Is estimated cardiovascular risk higher in HIV-infected patients than in the general population?

Cardiovascular Risk Assessment Among Adolescents and Youths Living With HIV: Evaluation of Electronic Health Record Findings and Implications

BACKGROUND

The HIV epidemic remains a major public health concern, particularly among youths living with HIV. While the availability of antiretroviral therapy has significantly improved the health outcomes of people living with HIV, there is growing evidence that youths living with HIV may be at increased risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the underlying mechanisms linking HIV and cardiovascular disease among youths living with HIV remain poorly understood. One potential explanation is that HIV-related biomarkers, including detectable viral load (VL) and low cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) lymphocyte counts, may contribute to increased cardiovascular risk. Despite the potential importance of these biomarkers, the relationship between HIV-related biomarkers and cardiovascular risk among youths living with HIV has been understudied.

OBJECTIVE

To address this gap, we examined whether detectable VL and low CD4 lymphocyte counts, both of which are indications of unsuppressed HIV, were associated with cardiovascular risk among youths living with HIV.

METHODS

We analyzed electronic health record data from 7 adolescent HIV clinics in the United States (813 youths living with HIV). We used multivariable linear regression to examine the relationship between detectable VL and CD4 lymphocyte counts of ≤200 and cardiovascular risk scores, which were adapted from the gender-specific Framingham algorithm.

RESULTS

In our study, nearly half of the participants (366/766, 47.8%) had detectable VL, indicating unsuppressed HIV, while 8.6% (51/593) of them had CD4 lymphocyte counts of ≤200, suggesting weakened immune function. We found that those with CD4 lymphocyte counts of ≤200 had significantly higher cardiovascular risk, as assessed by Cardiac Risk Score2, than those with CD4 lymphocyte counts of >200 (P=.002). After adjusting for demographic and clinical factors, we found that for every 1000-point increase in VL copies/mL, the probability of having cardiovascular risk (Cardiac Risk Score2) increased by 38%. When measuring the strength of this connection, we observed a minor effect of VL on increased cardiovascular risk (β=.134, SE 0.014; P=.006). We obtained similar results with Cardiac Risk Score1, but the effect of CD4 lymphocyte counts of ≤200 was no longer significant. Overall, our findings suggest that detectable VL is associated with increased cardiovascular risk among youths living with HIV, and that CD4 lymphocyte counts may play a role in this relationship as well.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights a significant association between unsuppressed HIV, indicated by detectable VL, and increased cardiovascular risk in youths living with HIV. These findings emphasize the importance of implementing interventions that address both VL suppression and cardiovascular risk reduction in this population. By tailoring interventions to meet the unique needs of youths, we can promote overall well-being throughout the HIV care continuum and across the life span. Ultimately, these efforts have the potential to improve the health outcomes and quality of life of youths living with HIV.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

RR2-10.2196/11185.

Colliding Epidemics: Research Gaps and Implementation Science Opportunities for Tobacco Use and HIV/AIDS in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Introduction

Tobacco use is a leading cause of cancer death among people living with HIV (PLWH) worldwide, and smoking prevalence tends to be higher among PLWH. The burden of both HIV/AIDS and tobacco use is increasingly concentrated in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where resources to address these challenges are often limited. However, there has been limited effort to date to integrate tobacco cessation into HIV programs in LMICs.

Methods

We searched the literature (searching was conducted between October 1 and December 31, 2020) using PubMed including search terms "tobacco" and "HIV" and "cessation" over the past ten years (searching for articles published between December 1, 2010, and December 1, 2020) to identify original research studies on tobacco cessation interventions conducted in LMICs for PLWH. We also conducted an analysis of NCI-funded research grants on tobacco cessation and HIV awarded during fiscal years 2010 to 2020. Results and Discussion. Existing evidence suggests that conventional tobacco cessation treatments may be less effective among PLWH. Moreover, while substantial evidence exists to support a range of cessation interventions, most of this evidence comes from HICs and is only partly applicable to the evolving social, economic, and cultural climate of many LMICs. There is an urgent need to develop, adapt, and implement effective tobacco control and cessation interventions targeted to PLWH in LMICs, as well as to generate evidence from these settings. Implementation science provides tools develop and test strategies to overcome barriers and to integrate and scale up cessation services within existing HIV treatment settings.

Conclusion

There is a unique opportunity to address HIV and tobacco use in a coordinated way in LMICs by integrating evidence-based tobacco cessation into HIV programs.

Are Physical Fitness and CRP Related to Framingham Risk Score in HIV+ Adults?

Background. People living with HIV (PLWH) have increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). The Framingham Risk Score (FRS) predicts a 10-year CVD risk. Its relationships to physical fitness and C-reactive protein (CRP) are not well established. The current aim is to determine the links between FRS, physical fitness, and CRP in PLWH. Methods. Participants (n = 87) were assessed on multiple biomarkers. The FRS was calculated with the respective variables. Other variables that correlated significantly with FRS were entered into a regression equation to determine their relationship to FRS. Results. The FRS for men was more than twice that for women (12.8 vs 6.0, P < .001). Men were more fit than women, but most participants were not fit. Aerobic capacity was predictive of FRS in men, but not in women, and muscular strength was not predictive of FRS. Women had more than double the CRP compared with men (7.9 vs 3.5 mg/L, P < .01), and it was unrelated to FRS. Conclusions. In men, aerobic capacity was significantly predictive of FRS, but muscular strength and CRP were unrelated to FRS in both genders. These results do not conclusively demonstrate that physical fitness and CRP are related to FRS in PLWH.

