Altered kynurenine pathway metabolite levels in toddlers and preschool children with autism spectrum disorder

Probiotics in autism spectrum disorder: Recent insights from animal models

LAY ABSTRACT

Autism spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by a wide range of behavioral alterations, including impaired social interaction and repetitive behaviors. Numerous pharmacological interventions have been developed for autism spectrum disorder, often proving ineffective and accompanied by a multitude of side effects. The gut microbiota is the reservoir of bacteria inhabiting our gastrointestinal tract. The gut microbial alterations observed in individuals with autism spectrum disorder, including elevated levels of Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria, as well as reduced levels of Bifidobacterium, provide a basis for further investigation into the role of the gut microbiota in autism spectrum disorder. Recent preclinical studies have shown favorable outcomes with probiotic therapy, including improvements in oxidative stress, anti-inflammatory effects, regulation of neurotransmitters, and restoration of microbial balance. The aim of this review is to explore the potential of probiotics for the management and treatment of autism spectrum disorder, by investigating insights from recent studies in animals.

Does the kynurenine pathway play a pathogenic role in autism spectrum disorder?

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in communication, sociability, and repetitive/stereotyped behavior. The etiology of autism is diverse, with genetic susceptibility playing an important role alongside environmental insults and conditions. Human and preclinical studies have shown that ASD is commonly accompanied by inflammation, and inhibition of the inflammatory response can ameliorate, or prevent the phenotype in preclinical studies. The kynurenine pathway, responsible for tryptophan metabolism, is upregulated by inflammation. Hence, this metabolic route has drawn the attention of investigators across different disciplines such as cancer, immunology, and neuroscience. Over the past decade, studies have identified evidence that the kynurenine pathway is also altered in autism spectrum disorders. In this mini review, we will explore the current status quo of the link between the kynurenine pathway and ASD, shedding light on the compelling but still preliminary evidence of this relationship.

Joint exome and metabolome analysis in individuals with dyslexia: Evidence for associated dysregulations of olfactory perception and autoimmune functions

Dyslexia is a learning disability that negatively affects reading, writing, and spelling development at the word level in 5%-9% of children. The phenotype is variable and complex, involving several potential cognitive and physical concomitants such as sensory dysregulation and immunodeficiencies. The biological pathogenesis is not well-understood. Toward a better understanding of the biological drivers of dyslexia, we conducted the first joint exome and metabolome investigation in a pilot sample of 30 participants with dyslexia and 13 controls. In this analysis, eight metabolites of interest emerged (pyridoxine, kynurenic acid, citraconic acid, phosphocreatine, hippuric acid, xylitol, 2-deoxyuridine, and acetylcysteine). A metabolite-metabolite interaction analysis identified Krebs cycle intermediates that may be implicated in the development of dyslexia. Gene ontology analysis based on exome variants resulted in several pathways of interest, including the sensory perception of smell (olfactory) and immune system-related responses. In the joint exome and metabolite analysis, the olfactory transduction pathway emerged as the primary pathway of interest. Although the olfactory transduction and Krebs cycle pathways have not previously been described in dyslexia literature, these pathways have been implicated in other neurodevelopmental disorders including autism spectrum disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder, suggesting the possibility of these pathways playing a role in dyslexia as well. Immune system response pathways, on the other hand, have been implicated in both dyslexia and other neurodevelopmental disorders.

Autism spectrum disorder and a possible role of anti-inflammatory treatments: experience in the pediatric allergy/immunology clinic

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD1) is a behaviorally defined syndrome encompassing a markedly heterogeneous patient population. Many ASD subjects fail to respond to the 1st line behavioral and pharmacological interventions, leaving parents to seek out other treatment options. Evidence supports that neuroinflammation plays a role in ASD pathogenesis. However, the underlying mechanisms likely vary for each ASD patient, influenced by genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors. Although anti-inflammatory treatment measures, mainly based on metabolic changes and oxidative stress, have provided promising results in some ASD subjects, the use of such measures requires the careful selection of ASD subjects based on clinical and laboratory findings. Recent progress in neuroscience and molecular immunology has made it possible to allow re-purposing of currently available anti-inflammatory medications, used for autoimmune and other chronic inflammatory conditions, as treatment options for ASD subjects. On the other hand, emerging anti-inflammatory medications, including biologic and gate-keeper blockers, exert powerful anti-inflammatory effects on specific mediators or signaling pathways. It will require both a keen understanding of the mechanisms of action of such agents and the careful selection of ASD patients suitable for each treatment. This review will attempt to summarize the use of anti-inflammatory agents already used in targeting ASD patients, and then emerging anti-inflammatory measures applicable for ASD subjects based on scientific rationale and clinical trial data, if available. In our experience, some ASD patients were treated under diagnoses of autoimmune/autoinflammatory conditions and/or post-infectious neuroinflammation. However, there are little clinical trial data specifically for ASD subjects. Therefore, these emerging immunomodulating agents for potential use for ASD subjects will be discussed based on preclinical data, case reports, or data generated in patients with other medical conditions. This review will hopefully highlight the expanding scope of immunomodulating agents for treating neuroinflammation in ASD subjects.

