunol Methods 2019; 473:112636. [PMID: 31369739 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2019.112636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 05/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are a diverse population of cells originating from the myeloid lineage, which form an important component of the innate immune system, helping to regulate immune response through secretion of pro/anti-inflammatory cytokines. However they also have an important homeostatic role - helping to remove cellular debris and apoptotic cells from the body (a phagocytic process known as efferocytosis). Here we describe a robust 384 well microplate based imaging assay, using apoptotic target cells for the specific quantification of efferocytosis in human primary monocyte derived macrophages. The methodology described allows for the assay to run in either fixed end-point or live-cell format (the former offering multiple morphological and intensity-based readouts, whilst the latter opens the possibility for future expansion of the methodology to encompass kinetic profiling). Within the methodology described we couple high content image acquisition (on the Cell Voyager 7000S) with multi-parametric image analysis - using Perkin Elmer Columbus combined with GeneData Screener.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Clark
- Discovery Sciences, IMED Biotech Unit, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Laura Usselmann
- Discovery Sciences, IMED Biotech Unit, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Martin R Brown
- Discovery Sciences, IMED Biotech Unit, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Anne U Goeppert
- Precision Medicine, Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Adam Corrigan
- Discovery Sciences, IMED Biotech Unit, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
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39
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Pastore M, Grimaudo S, Pipitone RM, Lori G, Raggi C, Petta S, Marra F. Role of Myeloid-Epithelial-Reproductive Tyrosine Kinase and Macrophage Polarization in the Progression of Atherosclerotic Lesions Associated With Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:604. [PMID: 31191323 PMCID: PMC6548874 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent lines of evidence highlight the involvement of myeloid-epithelial-reproductive tyrosine kinase (MerTK) in metabolic disease associated with liver damage. MerTK is mainly expressed in anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages where it mediates transcriptional changes including suppression of proinflammatory cytokines and enhancement of inflammatory repressors. MerTK is regulated by metabolic pathways through nuclear sensors including LXRs, PPARs, and RXRs, in response to apoptotic bodies or to other sources of cholesterol. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most serious public health problems worldwide. It is a clinicopathological syndrome closely related to obesity, insulin resistance, and oxidative stress. It includes a spectrum of conditions ranging from simple steatosis, characterized by hepatic fat accumulation with or without inflammation, to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), defined by hepatic fat deposition with hepatocellular damage, inflammation, and accumulating fibrosis. Several studies support an association between NAFLD and the incidence of cardiovascular diseases including atherosclerosis, a major cause of death worldwide. This pathological condition consists in a chronic and progressive inflammatory process in the intimal layer of large- and medium-sized arteries. The complications of advanced atherosclerosis include chronic or acute ischemic damage in the tissue perfused by the affected artery, leading to cellular death. By identifying specific targets influencing lipid metabolism and cardiovascular-related diseases, the present review highlights the role of MerTK in NAFLD-associated atherosclerotic lesions as a potential innovative therapeutic target. Therapeutic advantages might derive from the use of compounds selective for nuclear receptors targeting PPARs rather than LXRs regulating macrophage lipid metabolism and macrophage mediated inflammation, by favoring the expression of MerTK, which mediates an immunoregulatory action with a reduction in inflammation and in atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirella Pastore
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Stefania Grimaudo
- Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, PROMISE, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Rosaria Maria Pipitone
- Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, PROMISE, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Giulia Lori
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Chiara Raggi
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.,Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Italy
| | - Salvatore Petta
- Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, PROMISE, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Fabio Marra
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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40
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Shelby SJ. A course-based undergraduate research experience in biochemistry that is suitable for students with various levels of preparedness. BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY EDUCATION : A BIMONTHLY PUBLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL UNION OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 47:220-227. [PMID: 30794348 DOI: 10.1002/bmb.21227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Due to resource limitations at predominantly undergraduate institutions, research opportunities for non-senior students can be limited. To provide opportunities for a variety of students to gain exposure to research, a course-based undergraduate research experience (CURE) was designed and conducted. Coupled inquiry was used to allow underclassmen and upperclassmen to participate. Students first utilized a bioinformatics approach to develop hypotheses concerning protein interactions with the receptor Mer tyrosine kinase (MERTK). Students designed experiments to identify specific sites of interactions with SH2-domain proteins utilizing an assortment of basic biochemical techniques. The semester culminated in students testing their hypotheses and producing manuscripts. Underclassmen that participated in the course also benefitted from mentor-mentee relationships developed with upperclassmen due to the collaborative nature of the course. The structure of the course also allows for further studies to be conducted based on novel findings and is highly adaptable to receptor tyrosine kinases found in other tissue types. © 2019 International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 47(3):220-227, 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shameka J Shelby
