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Ajayi AM, Coker AI, Oyebanjo OT, Adebanjo IM, Ademowo OG. Ananas comosus (L) Merrill (pineapple) fruit peel extract demonstrates antimalarial, anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities in experimental models. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 282:114576. [PMID: 34461191 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE Pineapple (Ananas comosus) peel is a major waste in pineapple canning industry and it is reported to be used in ethnomedicine as a component of herbal remedies for malarial management. This study aimed to evaluate the antimalarial, antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties of Ananas comosus peel extract (PEAC). METHODS Ananas comosus peel was extracted with 80% methanol. PEAC (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg) was investigated for antimalarial effect using Peter's 4-day suppressive test (4-DST) model in mice. Antinociceptive activity of PEAC was investigated in hot plate, acetic acid-induced writhing and formalin tests in mice. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using the lipopolysaccharides-induced sickness behavior in mice and carrageenan-induced air pouch in rats' models. RESULTS PEAC could not significantly (p > 0.05) suppressed parasitemia level at 7-day post-infection in 4-DST. PEAC (400 mg/kg) mildly prolongs survival of infected mice up till day 21. PEAC demonstrated significant (p < 0.05) antinociceptive activity by increasing latency to jump on the hot plate, reduced number of writhings in acetic acid test and reduced paw licking time in 2nd phase of formalin test. PEAC significantly reduced anxiogenic and depressive-like symptoms of sickness behavior in LPS-injected mice. PEAC demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced air pouch experiment by reducing exudates formation, inflammatory cell counts, and nitrite, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 levels. CONCLUSION Ananas comosus peel extract demonstrated mild antimalarial activity but significant anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties probably mediated via inhibition of pro-inflammatory mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abayomi M Ajayi
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo-State, Nigeria.
| | - Adekunle I Coker
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo-State, Nigeria.
| | - Oyetola T Oyebanjo
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo-State, Nigeria; Department of Physiology, Ben Carson School of Medicine, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun-state, Nigeria.
| | - Iyanuoluwa Mary Adebanjo
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo-State, Nigeria.
| | - Olusegun G Ademowo
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo-State, Nigeria; Institute of Advanced Medical Research and Training, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
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Rodriguez ZJ, Rodríguez YV, García JO, Arias MH, Deharo E, Garavito G. Comparison of the antimalarial activity of a Colombian traditional Uitoto remedy with laboratory preparations. J Vector Borne Dis 2020; 57:170-175. [PMID: 34290162 DOI: 10.4103/0972-9062.310868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES In Colombian Amazonia, Uitoto indigenous people use a preparation of Curarea toxicofera (Menispermaceae) to prevent and treat malaria. To open the way for the production of a standardized herbal remedy, we compared the activity of the traditional preparation with laboratory preparations. METHODS People were interviewed on their mode of use and preparation of what is considered the best remedy against fevers in this area. The herbal remedy was prepared according to the healer's recommendations. The plant was also submitted to continuous distillation and percolation extraction. The preparations were then tested against Plasmodium falciparum, in vitro. Traditional preparation and extract obtained by percolation were tested on Plasmodium berghei infected mice. Chemical profiles were also explored by thin-layer chromatography. RESULTS Yields of extraction were around 7% in the preparations (percolation was the most efficient). The phytochemical profile showed a mix of steroids, flavonoids and alkaloids qualitatively similar in all preparations. In vitro, the extracts showed inhibitory concentration 50 <10μg/mL: the traditional preparation was almost three times less active than laboratory preparations. In vivo, percolation was also more active than traditional preparation, inhibiting 78% of the parasite growth at 400mg/kg/day by oral route. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION Pharmacological activities suggest that both the original remedy (prepared according to traditional pharmacopeia) and the extracts obtained by percolation extraction exhibit relevant antiparasitic activity. C. toxicofera should therefore be considered for the elaboration of an improved traditional medicine by implementing toxicological studies and carefully following quality control guidelines for its preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zully Johana Rodriguez
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá, Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Farmacia, FaMeTra research group (traditional and Popular medicine Pharmacology), Colombia
| | - Yinneth Victoria Rodríguez
