1
|
Tchamkerten A, Chaudron P, Girard N, Monnier A, Pyne DB, Hellard P. Career factors related to winning Olympic medals in swimming. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0304444. [PMID: 38941281 PMCID: PMC11213295 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0304444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/30/2024] Open
Abstract
To investigate associations between a swimmer's career progression and winning a medal at the Olympic Games (OG) or World Championships (WC). A total of 4631 swimming performances of 1535 top swimmers (653 women, 882 men) from 105 nationalities since1973 were extracted from FINA rankings. A panel of 12 predictor variables including nationality, gender, competition, age, number and timing of competitions, pattern of progressions and regressions in performance, and medal outcomes was established. Linear logistic regression was used to study the association between winning a medal and predictor variables. Logistic regression coefficients were obtained by training on 80% of the database, and prediction accuracy evaluated on the remaining 20%. Using the training set, a selection of 9 most relevant features for prediction of winning a medal (target variable) was obtained through exhaustive feature selection and cross-validation: nationality, competition, number of competitions, number of annual career progressions (nb_prog), maximum annual career progression (max-progr), number of annual career regressions (nb_reg), age at maximum annual progression, P6 (the level of performance six months before the World Championships or Olympic Games), and P2 (the level of performance two months before the World Championships or Olympic Games). A logistic regression model was built and retrained on the entire training set achieved an area under the ROC curve of ~90% on the test set. The odds of winning a medal increased by 1.64 (95% CI, 1.39-1.91) and 1.44 (1.22-1.72) for each unit of increase in max-progr and n-prog, respectively. Odds of winning a medal decreased by 0.60 (0.49-0.72) for a unit increase in n-reg. In contrast, the odds increased by 1.70 (1.39-2.07) and 4.35 (3.48-5.42) for improvements in the 6 and 2 months before competition (P<0.001, for all variables). The likelihood of a swimmer winning an international medal is improved by ~40-90% with progressions from season-to-season, and reducing the number of regressions in performance. The chances of success are also improved 2- to 4-fold by substantial improvements in performance in the months before competition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aslan Tchamkerten
- Department of Communications and Electronics, Institute Polytechnique de Paris, Telecom Paris, Paris, France
| | - Paul Chaudron
- Department of Communications and Electronics, Institute Polytechnique de Paris, Telecom Paris, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Girard
- Department of Communications and Electronics, Institute Polytechnique de Paris, Telecom Paris, Paris, France
| | - Antoine Monnier
- Department of Communications and Electronics, Institute Polytechnique de Paris, Telecom Paris, Paris, France
| | - David B. Pyne
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
| | - Philippe Hellard
- CREPS Resource and Expertise Center on Sports Performance in Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
- CETAPS EA3832, Rouen University, Rouen, France
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Chen Y, Huang C, Chen H, Huang T, Su C, Chen J. Peak Performance: Characteristics and Key Factors in the Development of the World Top-8 Swimmers Based on Longitudinal Data. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:600-607. [PMID: 38626892 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 03/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to investigate the peak performance characteristics of the world top-8 swimmers and the key factors involved in the journey toward achieving better peak performance. METHODS The results of the world top-8 swimmers from 2001 to 2022 were collected from the World Aquatics performance database. Progression to peak performance was tracked with individual quadratic trajectories (1191 cases). Utilizing k-means clustering to group competitive feature variables, this study investigated key developmental factors through a binary logistic regression model, using the odds ratio (OR) to represent whether a factor was favorable (OR > 1) or unfavorable (OR < 1). RESULTS Significant differences (P < .001) in the peak age between men (23.54/3.80) and women (22.31/4.60) were noticed, while no significant differences (P > .05) in the peak-performance window for both sexes appeared. Peak performance occurred at later ages for the sprint for both sexes, and women had a longer duration in peak-performance window for sprint (P < .05). Peak-performance occurred at later ages for the breaststroke and butterfly for both sexes (P < .05). Binary logistic regression revealed that high first-participation performance (OR = 1.502), high major-competition performance (OR = 4.165), early first-major-competition age (OR = 1.441), participation frequency above 4 times/year in both phase 2 (4.3-8.0 times/y, OR = 3.940; 8.1-20.0 times/y, OR = 5.122) and phase 3 (4.1-7.5 times/y: OR = 5.548; 7.7-15.0 times/y: OR = 7.526), and a career length of 10 years or more (10-15 y, OR = 2.102; 16-31 y, OR = 3.480) were favorable factors for achieving better peak performance. CONCLUSIONS Peak performance characteristics varied across sex, swimming stroke, and race distance in the world top-8 swimmers. Meanwhile, the research indicated that certain specific developmental factors were key conditions for the world top-8 swimmers to achieve better peak performance in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuming Chen
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Chenbin Huang
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Hui Chen
- School of Sports and Health Management, Chongqing University of Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Ting Huang