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Physics, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida 33801
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41
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Kasikara C, Davra V, Calianese D, Geng K, Spires TE, Quigley M, Wichroski M, Sriram G, Suarez-Lopez L, Yaffe MB, Kotenko SV, De Lorenzo MS, Birge RB. Pan-TAM Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor BMS-777607 Enhances Anti–PD-1 mAb Efficacy in a Murine Model of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer. Cancer Res 2019; 79:2669-2683. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-18-2614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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42
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Nishi C, Yanagihashi Y, Segawa K, Nagata S. MERTK tyrosine kinase receptor together with TIM4 phosphatidylserine receptor mediates distinct signal transduction pathways for efferocytosis and cell proliferation. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:7221-7230. [PMID: 30846565 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.006628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptotic cells expose phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) on their surface, leading to efferocytosis, i.e. their engulfment by resident macrophages that express the PtdSer receptor T cell immunoglobulin mucin receptor 4 (TIM4) and TAM family receptor tyrosine kinase receptors (MERTK, AXL, and TYRO3). TAM family receptors stimulate cell proliferation, and the many aspects of the growth signaling pathway downstream of TAM family receptors have been elucidated previously. However, the signaling cascade for TAM receptor-mediated efferocytosis has been elusive. Here we observed that efferocytosis by mouse-resident peritoneal macrophages was blocked by inhibitors against the MERTK, mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase (MEK), AKT Ser/Thr kinase (AKT), focal adhesion kinase (FAK), or STAT6 pathway. Accordingly, apoptotic cells stimulated the phosphorylation of MERTK, ERK, AKT, FAK, and STAT6, but not of IκB or STAT5. A reconstituted efferocytosis system using MERTK- and TIM4-expressing NIH3T3-derived cells revealed that the juxtamembrane and C-terminal regions of MERTK have redundant roles in efferocytosis. The transformation of murine IL-3-dependent Ba/F3 cells (a pro-B cell line) with MERTK and TIM4 enabled them to proliferate in response to apoptotic cells in a PtdSer-dependent manner. This apoptotic cell-induced MERTK-mediated proliferation required both MERTK's juxtamembrane and C-terminal regions and was blocked by inhibitors of not only ERK, AKT, FAK, and STAT6 but also of NF-κB and STAT5 signaling. These results suggest that apoptotic cells stimulate distinct sets of signal transduction pathways via MERTK to induce either efferocytosis or proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chihiro Nishi
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry and Immunology, World Premier International Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Yuichi Yanagihashi
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry and Immunology, World Premier International Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Katsumori Segawa
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry and Immunology, World Premier International Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Shigekazu Nagata
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry and Immunology, World Premier International Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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43
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Cai B, Kasikara C, Doran AC, Ramakrishnan R, Birge RB, Tabas I. MerTK signaling in macrophages promotes the synthesis of inflammation resolution mediators by suppressing CaMKII activity. Sci Signal 2018; 11:eaar3721. [PMID: 30254055 PMCID: PMC6171110 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aar3721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation resolution counterbalances excessive inflammation and restores tissue homeostasis after injury. Failure of resolution contributes to the pathology of numerous chronic inflammatory diseases. Resolution is mediated by endogenous specialized proresolving mediators (SPMs), which are derived from long-chain fatty acids by lipoxygenase (LOX) enzymes. 5-LOX plays a critical role in the biosynthesis of two classes of SPMs: lipoxins and resolvins. Cytoplasmic localization of the nonphosphorylated form of 5-LOX is essential for SPM biosynthesis, whereas nuclear localization of phosphorylated 5-LOX promotes proinflammatory leukotriene production. We previously showed that MerTK, an efferocytosis receptor on macrophages, promotes SPM biosynthesis by increasing the abundance of nonphosphorylated, cytoplasmic 5-LOX. We now show that activation of MerTK in human macrophages led to ERK-mediated expression of the gene encoding sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase 2 (SERCA2), which decreased the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration and suppressed the activity of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). This, in turn, reduced the activities of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p38 and the kinase MK2, resulting in the increased abundance of the nonphosphorylated, cytoplasmic form of 5-LOX and enhanced SPM biosynthesis. In a zymosan-induced peritonitis model, an inflammatory setting in which macrophage MerTK activation promotes resolution, inhibition of ERK activation delayed resolution, which was characterized by an increased number of neutrophils and decreased amounts of SPMs in tissue exudates. These findings contribute to our understanding of how MerTK signaling induces 5-LOX-derived SPM biosynthesis and suggest a therapeutic strategy to boost inflammation resolution in settings where defective resolution promotes disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bishuang Cai
- Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Cell Biology, and Physiology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | - Canan Kasikara
- Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Cell Biology, and Physiology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Amanda C Doran
- Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Cell Biology, and Physiology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | | | - Raymond B Birge
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Ira Tabas
- Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Cell Biology, and Physiology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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44
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Barth ND, Marwick JA, Heeb MJ, Gale AJ, Rossi AG, Dransfield I. Augmentation of Human Monocyte Responses to Lipopolysaccharide by the Protein S and Mer/Tyro3 Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Axis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 201:2602-2611. [PMID: 30249810 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1800249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Resolution of the inflammatory response requires coordinated regulation of pro- and anti-inflammatory mediator production, together with clearance of recruited inflammatory cells. Many different receptors have been implicated in phagocytosis of apoptotic cells (efferocytosis), including Mer, a receptor tyrosine kinase that can mediate recognition and subsequent internalization of apoptotic cells. In this manuscript, we examine the expression and function of the Tyro3/Axl/Mer (TAM) family of receptors by human monocytes. We demonstrate that the Mer ligand, protein S, binds to the surface of viable monocytes via phosphatidylserine-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Importantly, we have identified a novel role for receptor tyrosine kinase signaling in the augmentation of monocyte cytokine release in response to LPS. We propose that low-level phosphatidylserine exposure on the plasma membrane of viable monocytes allows protein S binding that leads to TAM-dependent augmentation of proinflammatory cytokine production. Our findings identify a potentially important role for TAM-mediated signaling during the initiation phase of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole D Barth
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom; and
| | - John A Marwick
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom; and
| | - Mary Jo Heeb
- The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | | | - Adriano G Rossi
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom; and
| | - Ian Dransfield
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom; and
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45
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Teku GN, Vihinen M. Simulation of the Dynamics of Primary Immunodeficiencies in B Cells. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1785. [PMID: 30116248 PMCID: PMC6082931 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) are a group of over 300 hereditary, heterogeneous, and mainly rare disorders that affect the immune system. Various aspects of immune system and PID proteins and genes have been investigated and facilitate systems biological studies of effects of PIDs on B cell physiology and response. We reconstructed a B cell network model based on data for the core B cell receptor activation and response processes and performed semi-quantitative dynamic simulations for normal and B cell PID failure modes. The results for several knockout simulations correspond to previously reported molecular studies and reveal novel mechanisms for PIDs. The simulations for CD21, CD40, LYN, MS4A1, ORAI1, PLCG2, PTPRC, and STIM1 indicated profound changes to major transcription factor signaling and to the network. Significant effects were observed also in the BCL10, BLNK, BTK, loss-of-function CARD11, IKKB, MALT1, and NEMO, simulations whereas only minor effects were detected for PIDs that are caused by constitutively active proteins (PI3K, gain-of-function CARD11, KRAS, and NFKBIA). This study revealed the underlying dynamics of PID diseases, confirms previous observations, and identifies novel candidates for PID diagnostics and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mauno Vihinen
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, BMC B13, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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46
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Ubil E, Caskey L, Holtzhausen A, Hunter D, Story C, Earp HS. Tumor-secreted Pros1 inhibits macrophage M1 polarization to reduce antitumor immune response. J Clin Invest 2018; 128:2356-2369. [PMID: 29708510 DOI: 10.1172/jci97354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl, Mer (TAM) receptor tyrosine kinases reduce inflammatory, innate immune responses. We demonstrate that tumor-secreted protein S (Pros1), a Mer/Tyro3 ligand, decreased macrophage M1 cytokine expression in vitro and in vivo. In contrast, tumor cells with CRISPR-based deletion of Pros1 failed to inhibit M1 polarization. Tumor cell-associated Pros1 action was abrogated in macrophages from Mer- and Tyro3- but not Axl-KO mice. In addition, several other murine and human tumor cell lines suppressed macrophage M1 cytokine expression induced by IFN-γ and LPS. Investigation of the suppressive pathway demonstrated a role for PTP1b complexing with Mer. Substantiating the role of PTP1b, M1 cytokine suppression was also lost in macrophages from PTP1b-KO mice. Mice bearing Pros1-deficient tumors showed increased innate and adaptive immune infiltration, as well as increased median survival. TAM activation can also inhibit TLR-mediated M1 polarization. Treatment with resiquimod, a TLR7/8 agonist, did not improve survival in mice bearing Pros1-secreting tumors but doubled survival for Pros1-deleted tumors. The tumor-derived Pros1 immune suppressive system, like PD-L1, was cytokine responsive, with IFN-γ inducing Pros1 transcription and secretion. Inhibition of Pros1/TAM interaction represents a potential novel strategy to block tumor-derived immune suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Ubil