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá, Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Farmacia, FaMeTra research group (traditional and Popular medicine Pharmacology), Colombia
| | - José Octavio García
- Uitoto representative, Km 7 Via Leticia Tarapaca, Comunidad Ciudad Hitoma, Leticia, Colombia
| | - María Helena Arias
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá, Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Farmacia, FaMeTra research group (traditional and Popular medicine Pharmacology), Colombia
| | - Eric Deharo
- Institut de Recherche pour le développement, IRD Représentation Ban Naxay, Saysettha District., Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | - Giovanny Garavito
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá, Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Farmacia, FaMeTra research group (traditional and Popular medicine Pharmacology), Colombia
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Rodríguez YV, Arias MH, García JO, Deharo E, Garavito G. Pharmacological activity of Curarea toxicofera in combination with classical antimalarial treatments. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2018; 222:288-294. [PMID: 29626674 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2018.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2017] [Revised: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE In the Leticia-Amazonas area, Uitoto indigenous people use a preparation of Curarea toxicofera (Wedd) Barneby & Krukoff (Menispermaceae) alone or combined with prescribed medications to prevent and treat malaria. AIM OF STUDY To determine the in vitro and in vivo antiplasmodial activity of traditional preparations of Curarea toxicofera alone and in combination with classical antimalarials. MATERIAL AND METHODS The traditional preparation was evaluated in vitro against P. falciparum FCR3 CQ resistant strain, alone and combined. The preparation was further administered orally alone or combined with chloroquine and artesunate in mice infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA strain on the four-day antimalarial test model. RESULTS The herbal remedy used alone was able to significantly decrease the parasitemia both in vitro (IC50 7.3 µg/ml) and in vivo (ED50 328 mg/Kg) but it was less active than chloroquine (IC50 0.29 µg/ml in vitro and ED50 2.3 mg/Kg/day in vivo), and than artesunate (IC50 0.002 µg/ml and ED50 3.7 mg/Kg/day). Interestingly it presented synergism with chloroquine in vitro (Combination Index: 0.39) and in vivo; and was additive with artesunate in vitro (Combination Index: 0.94) and in vivo. CONCLUSION The traditional preparation showed potential as an antimalarial and, when used in combination, does not negatively affect the efficacy of the drugs evaluated. Pre-clinical studies should be conducted with a standardized preparation to confirm its efficacy and safety alone and in combination with chloroquine and artesunate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinneth Victoria Rodríguez
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá, Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Farmacia, FaMeTra research group (traditional and Popular medicine Pharmacology), Carrera 30 45-03, Bogotá D.C. 111311, Colombia
| | - Maria Helena Arias
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá, Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Farmacia, FaMeTra research group (traditional and Popular medicine Pharmacology), Carrera 30 45-03, Bogotá D.C. 111311, Colombia
| | - José Octavio García
- Huitoto representative, Km 7 Via Leticia Tarapaca, Comunidad Ciudad Hitoma, Leticia, Colombia
| | - Eric Deharo
- Institut de Recherche pour le développement, IRD Représentation Ban Naxay, Saysettha District. P.O. Box 5992, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | - Giovanny Garavito
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá, Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Farmacia, FaMeTra research group (traditional and Popular medicine Pharmacology), Carrera 30 45-03, Bogotá D.C. 111311, Colombia.
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Peters W, Portus JH, Robinson BL. The chemotherapy of rodent malaria, XXII. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1975.11686997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Peters W, Portus JH, Robinson BL. The chemotherapy of rodent malaria, XVII. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1973.11686872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Peters W, Gregory KG. The chemotherapy of rodent malaria, XVI. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1973.11686871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Silveira H, Ramos S, Abrantes P, Lopes LF, do Rosario VE, Abrahamsen MS. Effect of chloroquine on gene expression of Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis during its sporogonic development in the mosquito vector. Malar J 2007; 6:84. [PMID: 17605769 PMCID: PMC1940257 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-6-84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2007] [Accepted: 07/02/2007] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The anti-malarial chloroquine can modulate the outcome of infection during the Plasmodium sporogonic development, interfering with Plasmodium gene expression and subsequently, with transmission. The present study sets to identify Plasmodium genes that might be regulated by chloroquine in the mosquito vector. Methods Differential display RT-PCR (DDRT-PCR) was used to identify genes expressed during the sporogonic cycle that are regulated by exposure to chloroquine. Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes were fed on Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis-infected mice. Three days post-infection, mosquitoes were fed a non-infectious blood meal from mice treated orally with 50 mg/kg chloroquine. Two differentially expressed Plasmodium transcripts (Pyn_chl091 and Pyn_chl055) were further characterized by DNA sequencing and real-time PCR analysis. Results Both transcripts were represented in Plasmodium EST databases, but displayed no homology with any known genes. Pyn_chl091 was upregulated by day 18 post infection when the mosquito had a second blood meal. However, when the effect of chloroquine on that transcript was investigated during the erythrocytic cycle, no significant differences were observed. Although slightly upregulated by chloroquine exposure the expression of Pyn_chl055 was more affected by development, increasing towards the end of the sporogonic cycle. Transcript abundance of Pyn_chl055 was reduced when erythrocytic stages were treated with chloroquine. Conclusion Chloroquine increased parasite load in mosquito salivary glands and interferes with the expression of at least two Plasmodium genes. The transcripts identified contain putative signal peptides and transmembrane domains suggesting that these proteins, due to their location, are targets of chloroquine (not as an antimalarial) probably through cell trafficking and recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrique Silveira
- Centro de Malária e Outras Doenças Tropicais, UEI Malária, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Susana Ramos
- Centro de Malária e Outras Doenças Tropicais, UEI Malária, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Abrantes
- Centro de Malária e Outras Doenças Tropicais, UEI Malária, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Luís Filipe Lopes
- Centro de Malária e Outras Doenças Tropicais, UEI Malária, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Virgílio E do Rosario
- Centro de Malária e Outras Doenças Tropicais, UEI Malária, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal
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Gautret P, Landau I, Tailhardat L, Miltgen F, Coquelin F, Voza T, Chabaud AG, Jacquemin JL. The effects of subcurative doses of chloroquine on Plasmodium vinckei petteri gametocytes and on their infectivity to mosquitoes. Int J Parasitol 2000; 30:1193-8. [PMID: 11027787 DOI: 10.1016/s0020-7519(00)00107-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The effects of subcurative doses of chloroquine on rodent and human Plasmodium transmission to the mosquito have been studied by several authors who showed a short-term (12 h) enhancement of gametocyte infectivity by the drug, restricted to chloroquine-resistant strains, and a long term (4-6 days) enhancement of gametocytogenesis of chloroquine-sensitive strains of Plasmodium chabaudi. We investigated both short- and long-term effects of chloroquine on Plasmodium vinckei petteri, a chloroquine-sensitive rodent Plasmodium strain. Chloroquine treatment reduced the index of gametocytogenesis to 73% (5 mg/kg) and 55% (2.5 mg/kg) of controls, on day 6 post-infection (p.i.). The reduction was statistically significant with 5 mg/kg chloroquine. However, the reduction of gametocyte numbers did not affect the transmission capabilities of the strain. Our experiments showed that doses of 1 mg/kg chloroquine had no effect on the oocyst counts, 12 h post-administration to mice. A statistically non-significant 61% reduction of oocyst numbers was observed in mosquitoes fed on mice treated with 5 mg/kg chloroquine. The effect of 5 mg/kg chloroquine administration on the infectivity of gametocytes to mosquitoes fed 1 h post-treatment was also investigated. An overall 41% reduction of oocyst numbers was observed. This immediate effect was statistically significant in 73% of the mice. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the short-term enhancing effect of chloroquine on transmission is restricted to the drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Gautret
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie et de Mycologie Médicale, Pavillon Camille Guérin, CHU la Miletrie, BP 577, 86021 Poitiers Cedex, France.
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Abstract
It is well-known that whenever possible, the treatment of patients with malaria should include measures to prevent them transmitting the infection to others. This is particularly important for P. falciparum, where the gametocytes can survive for a much longer period than the asexual stages. Not all antimalarials are gametocytocidal or sporontocidal and those that are may have particular disadvantages or lose their effectiveness because of resistance. Even drugs that have no obvious gametocytocidal or sporontocidal activity may have other effects. These include the possibility of increasing transmission, either by affecting the parasite within an individual host or by selection for parasite strains with increased potential for infecting the mosquito vector. This review summarises the available information on the properties of antimalarials in relation to mosquito transmission and highlights the need for more attention to be paid to this aspect of drug action.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Butcher
- Department of Biology, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, U.K.