Cardiovascular Risk Assessment in People Living With HIV: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Real-Life Data

BACKGROUND

People living with HIV (PLWHIV) have a 2-fold higher risk of having a cardiovascular event than HIV-negative individuals.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this article is to estimate the pooled proportion of moderate-high cardiovascular risk in PLWHIV obtained through different scores. In addition, this study also aims to establish the prevalence of dyslipidemia, smoking habits, diabetes and high blood pressure in the included studies.

METHODS

A bibliographic search was conducted in MEDLINE for studies on cardiovascular risk assessment in PLWHVI that took place during the period of inception to July 2018. The eligibility criteria for inclusion were: cross-sectional or longitudinal studies on HIV-positive adults in which the prevalence of moderate-high cardiovascular risk (or data to calculate it) was reported, and included at least one of the following cardiovascular risk scores: Framingham, ASCVD, D:A:D, Progetto Cuore, PROCAM, SCORE, Regicor, and World Health Organization scores.

RESULTS

Bibliographic search identified 278 studies. Finally, thirty-nine peer-reviewed publications were identified for a collective total of 13698 subjects. The pooled prevalence of moderate-high cardiovascular risk in PLWHIV obtained with nine different scores through random-effect modeling was 20.41% (95% CI: 16.77-24.31). The most prevalent concomitant cardiovascular risk factor was dyslipidemia (39.5%), smoking (33.0 %), high blood pressure (19.8%) and diabetes (7.24%).

CONCLUSION

Data obtained in this systematic review indicate that more than 1 in every five subjects with HIV have a moderate-high cardiovascular risk. In consequence, the burden of cardiovascular disease in PLWHIV represents a public health problem. There is an urgent need to develop strategies to prevent and detect cardiovascular risk effectively in PLWHIV.

Comparison of Predicted Cardiovascular Risk Profiles by Different CVD Risk-Scoring Algorithms between HIV-1-Infected and Uninfected Adults: A Cross-Sectional Study in Tanzania

Purpose

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk assessment is a suitable way to differentiate between high-risk individuals requiring intervention and risk modification, and those at low risk. However, concerns have been raised when adopting a CVD-risk prediction algorithm for HIV-infected patients in sub-Saharan Africa.

Patients and Methods

We compared cardiovascular risk profiles between HIV-infected (with and without antiretroviral therapy (ART)) and HIV-uninfected adults as predicted by the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ASCVD) and the Framingham cardiovascular risk score (FRS) algorithms and assessed the concordance of the algorithms in predicting 10-year CVD risk separately in HIV-infected and uninfected groups in a hospital-based cross-sectional study in Tanzania. A cross-sectional hospital-based study including 40 HIV-infected ART-naive, 64 HIV-infected on ART, and 50 HIV-uninfected adults was conducted. Traditional cardiovascular risk factors were determined by standard investigations. The primary outcome was the absolute 10-year CVD risk score based on the two algorithms.

Results

Compared to HIV-uninfected, HIV-infected adults were classified at a higher 10-year CVD risk. ASCVD algorithms predicted a higher proportion of high-risk individuals compared to FRS in both HIV-infected and uninfected groups. The concordance between ASCVD and FRS-lipid algorithms was reasonable for both HIV-infected and uninfected groups though relatively higher in the HIV-uninfected group.

Conclusion

HIV-infected individuals have a higher 10-year cardiovascular risk compared to HIV-uninfected persons. The concordance between ASCVD and FRS-lipid algorithms is reasonable in both HIV-uninfected and infected persons in Tanzania. Development of an HIV-specific algorithm is needed to accurately predict CVD risk in this population at high-risk.

[Cardiovascular risk calculators for people living with human immunodeficiency virus]

The increasing access and efficacy of antiretroviral therapy has allowed people living with human immunodeficiency virus to achieve a life expectancy similar to that of the general population. However, this goal may be affected by the increased risk of cardiovascular disease in this group. This risk is multifactorial, involving the high prevalence of traditional risk factors, the development of a pro-inflammatory state related to chronic infection, and the use of antiretroviral drugs with an adverse metabolic profile. In daily practice, in order to estimate this risk and guide medical decision-making, different calculators are available. These are based on data from population cohorts, many of them from human immunodeficiency virusnegative subjects. The main aim of this review is to describe the epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in people living with human immunodeficiency virus, the available risk calculators and their use.

Smoking habits in HIV-infected people compared with the general population in Italy: a cross-sectional study

Background

Tobacco use is a leading cause of preventable diseases and death for all individuals, even more so for people living with HIV (PLWH), due to their status of chronic inflammation. To date, in Italy no study was performed to compare smoking habits in PLWH and the general population. We aimed to investigate smoking habits in PLWH, as compared to the general population.

Methods

Multi-center cross-sectional study. Smoking habits were compared between PLWH and the general population. PLWH were enrolled in the STOPSHIV Study. The comparison group from the general population was derived from a survey performed by the National Statistics Institute (ISTAT), with a stratified random sampling procedure matching 2:1 general population subjects with PLWH by age class, sex, and macro-area of residence.