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Christine Su
- College of Education, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Jiexing Chen
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Scott BE, Burden R, Dekerle J. Stroke-Specific Swimming Critical Speed Testing: Balancing Feasibility and Scientific Rigour. J Hum Kinet 2024; 90:239-251. [PMID: 38380294 PMCID: PMC10875687 DOI: 10.5114/jhk/170882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to assess the reliability of a two-distance critical speed protocol in the specialist strokes of national-level swimmers and understand the practical feasibility of extending the protocol to increase its validity. Thirty-two national-level swimmers (butterfly n = 7; backstroke n = 8; breaststroke n = 7; front crawl n = 10) swum three 200-m and three 400-m performance trials over a three-week period. Critical speed and supra-critical speed distance capacity were computed from the linear modelling of the distance-time relationship. Swimmers were subsequently asked whether they felt they could or would want to complete an 800-m trial as part of a three-distance critical speed protocol to enhance validity. Both 200-m and 400-m performances (coefficient of variation of < 2%) and derived critical speed (typical error of ≤ 0.04 m·s-1; coefficient of variation of < 4%) were reliable for all strokes, while supra-critical speed distance capacity (typical error from 4 to 9 m; coefficient of variation from 13 to 45%) was not reliable. Response rates to the follow-up questions were 100%. Few butterfly swimmers said they felt they could complete an 800-m performance trial (39%), with more positive responses for breaststroke (71%), backstroke (100%), and front crawl swimmers (100%). Butterfly swimmers were significantly less likely to say they could or would want to complete an 800-m trial than backstroke and front crawl swimmers (p < 0.05). Including a third distance 800-m trial to increase critical speed validity would not be acceptable to butterfly swimmers, would be challenging to breaststroke swimmers, but would be acceptable to front crawl and backstroke swimmers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ben E. Scott
- Fatigue and Exercise Laboratory, School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UK
- English Institute of Sport, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
- British Swimming, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - Richard Burden
- English Institute of Sport, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, National Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
- School of Sport, Health and Applied Science, St Mary’s University, Twickenham, UK
| | - Jeanne Dekerle
- Fatigue and Exercise Laboratory, School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Barbosa TM, Barbosa AC, Simbaña Escobar D, Mullen GJ, Cossor JM, Hodierne R, Arellano R, Mason BR. The role of the biomechanics analyst in swimming training and competition analysis. Sports Biomech 2023; 22:1734-1751. [PMID: 34402417 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2021.1960417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Swimming analysts aid coaches and athletes in the decision-making by providing evidence-based recommendations. The aim of this narrative review was to report the best practices of swimming analysts that have been supporting high-performance athletes. It also aims to share how swimming analysts can translate applied research into practice. The role of the swimming analyst, as part of a holistic team supporting high-performance athletes, has been expanding and is needed to be distinguished from the job scope of a swimming researcher. As testing can be time-consuming, analysts must decide what to test and when to conduct the evaluation sessions. Swimming analysts engage in the modelling and forecast of the performance, that in short- and mid-term can help set races target-times, and in the long-term provide insights on talent and career development. Races can be analysed by manual, semi-automatic or fully automatic video analysis with single or multi-cameras set-ups. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of the swim strokes, start, turns, and finish are also part of the analyst job scope and associated with race performance goals. Land-based training is another task that can be assigned to analysts and aims to enhance the performance, prevent musculoskeletal injuries and monitor its risk factors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiago M Barbosa
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
- Portuguese Swimming Federation, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal
| | - Augusto Carvalho Barbosa
- Sport Sciences Department, Meazure Sport Sciences, São Paulo, Brazil
- Brazilian Paralympic Committee, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Sports Sciences, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - David Simbaña Escobar
- Performance Optimization Department, French Swimming Federation, Clichy, France
- Center for the Study and the Transformation of Physical Activities (CETAPS), Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Rouen Normandie, UNIROUEN, Mont Saint Aignan, France
| | | | - Jodi M Cossor
- High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ryan Hodierne
- New South Wales Institute of Sport, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Raúl Arellano
- Aquatics Lab, Physical Education and Sports Department, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Bruce R Mason