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Ichimori K, Curtis CF, Targett GA. The effects of chloroquine on the infectivity of chloroquine-sensitive and -resistant populations of Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis to mosquitoes. Parasitology 1990; 100 Pt 3:377-81. [PMID: 2362764 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182000078641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Subtherapeutic doses of chloroquine have been reported to enhance infectivity of drug-resistant Plasmodium species to their vectors. In this investigation, Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis N67 strain showed enhanced infectivity to mosquitoes when stimulated by chloroquine. Both sensitive and resistant clones were derived from the N67 strain by dilution, showing that this strain is polymorphic for the resistant trait. A resistant subline was derived by selection under drug pressure from a chloroquine-sensitive clone, but neither the sensitive nor the resistant clones or sublines showed enhancement of infectivity in the presence of chloroquine. This suggests that the enhancement of infectivity shown by the N67 strain is a response to chloroquine stimulation shown only by certain of the genotypes within it, and that this response to chloroquine is not a trait causally connected with the genes coding for chloroquine resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ichimori
- Department of Medical Parasitology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London
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Abstract
The principal findings of the P. falciparum surveys are given below. Considerable diversity of enzymes, antigens, drug sensitivity and other characters is seen among P. falciparum isolates. Cloning studies show that certain isolates contain mixtures of parasites which may be diverse in one or more of these characters. No obvious regional distribution is seen in the enzymic and antigenic characters examined, although differences in the frequencies of certain enzymes appear to exist. Variations in drug sensitivity are seen among parasites from different regions, the occurrence of resistant forms usually being correlated with the extent of use of the drug concerned.
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Peters W, Portus J, Robinson BL. The chemotherapy of rodent malaria, XXVIII. The development of resistance to mefloquine (WR 142,490). ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 1977; 71:419-27. [PMID: 339857 DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1977.11687207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Fitch CD. Linkage of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium berghei to infection of immature erythrocytes of mice. Life Sci 1977; 20:1281-4. [PMID: 321904 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(77)90503-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Warhurst DC, Robinson BL, Peters W. The chemotherapy of rodent malaria, XXIV. The blood schizontocidal action of erythromycin upon Plasmodium berghei. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 1976; 70:253-8. [PMID: 788656 DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1976.11687121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Erythromycin inhibits chloroquine-induced pigment clumping in Plasmodium berghei in vitro. The drug was therefore tested against infections of P. berghei in mice and was found to be active at non-toxic doses. Given orally, the stearate salt was more effective than the base, but subcutaneously the base was more effective than the stearate. Erythromycin potentiated the action of chloroquine against two chloroquine-resistant strains of rodent malaria, the mildly resistant NS, and the highly resistant RC strains of P. berghei, but not against the drug-sensitive N strain.
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Homewood CA, Moore GA, Wwarhurst DC, Atkinson EM. Purification and some properties of malarial pigment. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 1975; 69:283-7. [PMID: 1098588 DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1975.11687012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Malarial pigment from erythrocytes infected with Plasmodium berghei was purified by treatment with sodium dodecyl sulphate solution, followed by incubation with Pancreatin. The purified pigment retained the apparently crystalline form of pigment within the parasite, rotated polarised light and had the same solubility characterisation as crude malarial pigment. It contained about 1% iron, all of which could be accounted for in terms of haemin. The iron of the pigment molecule is oxidised by the parasite to the ferric state.
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Momen H, Atkinson E, Homewood C. An electrophoretic investigation of the malate dehydrogenase of mouse erythrocytes infected with Plasmodium berghei. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1975. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-711x(75)90035-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Killick-Kendrick R. Parasitic protozoa of the blood of rodents: a revision of Plasmodium berghei. Parasitology 1974; 69:225-37. [PMID: 4214369 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182000048071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Lowland populations of the Plasmodium berghei group are compared with strains from the highlands of Katanga, Republic of Zaire, and it is concluded that the former warrant separate specific status. It is proposed that Plasmodium berghei yoelii of the Central African Republic be raised to a species, P. yoelii, and the lowland subspecies from the CAR, Brazzaville and Nigeria be moved to this species as P. y. yoelii, P. y. killicki and P. y. nigeriensis. P. berghei from Katanga would then revert to a monotypic species.Differences between P. berghei and P. yoelii are in distribution, hosts, optimum temperatures of sporogony, sizes of mature oocysts and of sporozoites, rates of growth and minimum maturation times of tissue schizonts in the liver of the white rat, the forms of six enzymes and the DNA.Differences between three subspecies of P. yoelii are in distribution, the sizes of mature oocysts and of sporozoites, sizes of tissue schizonts in the liver of the white rat, the effect of tissue forms on the nuclei of infected parenchymal cells and the electrophoretic forms of the enzyme GDH.
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Peters W. Recent advances in antimalarial chemotherapy and drug resistance. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 1974; 12:69-114. [PMID: 4217563 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-308x(08)60387-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Pinder RM. Recent advances in the chemotherapy of malaria. PROGRESS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 1971; 8:231-316. [PMID: 4947769 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6468(08)70131-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Howells RE, Peters W, Homewood CA, Warhurst DC. Theory for the mechanism of chloroquine resistance in rodent malaria. Nature 1970; 228:625-8. [PMID: 5474933 DOI: 10.1038/228625a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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