Results

The total sample consisted of 1087 PLWH (age 47.9 ± 10.8 years, male 73.5%) and 2218 comparable subjects from the general population. Prevalence of current smokers was 51.6% vs 25.9% (p < 0.001); quitting smoking rate was 27.1% vs. 50.1% (p < 0.001) and the mean number of cigarettes smoked per day was 15.8 vs. 11.9 (p < 0.001), respectively for PLWH and the general population. Smoking and heavy smoking rates amongst PLWH were significantly higher even in subjects who reported diabetes, hypertension and extreme obesity (p < 0.001). Logistic regressions showed that PLWH were more likely current smokers (adjusted Odds Ratio, aOR = 3.11; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) =2.62–3.71; p < 0.001) and heavy smokers (> 20 cigarettes per day) (aOR = 4.84; 95% CI = 3.74–6.27; p < 0.001). PLWH were less likely to have quitted smoking (aOR = 0.36; 95% CI = 0.29–0.46; p < 0.001).

Conclusion

HIV-infected patients showed a higher rate of current smokers, a larger number of cigarettes smoked and a lower quitting rate than the general population. Our findings emphasize the need for smoking cessation strategies targeting HIV persons.

Smoking and HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa: A 25-Country Analysis of the Demographic Health Surveys

BACKGROUND

Having HIV/AIDS has been associated with a higher prevalence of smoking. Moreover, evidence suggests that people with HIV/AIDS who smoke have poorer treatment and survival outcomes. The HIV-smoking relationship is understudied in sub-Saharan Africa, where tobacco use patterns and HIV prevalence differ greatly from other world regions.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data from the Demographic Health Surveys and AIDS Indicator Surveys, representing 25 sub-Saharan African countries, were pooled for analysis (n = 286850). The association between cigarette smoking and HIV status was analyzed through hierarchical logistic regression models. This study also examined the relationship between smokeless tobacco (SLT) use and HIV status.

RESULTS

Smoking prevalence was significantly higher among men who had HIV/AIDS than among men who did not (25.90% vs 16.09%; p < .0001), as was smoking prevalence among women who had HIV/AIDS compared with women who did not (1.15% vs 0.73%; p < .001). Multivariate logistic regression revealed that the odds of smoking among people who had HIV/AIDS was 1.12 times greater than among people who did not when adjusting for socioeconomic, demographic, and sexual risk factors (adjusted OR = 1.12, 95% CI = 1.04% to 1.21%; p < .001). Similarly, multivariate logistic regression revealed that HIV-positive individuals were 34% more likely to use SLT than HIV-negative individuals (adjusted OR = 1.34, 95% CI = 1.17% to 1.53%).

CONCLUSION

Having HIV was associated with a greater likelihood of smoking cigarettes as well as with using SLT in sub-Saharan Africa. These tobacco use modalities were also associated with male sex and lower socioeconomic status.

IMPLICATIONS

This study shows that in sub-Saharan Africa, as in more studied world regions, having HIV/AIDS is associated with a higher likelihood of smoking cigarettes when adjusting for demographic, socioeconomic, and sexual risk factors. This study also supports the literature stating that cigarette smoking is inversely associated with socioeconomic status, as evidenced by higher smoking prevalence among poorer individuals, less educated individuals, and manual and agricultural laborers.

Cardiovascular risk factors in HIV infected individuals: Comparison with general adult control population in Greece

Background

Although combined antiretroviral therapy has substantially improved the prognosis of people living with HIV (PLHIV), mortality remains higher compared to the general population, mainly due to higher prevalence of non-HIV-related comorbidities, including cardiovascular diseases (CVD). We assessed the prevalence of CVD risk and its contributing factors in adult PLHIV versus general population controls in Greece.

Settings

Cross-sectional comparison of PLHIV (Athens-Multicenter-AIDS-Cohort-Study; AMACS) versus general population controls (National health examination survey; EMENO).

Methods

All HIV-infected adults with ≥1 measurement of interest (blood pressure, lipids, glucose, weight, height) between 2012–2014 and all EMENO participants (2014–2016) were included. Ten-year total CVD risk was estimated using the Framingham (FRS) or the Systematic Coronary Risk Evaluation (SCORE) equations.

Results

5839 PLHIV (median age:41.6 years, 85.4% males) and 4820 controls (median age:48 years, 48.4% males) were included. Adjusting for age, sex and origin, PLHIV were more likely to be current smokers (adjusted OR:1.53 [95% CI:1.35–1.74]) and dyslipidemic (aOR:1.18; [1.04–1.34]), less likely to be obese (aOR:0.44 [0.38–0.52], with no differences in hypertension, diabetes or high (≥20%) FRS but with greater odds of high (≥5%) SCORE (aOR:1.55 [1.05–2.30]). Further adjustment for educational level, anti-HCV positivity and BMI showed higher prevalence of hypertension in PLHIV.

Conclusions

Despite the relative absence of obesity, PLHIV have higher prevalence of traditional CVD risk factors and higher risk of fatal CVD compared to general population. Regular screening and early management of CVD risk factors in PLHIV should be of high priority for CVD prevention.

Treatment Outcomes Associated with Quitting Cigarettes Among Sexual Minority Men Living with HIV: Antiretroviral Adherence, Engagement in Care, and Sustained HIV RNA Suppression

Cigarette smoking is particularly harmful for sexual minority men living with HIV. This study aimed to find benefits of quitting by examining relationships between smoking and sustained HIV RNA suppression, recent CD4 count, ART medication adherence, and engagement in HIV medical care. Sexual minority men (n = 346), former or current smokers, received HIV care at a community health center. Survey responses were combined with electronic health record data in adjusted regression models. Most patients were Caucasian (87%) and 148 (46%) had incomes below the poverty level and 80% had sustained HIV RNA suppression. Compared to current smokers, former smokers had increased odds of sustaining HIV RNA suppression (OR 1.89; 95% CI 1.02-3.48) of reporting > 90% adherence (OR 2.25; 95% CI 1.21-4.17), and were less likely to miss appointments (OR 0.37; 95% CI 0.17-0.82). Heavier smokers (OR 0.36; 95% CI 0.17-0.77) and patients who smoked the longest (OR 0.31; 95% CI 0.14-0.68) had reduced odds of sustaining HIV RNA suppression. Smoking assessment, treatment, and referral could augment HIV outcomes for sexual minority men with HIV.