Impact of IDO activation and alterations in the kynurenine pathway on hyperserotonemia, NAD+ production, and AhR activation in autism spectrum disorder

Hyperserotonemia is the most replicated biochemical anomaly associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and has been reported in 35-46% of individuals with ASD. Serotonin is synthesised from the essential amino acid tryptophan (TRP). However, the main catabolic route of TRP is the kynurenine pathway (KP), which competes with serotonin synthesis when indoleamine dioxygenase (IDO) is activated. Using the same cohort of individuals with ASD, we used to report extensive studies of the serotonin/melatonin pathway, and found increased kynurenine (KYN), suggesting IDO activation in 58.7% of individuals with ASD (159/271), supported by a strong negative correlation between KYN/TRP ratio and miR-153-3p plasma levels, which negatively regulates IDO. IDO activation was associated with normoserotonemia, suggesting that IDO activation could mask hyperserotonemia which meant that hyperserotonemia, if not masked by IDO activation, could be present in ~94% of individuals with ASD. We also identified several KP alterations, independent of IDO status. We observed a decrease in the activity of 3-hydroxyanthranilate dioxygenase which translated into the accumulation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) selective ligand cinnabarinic acid, itself strongly positively correlated with the AhR target stanniocalcin 2. We also found a deficit in NAD+ production, the end-product of the KP, which was strongly correlated with plasma levels of oxytocin used as a stereotypical neuropeptide, indicating that regulated neuropeptide secretion could be limiting. These results strongly suggest that individuals with ASD exhibit low-grade chronic inflammation that is mediated in most cases by chronic AhR activation that could be associated with the highly prevalent gastrointestinal disorders observed in ASD, and explained IDO activation in ~58% of the cases. Taken together, these results extend biochemical anomalies of TRP catabolism to KP and posit TRP catabolism as a possible major component of ASD pathophysiology.

The tryptophan catabolite or kynurenine pathway in autism spectrum disorder; a systematic review and meta-analysis

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social communication and interaction, as well as rigid and unchanging interests and behaviors. Several studies have reported that activated immune-inflammatory and nitro-oxidative pathways are accompanied by depletion of plasma tryptophan (TRP), increased competing amino acid (CAAs) levels, and activation of the TRP catabolite (TRYCAT) pathway. This study aims to systematically review and meta-analyze data on peripheral TRP, CAAs, TRYCAT pathway activity, and individual TRYCATs, including kynurenine (KYN) and kynurenic acid (KA) levels, in the blood and urine of ASD patients. After extensively searching PubMed, Google Scholar, and SciFinder, a total of 25 full-text papers were included in the analysis, with a total of 6653 participants (3557 people with ASD and 3096 healthy controls). Our results indicate that blood TRP and the TRP/CAAs ratio were not significantly different between ASD patients and controls (standardized mean difference, SMD = -0.227, 95% confidence interval, CI: -0.540; 0.085, and SMD = 0.158, 95% CI: -0.042; 0.359), respectively. The KYN/TRP ratio showed no significant difference between ASD and controls (SMD = 0.001, 95% CI: -0.169; 0.171). Blood KYN and KA levels were not significantly changed in ASD. Moreover, there were no significant differences in urine TRP, KYN, and KA levels between ASD and controls. We could not establish increases in neurotoxic TRYCATs in ASD. In conclusion, this study demonstrates no abnormalities in peripheral blood TRP metabolism, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase enzyme (IDO) activity, or TRYCAT production in ASD. Reduced TRP availability and elevated neurotoxic TRYCAT levels are not substantial contributors to ASD's pathophysiology.