- Aquatic Testing, Training and Research Unit, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Mujika I, Pyne DB, Wu PPY, Ng K, Crowley E, Powell C. Next-Generation Models for Predicting Winning Times in Elite Swimming Events: Updated Predictions for the Paris 2024 Olympic Games. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:1269-1274. [PMID: 37487585 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate statistical models developed for predicting medal-winning performances for international swimming events and generate updated performance predictions for the Paris 2024 Olympic Games. METHODS The performance of 2 statistical models developed for predicting international swimming performances was evaluated. The first model employed linear regression and forecasting to examine performance trends among medal winners, finalists, and semifinalists over an 8-year period. A machine-learning algorithm was used to generate time predictions for each individual event for the Paris 2024 Olympic Games. The second model was a Bayesian framework and comprised an autoregressive term (the previous winning time), moving average (past 3 events), and covariates for stroke, gender, distance, and type of event (World Championships vs Olympic Games). To examine the accuracy of the predictions from both models, the mean absolute error was determined between the predicted times for the Budapest 2022 World Championships and the actual results from said championships. RESULTS The mean absolute error for prediction of swimming performances was 0.80% for the linear-regression machine-learning model and 0.85% for the Bayesian model. The predicted times and actual times from the Budapest 2022 World Championships were highly correlated (r = .99 for both approaches). CONCLUSIONS These models, and associated predictions for swimming events at the Paris 2024 Olympic Games, provide an evidence-based performance framework for coaches, sport-science support staff, and athletes to develop and evaluate training plans, strategies, and tactics, as well as informing resource allocation to athletes, based on their potential for the Paris 2024 Olympic Games.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Iñigo Mujika
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country, Leioa,Basque Country
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago,Chile
| | - David B Pyne
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, Bruce, ACT,Australia
| | - Paul Pao-Yen Wu
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD,Australia
- Centre for Data Science, Brisbane, QLD,Australia
| | - Kwok Ng
- Physical Activity for Health Research Cluster, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick,Ireland
- Faculty of Education, University of Turku, Rauma,Finland
- School of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu,Finland
| | - Emmet Crowley
- Biomechanics Research Unit, Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick,Ireland
- Sport and Human Performance Research Centre, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick,Ireland
| | - Cormac Powell
- Physical Activity for Health Research Cluster, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick,Ireland
- Sport and Human Performance Research Centre, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick,Ireland
- High Performance Unit, Sport Ireland, Sport Ireland Campus, Dublin,Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Santos CC, Fernandes RJ, Marinho DA, Costa MJ. From Entry to Finals: Progression and Variability of Swimming Performance at the 2022 FINA World Championships. J Sports Sci Med 2023; 22:417-424. [PMID: 37711703 PMCID: PMC10499126 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2023.417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was two-fold: (i) to analyze the progression and variability of swimming performance (from entry times to best performances) in the 50, 100, and 200 m at the most recent FINA World Championships and (ii) to compare the performance of the Top16, semifinalists, and finalists between all rounds. Swimmers who qualified with the FINA A and B standards for the Budapest 2022 World Championships were considered. A total of 1102 individual performances swimmers were analyzed in freestyle, backstroke, breaststroke, and butterfly events. The data was retrieved from the official open-access websites of OMEGA and FINA. Wilcoxon test was used to compare swimmers' entry times and best performances. Repeated measures ANOVA followed by the Bonferroni post-hoc test were performed to analyze the round-to-round progression. The percentage of improvement and variation in the swimmers' performance was computed between rounds. A negative progression (entry times better than best performance) and a high variability (> 0.69%) were found for most events. The finalists showed a positive progression with a greater improvement (~1%) from the heats to the semifinals. However, the performance progression remained unchanged between the semifinals and finals. The variability tended to decrease between rounds making each round more homogeneous. Coaches and swimmers can use these indicators to prepare a race strategy between rounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catarina C Santos
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Ricardo J Fernandes
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP-UP), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Daniel A Marinho
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Mário J Costa
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP-UP), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Yustres Amores I, Santos del Cerro J, González-Mohíno F, Hermosilla F, González-Ravé JM. Modelling performance by continents in swimming. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1075167. [PMID: 37288433 PMCID: PMC10242027 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1075167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: There is a growing interest in the scientific community about the progression and congruity in the performance of talented participants who complete representing different nations in the most important international events. The prediction of incoming performances is nowadays in demand with the objective of returning in talent investment. Talent identification programs have tried to select and develop sports talent over years. However, to our knowledge, there is a lack of research about success in swimming World Championships (WCs) performance considering continents-country and how successful outcomes are influenced by these variables. Therefore, the primary goal is to analyze the effect of early specialization comparing the performance progression model of the countries gathered by continents. Methods: Participant's data from all Junior and Senior WCs between 2006 and 2017 from International Swimming Federation (FINA). One-way ANOVA, ANCOVA and regression model were used to explain whether the variable category, age, best z-score, experience, and continent influences the performance obtained in Absolute WC. Results: Significant differences (p < 0.01) were found between the average performance obtained by the two different categories (junior: swimmers participating in junior WCs before senior WCs; senior: swimmers participating in senior WCs without previous participation in junior WCs), where swimmers from category junior showed significant better performance's times than seniors, except in America. ANCOVA results showed that generally, the greatest differences where in the earliest ages, with best performance registered in category junior in all the continents. Also, the experience was a significant variable in the general model. Conclusion: Swimmers who had participated in junior category prior absolute obtained better performance's times than those swimmers who participated directly in absolute, in the first participation in senior WC. Thus, early specialization is a key factor to obtain better results in senior WCs for all the continents, except in America.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I. Yustres Amores
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Madrid, Spain
| | - J. Santos del Cerro
- Department of Applied Economics I, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - F. González-Mohíno
- Sport Training Laboratory, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y de la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
| | - F. Hermosilla
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y de la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Physical Activity and Sports Science, Alfonso X El Sabio University, Madrid, Spain
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Cuenca-Fernández F, Ruiz-Navarro JJ, Polach M, Arellano R, Born DP. Short-course performance variation across all race sections: How 100 and 200 m elite male swimmers progress between rounds. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1146711. [PMID: 37057072 PMCID: PMC10086268 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1146711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionTo investigate performance variation in all race sections, i.e., start, clean swimming, and turns, of elite short-course races for all swimming strokes and to determine the effect of performance variation on race results.MethodsComparing finalists and non-qualified swimmers, a total of 256 races of male swimmers (n = 128, age: 23.3 ± 3.1, FINA points: 876 ± 38) competing in the European short-course swimming championships were analyzed. The coefficient of variation (CV) and relative change in performance (Δ%) were used to compare intra-individual performance progression between rounds and inter-individual differences between performance levels using a linear mixed model.ResultsWhile most performance variables declined during the races (P < 0.005), performance was better maintained in 200 m compared to 100 m races, as well as in finalists compared to non-qualified swimmers. In 100 m races, Start Times improved between heats, semi-finals, and finals (P < 0.005) and contributed to the improved Split Times of Lap 1 in freestyle (P = 0.001, Δ = −1.09%), breaststroke (P < 0.001; Δ = −2.48%), and backstroke (P < 0.001; Δ = −1.72%). Swimmers increased stroke rate from heats/semi-finals to finals in freestyle (P = 0.015, Δ = 3.29%), breaststroke (P = 0.001, Δ = 6.91%), and backstroke (P = 0.005; Δ = 3.65%). Increases in stroke length and clean-swimming speed were only significant between rounds for breaststroke and backstroke (P < 0.005). In 200 m races, Total Time remained unchanged between rounds (P > 0.05), except for breaststroke (P = 0.008; CV = 0.7%; Δ = −0.59%). Start (P = 0.004; Δ = −1.72%) and Split Times (P = 0.009; Δ = −0.61%) only improved in butterfly. From the turn variables, OUT_5 m times improved towards the finals in breaststroke (P = 0.006; Δ = −1.51%) and butterfly (P = 0.016; Δ = −2.19%). No differences were observed for SR and SL, while clean-swimming speed improved between rounds in breaststroke only (P = 0.034; Δ = 0.96%).DiscussionPerformance of finalists progressed between rounds in 100 m but not 200 m races, most probably due to the absence of semi-finals. Progression in 100 m races was mainly attributed to improved Start and Split Times in Lap 1, while turn performances remained unchanged. Within round comparison showed higher performance maintenance in 200 m compared to 100 m events, which showed more pronounced positive pacing. Success of finalists was attributed to their overall higher performance level and superior progression between rounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Cuenca-Fernández
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Jesús J. Ruiz-Navarro
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Marek Polach
- Department of Social Sciences in Kinanthropology, Palacký University Olomouc, Olomouc, Czechia
- Umimplavat.cz, Analysis and Consultation for Swimming Technique and Race Performance, Prague, Czechia
| | - Raúl Arellano
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Dennis-Peter Born
- Section for High-Performance Sports, Swiss Swimming Federation, Bern, Switzerland
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
- Correspondence: Dennis-Peter Born
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