High rates of hypertension, diabetes, elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and cardiovascular disease risk factors in HIV-infected patients in Malawi

OBJECTIVES

Data on cardiovascular disease risks among HIV-infected patients taking antiretroviral therapy (ART) over long periods of time are lacking in Sub-Saharan Africa.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in Chiradzulu, Malawi from December 2015 to June 2016. HIV-infected persons on ART for more than 10 years (patients) and HIV-negative individuals (controls) from selected clinics participated. Following informed consent, a standardized questionnaire, clinical and laboratory examinations were performed. The prevalence of cardiovascular disease risk factors was calculated and stratified by age group.

RESULTS

Overall, 379 HIV-infected patients and 356 controls participated. Median time on ART among patients was 11.6 years (interquartile range 10.6-12.4).Within the 30-44, 45-59, and at least 60-year age groups, respectively, the prevalence of hypertension was 10.8, 20.4, and 44.7% among patients and 6.1, 25.8, and 42.9% among controls. Hypertension was previously undiagnosed in 60.3% patients and 37.0% controls with elevated blood pressure. The prevalence of diabetes within the respective age groups was 5.0, 6.4, and 13.2% among patients, and 3.4, 4.2, and 1.7% among controls. HIV-infected patients were more likely to have an glycated hemoglobin at least 6.0% (adjusted odds ratio 1.9; 95% confidence interval 1.1-3.2, P = 0.02). Prevalence of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol more than 130 mg/dl within the respective age groups was 8.0, 15.4, and 23.7% among patients and 1.8, 12.5, and 11.8% among controls.

CONCLUSION

Noncommunicable diseases were a significant burden in Malawi, with high prevalence of hypercholesterolemia in all survey participants and an especially acute diabetes burden among older HIV infected. Hypertension screening and treatment services are needed among identified high-risk groups to cover unmet needs.

Observed versus predicted cardiovascular events and all-cause death in HIV infection: a longitudinal cohort study

Background

The aim of the study was to assess the applicability of an algorithm predicting 10-year cardiovascular disease (CVD) generated in the setting of the Framingham Heart Study to a real-life, contemporary Italian cohort of HIV-positive subjects.

Methods

The study was an observational longitudinal cohort study. The probability for 10-year CVD events according to the Framingham algorithm was assessed in 369 consecutive HIV-positive participants free from overt CVD enrolled in 2004, who were followed for a median of 10.0 years (interquartile range, 9.1-10.1). Cardiovascular events included myocardial infarction, hospitalized heart failure, revascularized angina, sudden cardiac death, stroke, peripheral arterial disease.

Results

Over 3097 person-years of observation, we observed a total of 34 CVD events, whereas Framingham algorithm predicted the occurrence of 34.3 CVD events. CVD event rate was 11.0/1000 person-years of follow-up. In a receiver operating characteristics curve analysis, Framingham risk equation showed an excellent predictive value for incident CVD events (c-statistics, 0.83; 95% confidence interval, 0.76-0.90). In a multivariable Cox analysis, age, smoking and diabetes were independent predictors of CVD events. All-cause death rate was 20.0/1000 person-years of follow-up (n = 62 deaths). Causes of death included liver diseases (18), malignancies (14), AIDS-related (11); cardiovascular (9) and others (10). In a Cox analysis, age, AIDS diagnosis and chronic hepatitis were independent predictors of death.

Conclusions

Observed CVD events in HIV-infected patients were well predicted by Framingham algorithm. Established major CVD risk factors are the strongest determinants of CVD morbidity in an Italian contemporary cohort of HIV-positive subjects. Interventions to modify traditional risk factors are urgently needed in HIV people.

Cardiovascular Risk in HIV-Infected and Uninfected Postmenopausal Minority Women: Use of the Framingham Risk Score

OBJECTIVE

To characterize and compare cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in HIV-infected and uninfected postmenopausal minority women using the Framingham Risk Score (FRS) as an assessment measure.

METHODS

A cross-sectional analysis was performed in 152 (109 HIV+, 43 HIV-) subjects from an existing study cohort of postmenopausal Hispanic and African American women. Data necessary to calculate FRS and menopause features were retrieved by retrospective chart review. Bivariate statistics was used to compare CVD risk factors. Multivariable linear regression was used to determine factors associated with FRS in HIV-infected women.

RESULTS

The HIV-infected group was younger, less obese, and with lower rates of diabetes versus controls. In a subset of age-matched participants, median FRS did not differ between groups (14.6 [IQR = 9.1, 21.6] vs. 15.5 [IQR = 12.3, 22.1]; p = 0.73). Fourteen percent of HIV-infected women meeting criteria for the low-risk FRS category (<10%) had a history of CVD, a similar rate as controls. HIV-infected women at intermediate/high CVD risk had higher rates of surgical menopause. According to 2013 clinical guidelines, more than half of HIV-infected women not prescribed statin therapy (52%) were eligible for treatment; however, statin therapy was similarly under-prescribed in uninfected women.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, CVD risk as assessed by the FRS was not significantly different by HIV status. Performance of the FRS may be compromised in postmenopausal HIV-infected minority women. HIV-infected and uninfected women may be undertreated with statin therapy. Large longitudinal cohorts and inclusion of subclinical measures of CVD are necessary to better characterize risk.