Kynurenine, Kynurenic Acid, Quinolinic Acid and Interleukin-6 Levels in the Serum of Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Background and Objectives: It is known that inflammatory processes play a role in the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). It is also reported that immune activation induces the kynurenine pathway (KP), as known as the tryptophan destruction pathway. In our study, we aimed to investigate whether the serum levels of KP products and interleukin (IL)-6 activating indolamine 2-3 dioxygenase (IDO) enzyme are different in healthy developing children and children with ASD. Materials and Methods: Forty-three ASD children aged 2-9 were included in this study. Forty-two healthy developing children, similar to the patient group in terms of age and gender, were selected as the control group. Serum levels of kynurenic acid, kynurenine, quinolinic acid and IL-6 were analyzed using the ELISA method. ASD severity was evaluated with the Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC). Results: The mean age of children with ASD was 42.4 ± 20.5 months, and that of healthy controls was 48.1 ± 15.8 months. While the serum levels of kynurenic acid, kynurenine and interleukin-6 were higher in the group with ASD (p < 0.05), there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in terms of the quinolinic acid level. There was no significant difference between the ABC total and subscale scores of children with ASD and biochemical parameters (p > 0.05). Conclusions: We conclude that these biomarkers must be measured in all ASD cases. They may be important for the diagnosis of ASD.

The stress of losing sleep: Sex-specific neurobiological outcomes

Sleep is a vital and evolutionarily conserved process, critical to daily functioning and homeostatic balance. Losing sleep is inherently stressful and leads to numerous detrimental physiological outcomes. Despite sleep disturbances affecting everyone, women and female rodents are often excluded or underrepresented in clinical and pre-clinical studies. Advancing our understanding of the role of biological sex in the responses to sleep loss stands to greatly improve our ability to understand and treat health consequences of insufficient sleep. As such, this review discusses sex differences in response to sleep deprivation, with a focus on the sympathetic nervous system stress response and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. We review sex differences in several stress-related consequences of sleep loss, including inflammation, learning and memory deficits, and mood related changes. Focusing on women's health, we discuss the effects of sleep deprivation during the peripartum period. In closing, we present neurobiological mechanisms, including the contribution of sex hormones, orexins, circadian timing systems, and astrocytic neuromodulation, that may underlie potential sex differences in sleep deprivation responses.

Maternal Inflammation with Elevated Kynurenine Metabolites Is Related to the Risk of Abnormal Brain Development and Behavioral Changes in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Several studies show that genetic and environmental factors contribute to the onset and progression of neurodevelopmental disorders. Maternal immune activation (MIA) during gestation is considered one of the major environmental factors driving this process. The kynurenine pathway (KP) is a major route of the essential amino acid L-tryptophan (Trp) catabolism in mammalian cells. Activation of the KP following neuro-inflammation can generate various endogenous neuroactive metabolites that may impact brain functions and behaviors. Additionally, neurotoxic metabolites and excitotoxicity cause long-term changes in the trophic support, glutamatergic system, and synaptic function following KP activation. Therefore, investigating the role of KP metabolites during neurodevelopment will likely promote further understanding of additional pathophysiology of neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In this review, we describe the changes in KP metabolism in the brain during pregnancy and represent how maternal inflammation and genetic factors influence the KP during development. We overview the patients with ASD clinical data and animal models designed to verify the role of perinatal KP elevation in long-lasting biochemical, neuropathological, and behavioral deficits later in life. Our review will help shed light on new therapeutic strategies and interventions targeting the KP for neurodevelopmental disorders.

Disrupted nocturnal melatonin in autism: Association with tumor necrosis factor and sleep disturbances

Sleep disturbances, abnormal melatonin secretion, and increased inflammation are aspects of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) pathophysiology. The present study evaluated the daily urinary 6-sulfatoxymelatonin (aMT6s) excretion profile and the salivary levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in 20 controls and 20 ASD participants, as well as correlating these measures with sleep disturbances. Although 60% of ASD participants showed a significant night-time rise in aMT6s excretion, this rise was significantly attenuated, compared to controls (P < .05). The remaining 40% of ASD individuals showed no significant increase in nocturnal aMT6s. ASD individuals showed higher nocturnal levels of saliva TNF, but not IL-6. Dysfunction in the initiation and maintenance of sleep, as indicated by the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children, correlated with night-time aMT6s excretion (r = -.28, P < .05). Dysfunction in sleep breathing was inversely correlated with aMT6s (r = -.31, P < .05) and positively associated with TNF level (r = .42, P < .01). Overall such data indicate immune-pineal axis activation, with elevated TNF but not IL-6 levels associated with disrupted pineal melatonin release and sleep dysfunction in ASD. It is proposed that circadian dysregulation in ASD is intimately linked to heightened immune-inflammatory activity. Such two-way interactions of the immune-pineal axis may underpin many aspects of ASD pathophysiology, including sleep disturbances, as well as cognitive and behavioral alterations.