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center and
| | | | | | | | | | - H Shelton Earp
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center and.,Departments of Medicine and Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC), Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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47
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Shafit-Zagardo B, Gruber RC, DuBois JC. The role of TAM family receptors and ligands in the nervous system: From development to pathobiology. Pharmacol Ther 2018. [PMID: 29514053 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk, referred to as the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases, are instrumental in maintaining cell survival and homeostasis in mammals. TAM receptors interact with multiple signaling molecules to regulate cell migration, survival, phagocytosis and clearance of metabolic products and cell debris called efferocytosis. The TAMs also function as rheostats to reduce the expression of proinflammatory molecules and prevent autoimmunity. All three TAM receptors are activated in a concentration-dependent manner by the vitamin K-dependent growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6). Gas6 and the TAMs are abundantly expressed in the nervous system. Gas6, secreted by neurons and endothelial cells, is the sole ligand for Axl. ProteinS1 (ProS1), another vitamin K-dependent protein functions mainly as an anti-coagulant, and independent of this function can activate Tyro3 and Mertk, but not Axl. This review will focus on the role of the TAM receptors and their ligands in the nervous system. We highlight studies that explore the function of TAM signaling in myelination, the visual cortex, neural cancers, and multiple sclerosis (MS) using Gas6-/- and TAM mutant mice models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget Shafit-Zagardo
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Pathology, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, United States.
| | - Ross C Gruber
- Sanofi, Neuroinflammation and MS Research, 49 New York Ave, Framingham, MA 01701, United States
| | - Juwen C DuBois
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Pathology, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, United States
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48
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Kim JE, Kim Y, Li G, Kim ST, Kim K, Park SH, Park JO, Park YS, Lim HY, Lee H, Sohn TS, Kim KM, Kang WK, Lee J. MerTK inhibition by RXDX-106 in MerTK activated gastric cancer cell lines. Oncotarget 2017; 8:105727-105734. [PMID: 29285287 PMCID: PMC5739674 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.22394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
RXDX-106 is a potent and selective type II pseudo-irreversible (slow off-rate) inhibitor of TYRO3, AXL, MER and c-MET. MER tyrosine kinase (MerTK) is expressed in a variety of malignancies, including gastric cancer (GC). The oncogenic potential of MerTK is supported by various lines of evidence. First, we surveyed 10 GC cell lines for MerTK protein overexpression and MerTk phosphorylation. We next evaluated the change of downstream signaling molecules including (p)-ERK and (p)-AKT, following RXDX-106 treatment. We also investigated the effect of RXDX-106 in patient-derived cell lines to mimic the in vivo condition. The prevalence of MerTK protein overexpression was evaluated in 229 cancer tissue specimens. We have found that MerTK inhibitor treatment resulted in considerable inhibition of cell growth and downstream signaling. In addition, MerTK phosphorylation, not total MerTK expression, is likely more predictive of therapeutic success. p-MerTK protein overexpression by IHC was found in 18% (17/87) of GC patients. Lastly, RXDX-106 inhibited cell proliferation in MerTK activated gastric cancer cell line. These findings provide further evidence of oncogenic roles for MerTK in GC, and demonstrate the importance of kinase activity for MerTK tumorigeneicity and validate RXDX-106, a novel MerTK inhibitor, as a potential therapeutic agent for treatment of GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Eun Kim
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Youjin Kim
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Gary Li
- Ignyta, Inc., San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Seung Tae Kim
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kyung Kim
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Se Hoon Park
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Joon Oh Park
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Young Suk Park
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ho Yeong Lim
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hyuk Lee
- Ignyta, Inc., San Diego, CA, USA
| | | | - Kyoung-Mee Kim
- Department of Pathology and Translational Genomics, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Won Ki Kang
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jeeyun Lee
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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49