Statins and Aspirin use in HIV-infected people: gap between European AIDS Clinical Society guidelines and clinical practice: the results from HIV-HY study

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the use of statins and acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) in HIV people in clinical practice.

DESIGN

A multicenter, nationwide, prospective cohort study, including 1182 consecutive HIV patients was conducted.

METHODS

Statin and ASA prescription was evaluated in primary and secondary cardiovascular disease prevention, according to the European AIDS Clinical Society (EACS) guidelines.

RESULTS

Followed-up patients (998) were mostly males (70.9 %) with a mean age at enrolment of 46.5 years (SD 9.5). The mean time of follow-up was 3.3 years (SD 0.8). At the last follow-up visit, statins would have been recommended for 31.2 % and ASA for 16 % by EACS guidelines. Conversely, only 15.6 and 7.6 % of patients were on statin and ASA treatment, respectively; only 50.3 % of patients treated with statins achieved recommended low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) levels. At the last follow-up visit, agreement between statin therapy and EACS recommendation was 0.58 (95 % CI 0.52-0.63). The corresponding figure for ASA therapy was 0.50 (95 % CI 0.42-0.58), whereas the agreement for ASA therapy in secondary prevention was 0.59 (95 % CI 0.50-0.68).

CONCLUSIONS

The prescription of statins and ASA in HIV-infected patients remains largely suboptimal, as only about 50 % of patients requiring statins and ASA are properly treated. Higher attention on this relevant issue and further investigation are warranted in this at risk population.

Assessment of cardiovascular risk factors in people with HIV infection treated with ART in rural South Africa: a cross sectional study

BACKGROUND

The risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected people on antiretroviral therapy (ART) from some rural parts of Africa is not well known. We assessed CVD risk factors, the estimated 5-year Data collection on adverse effects of anti-HIV drugs (DA.) risk score and the 10-year Framingham risk score in persons with HIV infection on ART in a rural area in South Africa.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study in which the data on demographic, lifestyle, and chronic disease were collected using the World Health Organization Stepwise approach to surveillance questionnaire. Biochemical parameters were tested using standard biochemical methods. CD4 counts were performed using PIMA analyser and viral load was tested using the branched deoxyribonucleic acid technique. Student t test and Chi square test were used on continuous and categorical variables respectively. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression were used to analyze predictors of CVD risk factors. Estimates of 5 and 10-year CVD risk were calculated using online tools. The Cohen's kappa coefficient was used to assess the agreement between CVD risk equations.

RESULTS

The mean age of participants was 44.8 ± 11.8 years; 79.9 % were females. Most of the participants (85 %) had an undetectable viral load and a mean CD4 count of 462 ± 235 cell/mm(3). The most common CVD risk factors were low high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) (43.8 %), hypercholesterolaemia (33.2 %) and a high Apolipoprotein (Apo) B/ApoA ratio (45.4 %).Using the Framingham equation, 6.7 % of participants had a moderate to high 10-year CVD risk while the DAD risk equation showed that 31.1 % of participants had a moderate to high 5-year CVD risk. Most participants had a low CVD risk by both risk equations. The level of agreement between the two risk equations was 73.8 % (k = 0.23; 95 % CI 0.10-0.35; p value 0.001).

CONCLUSION

CVD risk factors were common among this rural population on ART. The high proportion of participants with a moderate to high CVD risk, observed with the DAD risk equation, clearly represents a considerable health burden that can possibly be reduced by increasing educational programs on CVD prevention for people on ART. There is however a need to develop and evaluate a race/ethnicity-specific CVD risk estimation tool for HIV infected Africans.

Comparison of four international cardiovascular disease prediction models and the prevalence of eligibility for lipid lowering therapy in HIV infected patients on antiretroviral therapy

AIM

To compare four cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk models and to assess the prevalence of eligibility for lipid lowering therapy according to the 2013 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) guidelines, European AIDS Clinical Society Guidelines (EACS), and European Society of Cardiology and the European Atherosclerosis Society (ESC/EAS) guidelines for CVD prevention in HIV infected patients on antiretroviral therapy.

METHODS

We performed a cross-sectional analysis of 254 consecutive HIV infected patients aged 40 to 79 years who received antiretroviral therapy for at least 12 months. The patients were examined at the HIV-treatment centers in Belgrade and Zagreb in the period February-April 2011. We compared the following four CVD risk models: the Framingham risk score (FRS), European Systematic Coronary Risk Evaluation Score (SCORE), the Data Collection on Adverse Effects of Anti-HIV Drugs study (DAD), and the Pooled Cohort Atherosclerotic CVD risk (ASCVD) equations.

RESULTS

The prevalence of current smoking was 42.9%, hypertension 31.5%, and hypercholesterolemia (>6.2 mmol/L) 35.4%; 33.1% persons were overweight, 11.8% were obese, and 30.3% had metabolic syndrome. A high 5-year DAD CVD risk score (>5%) had substantial agreement with the elevated (≥7.5%) 10-year ASCVD risk equation score (kappa=0.63). 21.3% persons were eligible for statin therapy according to EACS (95% confidence intervals [CI], 16.3% to 27.4%), 25.6% according to ESC/EAS (95% CI, 20.2% to 31.9%), and 37.9% according to ACC/AHA guidelines (95% CI, 31.6 to 44.6%).

CONCLUSION

In our sample, agreement between the high DAD CVD risk score and other CVD high risk scores was not very good. The ACC/AHA guidelines would recommend statins more often than ESC/EAS and EACS guidelines. Current recommendations on treatment of dyslipidemia should be applied with caution in the HIV infected population.