González-Ravé JM, Castillo JA, González-Mohino F, Pyne DB. Periodization of altitude training: A collective case study of high-level swimmers. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1140077. [PMID: 36891142 PMCID: PMC9986624 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1140077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The objective was to quantify parallel changes in performance and physiological measures in relation to periodization of sequential altitude training over a season in elite swimmers. The altitude training of four female and two male international swimmers in selected seasons was examined using a collective case study approach. All swimmers were a medalist in World (WC) and/or European Championships (EC) 2013, 2014, 2016 and 2018 in short or long course competition. A traditional periodization model was employed using three macrocycles with 3-4 altitude camps (duration 21-24 days each) scheduled over the season, following a polarized training intensity distribution (TID) with a volume ranged between 729 km and 862 km. The timing of return from altitude prior to competition was between 20-32 days, with 28 days the most common period. Competition performance was assessed with major (international) and minor (regional or national) competitions. Hemoglobin concentration, hematocrit, anthropometric characteristics, were measured before and after each camp. Competition performance following the altitude training camps improved by 0.6% ± 0.8% (personal best time; mean ± SD) (95% confidence limits (CL) 0.1%-1.1%), 1.6% ± 0.7% (95% CL 1.2% to 2.0%) (season best time) and 1.6% ± 0.5% (95% CL 1.3%-1.9%) (previous season time). Hemoglobin concentration increased 4.9% from pre-to post-altitude training camps, while hematocrit increased by 4.5%. The sum of six skinfolds reduced by 14.4% (95% CL 18.8%-9.9%) and 4.2% (95% CL 2.4%-9.2%) for the two males (EC), and by 15.8% (95% CL 19.5%-12.0%) for two females (WC). Three to four altitude training camps in a competitive season, around 21-24 days of duration, scheduling the last return between 20-32 days before the main competition, integrated in a traditional periodized sequence, can induce worthwhile improvements in international swimming performance, hematological parameters, and anthropometric characteristics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J M González-Ravé
- Sports Training Laboratory, Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, University of Castilla la Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - J A Castillo
- National Institute of Physical Education in Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - F González-Mohino
- Sports Training Laboratory, Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, University of Castilla la Mancha, Toledo, Spain.,Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y de la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
| | - D B Pyne
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, Faculty of Health, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Cuenca-Fernández F, Boullosa D, López-Belmonte Ó, Gay A, Ruiz-Navarro JJ, Arellano R. Swimming Warm-Up and Beyond: Dryland Protocols and Their Related Mechanisms—A Scoping Review. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:120. [PMID: 36153425 PMCID: PMC9509505 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00514-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In swimming, the beneficial effects of the in-water warm-up are often undermined by the long transition periods before competition (≥ 20 min). For that reason, studies comparing the effects of in-water warm-ups followed by dryland activities have been conducted in the swimming literature. This has brought conflicting evidence due to large combinations of supervised and unsupervised warm-up procedures used. Therefore, a scoping review was performed to discuss (1) why warm-up strategies are important for competitive swimming; to identify (2) what are the different warm-up approaches available in the literature, and; to establish (3) what are the main conclusions, considerations and gaps that should be addressed in further research to provide clearer guidance for interventions. The search was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus databases. To be considered eligible, studies must have assessed acute short-term responses of warm-up procedures in swimmers by using randomized controlled trials or pre-post study designs. A total of 42 articles were included in this review. The effectiveness of warm-up responses was evaluated based on the inclusion or not of warm-up, the type of conditioning activity (in-water exercise, in-water exercise combined with dryland or dryland exercise only), its duration, and intensity. (1) Warm-up mechanisms have been mainly related to temperature changes associated to cardiovascular adaptations and short-term specific neuromuscular adaptations. Thus, maintaining muscle activity and body temperature during the transition phase immediately prior to competition could help swimmers' performance; (2) the most common approach before a race usually included a moderate mileage of in-water warm-up (~ 1000 m) performed at an intensity of ≤ 60% of the maximal oxygen consumption, followed by dryland protocols to keep the muscle activity and body temperature raised during the transition phase. Dryland activities could only optimize performance in sprint swimming if performed after the in-water warm-up, especially if heated clothing elements are worn. Using tethered swimming and hand-paddles during warm-ups does not provide superior muscular responses to those achieved by traditional in-water warm-ups, possibly because of acute alterations in swimming technique. In contrast, semi-tethered resisted swimming may be considered as an appropriate stimulus to generate post-activation performance enhancements; (3) nothing has yet been investigated in backstroke, butterfly or individual medley, and there is a paucity of research on the effects of experimental warm-ups over distances greater than 100 m. Women are very under-represented in warm-up research, which prevents conclusions about possible sex-regulated effects on specific responses to the warm-up procedures.