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Evans AL, Blackburn JWD, Taruc K, Kipp A, Dirk BS, Hunt NR, Barr SD, Dikeakos JD, Heit B. Antagonistic Coevolution of MER Tyrosine Kinase Expression and Function. Mol Biol Evol 2017; 34:1613-1628. [PMID: 28369510 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msx102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK (TAM) receptors are a family of receptor tyrosine kinases that maintain homeostasis through the clearance of apoptotic cells, and when defective, contribute to chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases such as atherosclerosis, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and Crohn's disease. In addition, certain enveloped viruses utilize TAM receptors for immune evasion and entry into host cells, with several viruses preferentially hijacking MERTK for these purposes. Despite the biological importance of TAM receptors, little is understood of their recent evolution and its impact on their function. Using evolutionary analysis of primate TAM receptor sequences, we identified strong, recent positive selection in MERTK's signal peptide and transmembrane domain that was absent from TYRO3 and AXL. Reconstruction of hominid and primate ancestral MERTK sequences revealed three nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms in the human MERTK signal peptide, with a G14C mutation resulting in a predicted non-B DNA cruciform motif, producing a significant decrease in MERTK expression with no significant effect on MERTK trafficking or half-life. Reconstruction of MERTK's transmembrane domain identified three amino acid substitutions and four amino acid insertions in humans, which led to significantly higher levels of self-clustering through the creation of a new interaction motif. This clustering counteracted the effect of the signal peptide mutations through enhancing MERTK avidity, whereas the lower MERTK expression led to reduced binding of Ebola virus-like particles. The decreased MERTK expression counterbalanced by increased avidity is consistent with antagonistic coevolution to evade viral hijacking of MERTK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Evans
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Centre for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | - Jack W D Blackburn
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Centre for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | - Kyle Taruc
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Centre for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | - Angela Kipp
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Centre for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | - Brennan S Dirk
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Centre for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | - Nina R Hunt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Centre for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | - Stephen D Barr
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Centre for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | - Jimmy D Dikeakos
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Centre for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | - Bryan Heit
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Centre for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
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50
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Yang A, Chen F, He C, Zhou J, Lu Y, Dai J, Birge RB, Wu Y. The Procoagulant Activity of Apoptotic Cells Is Mediated by Interaction with Factor XII. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1188. [PMID: 28993777 PMCID: PMC5622377 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptotic cells, by externalizing phosphatidylserine (PS) as a hallmark feature, are procoagulant. However, the mechanism by which apoptotic cells activate coagulation system remains unknown. Intrinsic coagulation pathway is initiated by coagulation factor XII (FXII) of contact activation system. The purpose of this study was to determine whether FXII is involved in procoagulant activity of apoptotic cells. Using western blotting and chromogenic substrate assay, we found that incubation with apoptotic cells, but not with viable cells, resulted in rapid cleavage and activation of FXII in the presence of prekallikrein and high molecular weight kininogen (HK), other two components of contact activation system. As detected by flow cytometry, FXII bound to apoptotic cells in a concentration-dependent manner, which was inhibited by annexin V and PS liposome. Direct association of FXII with PS was confirmed in a surface plasmon resonance assay. Clotting time of FXII-deficient plasma induced by apoptotic cells was significantly prolonged, which was fully reversed by replenishment with FXII. Corn trypsin inhibitor, a FXII inhibitor, completely prevented apoptotic cells-induced intrinsic tenase complex formation. Consistently, apoptotic cells significantly increased thrombin production in normal plasma, which was not affected by an inhibitory anti-tissue factor antibody. However, blocking of PS by annexin V, inhibition of FXII, or the deficiency of FXII suppressed apoptotic cells-induced thrombin generation. Addition of purified FXII to FXII-deficient plasma recovered thrombin generation to the normal plasma level. In conclusion, FXII binds to apoptotic cells via PS and becomes activated, thereby constituting a novel mechanism mediating the procoagulant activity of apoptotic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aizhen Yang
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Fengwu Chen
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Chao He
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Junsong Zhou
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,The Sol Sherry Thrombosis Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Yi Lu
- Wuhan Thalys Medical Technology Inc., Wuhan, China
| | - Jihong Dai
- The Sol Sherry Thrombosis Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Rutgers University-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Raymond B Birge
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Yi Wu
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,The Sol Sherry Thrombosis Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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