Tobacco smoking in HIV-infected versus general population in france: heterogeneity across the various groups of people living with HIV

BACKGROUND

Although the various groups of people living with HIV (PLWHIV) considerably differ regarding socioeconomic and behavioral characteristics, their specificities regarding tobacco smoking have been poorly investigated. We aimed to assess patterns of tobacco consumption across the various groups of PLWHIV and to compare them to the general population, accounting for the specific socioeconomic profile of PLWHIV.

METHODS

We used data of the ANRS-Vespa2 study, a national representative survey on PLWHIV conducted in France in 2011. Prevalence of past and current tobacco consumption, heavy smoking and strong nicotine dependence were assessed among the various groups of PLWHIV as defined by transmission category, gender and geographic origin, and compared to the French general population using direct standardization and multivariate Poisson regression models, accounting for gender, age, education and geographic origin.

RESULTS

Among the 3,019 participants aged 18-85 years (median time since HIV diagnosis: 12 years), 37.5% were current smokers and 22.1% were past smokers, with marked differences across the various groups of PLWHIV. Compared to the general population, the prevalence of regular smoking was increased among HIV-infected men who have sex with men (MSM) (adjusted prevalence rate ratio (aPRR): 1.19, 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 1.07-1.32), French-native women (aPRR: 1.32, 95% CI: 1.10-1.57), and heterosexual French-native men (although not significantly, aPRR: 1.19, 95% CI: 0.98-1.45). Additionally, HIV-infected MSM were significantly less likely to be ex-smokers (aPRR: 0.73, 95% CI: 0.64-0.82) than the general population and similar trends were observed among heterosexual French-native men (aPRR: 0.89, 95% CI: 0.78-1.02) and women (aPRR: 0.84, 95% CI: 0.70-1.01). HIV-infected sub-Saharan African migrants were less likely to be regular smokers than the general population.

CONCLUSIONS

Smoking constitutes a major concern in various groups of PLWHIV in France including MSM and heterosexual French-natives, probably resulting from PLWHIV being less likely to quit smoking than their counterparts in the general population.

Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control rate of hypertension in HIV-infected patients: the HIV-HY study

BACKGROUND

We aimed to assess the prevalence of hypertension in an unselected human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected population and to identify factors associated with hypertension prevalence, treatment, and control.

METHODS

We used a multicenter, cross-sectional, nationwide study that sampled 1,182 unselected, consecutive, HIV-infected patients. Office blood pressure was accurately measured with standard procedures.

RESULTS

Patients were 71% men and 92% white, with a median age of 47 years (range = 18-78); 6% were antiretroviral treatment naive. The overall prevalence of hypertension was 29.3%; high-normal pressure accounted for an additional 12.3%. Among hypertensive subjects, 64.9% were aware of their hypertensive condition, 52.9% were treated, and 33.0% were controlled (blood pressure < 140/90 mm Hg). Blood pressure-lowering medications were used in monotherapy in 54.3% of the subjects. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers were the most frequently used drugs (76.1%: monotherapy = 39.1%, combination treatment = 37.0%). In multivariable regression models, hypertension was independently predicted by traditional risk factors, including age ≥50 years, male sex, family history of cardiovascular disease, body mass index ≥25 kg/m2, previous cardiovascular events, diabetes, central obesity, and metabolic syndrome, as well as by duration of HIV infection, duration of antiretroviral therapy, and nadir CD4+ T-cell count <200/μl. The choice of protease inhibitors vs. nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors as a third antiretroviral drug was irrelevant.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypertension affects nearly 30% of HIV adult outpatients in Italy. More than one-third of the hypertensive subjects are unaware of their condition, and more than two-thirds are uncontrolled. A higher level of attention to the diagnosis and treatment of hypertension is mandatory in this setting.

Risk of cardiovascular disease in HIV, hepatitis C, or HIV/hepatitis C patients compared to the general population

BACKGROUND

As a result of effective antiretroviral therapy HIV patients are living longer, and their risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a growing concern. It remains unknown whether coinfection with hepatitis C (HCV) changes an HIV person's CVD risk, and how the risks compare to the general population. The objective of this study was to compare the Framingham Risk Score (FRS) and vascular age differences in persons with HIV, HCV or HIV/HCV disease to the general population.

METHODS

HIV, HCV, and HIV/HCV patients with clinic visits between 2004 and 2009 were sampled from medical clinics in Rochester, NY. Uninfected persons were randomly selected from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), and individually matched on gender, race, and age. We stratified by infection group and conducted separate multivariable linear regression analyses between each infection group and the gender, race, and age matched participants from NHANES.

RESULTS

Rochester patients (HIV = 239, HCV = 167, HIV/HCV = 182) were compared 3 : 1 with the NHANES participants. After controlling for weight, marital status, current pharmacotherapies and the matching variables of gender, race, and age, HIV/HCV patients had a 2% higher general FRS compared with the general population (p = 0.03), and vascular age differences that were 4.1 years greater (p = .01). HCV patients had a 2.4% higher general FRS than the general population (p < .001), and vascular age differences that were 4.4 years greater (p < .001). CVD risk was elevated but not significantly different between HIV patients and the general population.

CONCLUSION

Cardiovascular disease risk is elevated among HIV/HCV and HCV infected persons compared with the general population.