Collapse
|
11
|
McKenzie MR, McKean MR, Doyle DP, Hogarth LW, Burkett BJ. Swimming performance, physiology, and post-activation performance enhancement following dryland transition phase warmup: A systematic review. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0273248. [PMID: 35980952 PMCID: PMC9387820 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In swimming, the period between the end of the swimming warmup and the beginning of competition is critical to performance, here termed the transition phase. Several options are available during this phase, necessitating a systematic review to understand if optimal strategies exist. Objectives To synthesise and critically evaluate the current literature investigating land-based warmup interventions on subsequent performance in competitive swimmers. Methods A search of three electronic databases (PubMed, EBSCO SPORTDiscus and Web of Science) was conducted to identify original studies until February 2022. Selection criteria dictated that (i) a control condition was used, (ii) participants were ≥ 15 years of age, (iii) a pool-based warmup was done prior to the land-based warmup. A total of 25 articles met the selection criteria. Results Reducing the transition phase duration by at least half led to consistently faster time-trial times of between 1.1–1.5% for all included studies. Passive warmups using clothing interventions resulted in mostly faster time-trial’s of 0.4–0.8% with increases in skin temperature frequent, though little change occurred in core temperature. The methodology of passive respiratory warmups were vastly different with positive time-trial’s effects ranging between 0.9–1.1% for two studies, though one reported no meaningful difference. Active warmups led to consistently faster time-trial’s between 0.7–0.9%, though the unpinning factors are not clear. Warmups which combined passive and active options frequently led to faster time-trial’s between 0.8–3%. Upper and combined limb post-activation performance enhancement led to mostly unfavourable time-trial changes. Lower limb exclusive protocols results were inconsistent, with limited beneficial effects on time-trial or start performance reported following plyometric protocols. However, there does appear merit in heavier loaded lower limb protocols. Conclusion Each of a reduced transition phase length, and passive, active or combination warmup have demonstrated improvements in swimming performance. Conversely, PAPE protocols should be used with caution, especially when including the upper limbs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Max R. McKenzie
- Queensland Academy of Sport, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Mark R. McKean
- Queensland Academy of Sport, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
| | - Danielle P. Doyle
- Queensland Academy of Sport, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
| | - Luke W. Hogarth
- School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
| | - Brendan J. Burkett
- School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
- Swimming Australia, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Arellano R, Ruiz-Navarro JJ, Barbosa TM, López-Contreras G, Morales-Ortíz E, Gay A, López-Belmonte Ó, González-Ponce Á, Cuenca-Fernández F. Are the 50 m Race Segments Changed From Heats to Finals at the 2021 European Swimming Championships? Front Physiol 2022; 13:797367. [PMID: 35910554 PMCID: PMC9326221 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.797367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This study explored in the 50 m races of the four swimming strokes the performance parameters and/or technical variables that determined the differences between swimmers who reach the finals and those who do not. A total of 322 performances retrieved from the 2021 Budapest European championships were the focus of this study. The results of the performances achieved during the finals compared to the heats showed that the best swimmers did not excel during the heats, as a significant progression of performance was observed in most of the strokes as the competition progressed. Specifically, combining men and women, the swimmers had in freestyle a mean coefficient of variation (CV) of ∼0.6%, with a mean range of performance improvement (∆%) of ∆ = ∼0.7%; in breaststroke a mean CV of ∼0.5% and ∆ = −0.2%; in backstroke a mean CV of ∼0.5% and ∆ = −0.6%, and; in butterfly a mean CV of ∼0.7% and ∆ = −0.9%. For all strokes, it was a reduction of the underwater phase with the aim of increasing its speed. However, this result was not always transferred to the final performance. In any case, most of the swimmers tried to make improvements from the start of the race up to 15 m. Furthermore, the swimmers generated an overall increase in stroke rate as the rounds progressed. However, a decrease in stroke length resulted and, this balance appeared to be of little benefit to performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raúl Arellano