Cigarette smoking in the HIV-infected population

As mortality due to AIDS-related causes has decreased with the use of antiretroviral therapy, there has been a rise in deaths related to non-AIDS-defining illnesses. Given the exceedingly high prevalence of cigarette smoking among individuals living with HIV infection, tobacco has been implicated as a major contributor to this paradigm shift. Evidence suggests that smoking-related illnesses, such as cardiovascular disease, respiratory illnesses, and certain malignancies, contribute substantially to morbidity and mortality among HIV-infected persons. In this review, we summarize the adverse health consequences of smoking relevant to HIV-infected individuals and discuss smoking cessation in this unique population, including a discussion of barriers to quitting and a review of studies that have examined smoking cessation interventions.

Framingham risk score and early markers of atherosclerosis in a cohort of adults infected with HIV

BACKGROUND

The utility of the Framingham risk score among individuals infected with HIV is poorly understood. We examined the association of Framingham risk scores with surrogate markers of atherosclerosis in a carefully characterized cohort of adults infected with HIV.

METHODS

We calculated Framingham risk scores and measured carotid intima-media thickness (c-IMT) and coronary artery calcium (CAC) scores in 334 participants from the Nutrition for Healthy Living study. Cardiovascular risk factors, c-IMT and CAC scores were assessed for each Framingham risk subgroup (low versus intermediate/high risk). We used adjusted and unadjusted linear and logistic regression to examine the association between clinical factors and Framingham risk group with c-IMT and CAC scores.

RESULTS

Patients with intermediate/high Framingham risk scores were more likely to have internal c-IMT ≥ 1.0 mm (26% versus 12%; P=0.003) and common c-IMT ≥ 0.8 mm (22% versus 5%; P < 0.001). These patients were also more likely to have detectable CAC (78% versus 48%; P < 0.001). Intermediate/high Framingham risk scores were significantly associated with internal c-IMT ≥ 1.0 mm (odds ratio 2.65 [95% confidence interval 1.37-5.13]) and common c-IMT ≥ 0.8 mm (odds ratio 5.24 [95% confidence interval 2.39-11.50]). Intermediate/high Framingham risk scores were also significantly associated with detectable CAC (odds ratio 3.84 [95% confidence interval 2.05-7.16]). The addition of HIV-related variables did not improve the accuracy of the Framingham risk score.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study shows that increased Framingham risk scores are associated with abnormal early and late surrogate markers of atherosclerosis in adults infected with HIV, and might predict the risk of cardiovascular complications in this population.

The Relationship Between HIV Infection and Cardiovascular Disease

Over 30 million people are currently living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, and over 2 million new infections occur per year. HIV has been found to directly affect vascular biology resulting in an increased risk of cardiovascular disease compared to uninfected persons. Although HIV infection can now be treated effectively with combination antiretroviral medications, significant toxicities such as hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and excess cardiovascular co-morbidity; as well as the potential for significant drug-drug interactions between HIV and cardiovascular medications, present new challenges for the management of persons infected with HIV. We first review basic principles of HIV pathogenesis and treatment and then discuss relevant clinical management strategies that will be useful for cardiologists who might be involved in the care of HIV infected patients.

Cardiovascular risk evaluation and antiretroviral therapy effects in an HIV cohort: implications for clinical management: the CREATE 1 study

AIMS

The aim of this study is to determine the cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk profile of a large UK HIV cohort and how highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) affects this.

METHODS

It is a cross-sectional study within a large inner city hospital and neighbouring district hospital. A total of 1021 HIV positive outpatients representative of the complete cohort and 990 who had no previous CVD were included in CVD risk analysis. We recorded demographics, HAART history and CVD risk factors. CVD and coronary heart disease (CHD) risks were calculated using the Framingham (1991) algorithm adjusted for family history.

RESULTS

The non-CVD cohort (n = 990) was 74% men, 51% Caucasian and 73.1% were on HAART. Mean age was 41 +/- 9 years, systolic blood pressure 120 +/- 14 mmHg, total cholesterol 4.70 +/- 1.05 mmol/l, high-density lipoprotein-C 1.32 +/- 0.48 mmol/l and 37% smoked. Median CVD risk was 4 (0-56) % in men and 1.4 (0-37) % in women; CHD risks were 3.5 (0-36) % and 0.6 (0-16) %. CVD risk was > 20% in 6% of men and 1% of women and > 10% in 12% of men and 4% of women. CVD risk was higher in Caucasians than other ethnicities; the risk factor contributing most was raised cholesterol. For patients on their first HAART, increased CHD risk (26.2% vs. 6.5%; odds ratio 4.03, p < 0.001) was strongly related to the duration of therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Modifiable risk factors, especially cholesterol, and also duration of HAART, were key determinants of CVD risk.

DISCUSSION

Regular CHD and/or CVD risk assessment should be performed on patients with HIV, especially during HAART therapy. The effect of different HAART regimens on CHD risk should be considered when selecting therapy.

Relations between cardiovascular risk estimates and subclinical atherosclerosis in naïve HIV patients: results from the HERMES study

Summary

The aim of the study was to evaluate the cardiovascular risk factors associated with subclinical carotid atherosclerosis in antiretroviral therapy-naïve HIV-infected patients. The HERMES (HIV Exposure and Risk of Metabolic Syndrome) study enrolled therapy-naïve patients attending hospitals in the Italian coordination group for the study of allergies and HIV infection (CISAI [Coordinamento Italiano per lo Studio Allergia e Infezione da HIV]) in 2007. It was designed to identify metabolic syndrome (MS) and cardiovascular risk factors. The present analysis is a nested cross-sectional study with a subset of patients examined by carotid ultrasonography. Consecutive antiretroviral therapy-naïve HIV patients attending the facilities involved in the CISAI were included. Their 10-year probability of cardiovascular events was calculated using the Framingham Risk Score (FRS) and three other cardiovascular algorithms (the Global Framingham Risk Score – GFRS, ‘Progetto Cuore’ and ‘SCORE’). Vascular age was estimated using a new model derived from GFRS and was compared with chronological age. The diagnosis of MS was based on the National Cholesterol Education Programme and International Diabetes Federation (IDF) definitions. Subclinical atherosclerosis was determined as ultrasound carotid intima-media thickness >0.9 mm. Out of 140 patients enrolled in the HERMES study by the four centres participating in the nested study, a total of 72 (51.4%) subjects, with no overt cardiovascular disease, were examined using carotid ultrasonography. The median age was 40 years, 79.2% men. The vascular age was 7.6 years higher than the chronological age. The factors associated with subclinical atherosclerosis were age (P < 0.0001), vascular age (P = 0.0002), body mass index (P = 0.003), waist circumference (P = 0.0002), MS (IDF definition, P = 0.004) and all the cardiovascular (CV) models (FRS, P = 0.01, GFRS, P = 0.002, Progetto Cuore, P = 0.018, SCORE, P = 0.03). Independent of other significant factors, waist circumference was significantly associated with pathological results (P = 0.007). The GFRS (area under the receiver-operating characteristic curves, 0.78; P < 0.001) had slightly better predictive accuracy than the other three CV models (FRS, areas under the curve [AUC] = 0.71, P = 0.003; Progetto Cuore, AUC = 0.74, P = 0.0005; SCORE, AUC = 0.77, P < 0.0001); 55% of patients at intermediate risk (6–20%) had subclinical carotid lesions. Subclinical carotid lesions had a highly significant direct association with all the CV risk predictors. The GFRS and vascular age were highly predictive. We recommend a carotid ultrasonographic examination at least among HIV patients with GFRS >6% or with an elevated waist circumference.

Review: the need for smoking cessation among HIV-positive smokers

Most HIV-positive persons in the U.S. smoke cigarettes. Despite substantial clinical advances in HIV care in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), HIV-positive persons are at high risk of tobacco-related disease and death. HIV-positive persons have complex social, economic, psychiatric, and medical needs that may impact smoking behavior and response to smoking cessation interventions, but there is a dearth of research on smoking cessation interventions tailored to HIV-positive persons. HIV care providers should treat tobacco use with the array of evidence-based smoking cessation treatments available, updating their clinical practice as new data emerge. This article reviews the literature on the health consequences of tobacco use in HIV-positive persons, the treatment of tobacco dependence, and the research to date on smoking cessation interventions in HIV-positive persons, and it presents recommendations for future research and intervention.

Aortic stiffness in untreated adult patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection

HIV infection is associated with chronic immune activation, subclinical inflammation, and an atherogenic metabolic profile. It remains controversial whether HIV infection is a risk factor for accelerated arteriosclerosis independent from the effects of antiretroviral drugs. We investigated whether aortic stiffness, an early marker of arteriosclerosis, is increased in HIV patients who were not under antiretroviral treatment. In 39 untreated HIV-infected patients and 78 individually matched age-, sex-, and blood pressure-matched HIV-uninfected control subjects, we determined aortic pulse wave velocity (PWV), a direct noninvasive measure of aortic stiffness, by tonometric method. Subjects with overt cardiovascular disease or major cardiovascular risk factors were excluded from the study. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome was higher in HIV patients (18% versus 5%; P=0.025). HIV patients had a higher aortic PWV (7.5+/-1.4 versus 6.7+/-1.1 m.s(-1); P=0.001) than control subjects. Age, mean arterial pressure as a measure of distending pressure, and HIV infection (all P<0.05) independently predicted aortic PWV when a consistent number of cardiovascular risk factors was simultaneously controlled for. Among HIV-infected subjects, serum gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase concentration (beta=0.46; P=0.003) and mean arterial pressure (beta=0.32; P=0.03) were independent determinants of aortic PWV. In conclusion, aortic stiffness is increased in HIV-infected individuals who have never received antiretroviral therapy. PWV increases with increasing serum gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase concentration. Our data support the hypothesis that HIV infection is a risk factor for arteriosclerosis.

Cholesterol levels in HIV-HCV infected patients treated with lopinavir/r: results from the SCOLTA project

BACKGROUND

It is not known whether antiretroviral therapy (ART) including lopinavir/r has a different effect on the lipid metabolism in HIV patients co-infected with HCV. This study investigated changes in lipid levels, comparing patients with HIV infection alone and those with HCV too, in the lopinavir/r cohort of the SCOLTA project.

METHODS

We analyzed the data for the lopinavir/r nationwide cohort from 25 Italian infectious disease departments, which comprises 743 HIV-infected patients followed prospectively, comparing subjects with HIV-HCV co-infection and those with single-infection.

RESULTS

At enrolment, co-infected patients had significantly lower mean cholesterol than HCV negative cases (162+/-43mg/dL vs. 185+/-52mg/dL, p=0.0009). Total and non-HDL cholesterol and triglycerides rose significantly from baseline in HIV single-infection patients, but not in those with co-infection. The patients with dual HIV-HCV infection, treated with an ART regimen including lopinavir/r, have only limited increases in total and non-HDL cholesterol and triglycerides.

CONCLUSIONS

Changes in serum lipids in co-infected patients differed significantly from those in patients without HCV. It remains to be seen whether this is associated with a lower risk of progression of atherosclerotic disease.