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- *Correspondence: Raúl Arellano,
| | - Jesús J. Ruiz-Navarro
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Tiago M. Barbosa
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Gracia López-Contreras
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Esther Morales-Ortíz
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Ana Gay
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Óscar López-Belmonte
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Ángela González-Ponce
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Francisco Cuenca-Fernández
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Born DP, Schönfelder M, Logan O, Olstad BH, Romann M. Performance Development of European Swimmers Across the Olympic Cycle. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:894066. [PMID: 35755613 PMCID: PMC9231649 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.894066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The aims of the study were to (1) quantify the performance development of race times and key performance indicators of European swimmers across the last Olympic cycle (from 2016 to 2021) and (2) provide reference values for long-course swimming pool events for both sexes from 50 m to 1,500 m including butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle, and individual medley. Individual events from the 2016 and 2021 European swimming championships were included. Specifically, 246 men (age: 24.2 ± 3.4 years, FINA points: 890 ± 40) and 256 women races (age: 24.2 ± 4, FINA points: 879 ± 38) of the finalists were recorded and key performance indicators and split times analyzed. Performance differences in finalists of the 2016 and 2021 European championships were determined by an independent t-test and Cohen's d effect size. Reference values were retrieved from 2021 European championship finalists and are provided for all key performance indicators. Race times improved significantly (P < 0.05) or showed moderate (d = 0.5–1) to large effect sizes (d > 1) in 14 (men) and 6 (women) out of 16 events. Improvements were primarily evident in 100 m and 200 m events for males, as well as BR and sprint events for female swimmers. While start times improved in 15 (men) and 14 (women) events, turn times remained inconclusive in both sexes. Generally, breakout distances increased. Clean swimming velocities were faster in 12 (men) and 5 (women) events. In particular, for alternating swimming strokes, i.e., backstroke and freestyle, effect sizes indicated improved swimming efficiency with an inverse relationship between reduced stroke rate and increased distance per stroke. Coaches and performance analysts may use the present reference values as comparative data for race analyses and to specifically prepare swimmers for the various race sections. Data on the performance development should be used to analyze swimmers' potential and set goals for the various events and the next Olympic cycle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis-Peter Born
- Swiss Swimming Federation, Section for High-Performance Sports, Bern, Switzerland.,Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Michel Schönfelder
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Oliver Logan
- British Swimming Federation, Sportpark, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Bjørn Harald Olstad
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Michael Romann
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Cuenca-Fernández F, Ruiz-Navarro JJ, Polach M, Arellano R, Born DP. Turn Performance Variation in European Elite Short-Course Swimmers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:5033. [PMID: 35564428 PMCID: PMC9102928 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19095033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Turn performances are important success factors for short-course races, and more consistent turn times may distinguish between higher and lower-ranked swimmers. Therefore, this study aimed to determine coefficients of variation (CV) and performance progressions (∆%) of turn performances. The eight finalists and eight fastest swimmers from the heats that did not qualify for the semi-finals, i.e., from 17th to 24th place, of the 100, 200, 400, and 800 (females only)/1500 m (males only) freestyle events at the 2019 European Short Course Championships were included, resulting in a total of 64 male (finalists: age: 22.3 ± 2.6, FINA points: 914 ± 31 vs. heats: age: 21.5 ± 3.1, FINA points: 838 ± 74.9) and 64 female swimmers (finalists: age: 22.9 ± 4.8, FINA points: 904 ± 24.5 vs. heats: age: 20.1 ± 3.6, FINA points: 800 ± 48). A linear mixed model was used to compare inter- and intra-individual performance variation. Interactions between CVs, ∆%, and mean values were analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results showed impaired turn performances as the races progressed. Finalists showed faster turn section times than the eight fastest non-qualified swimmers from the heats (p < 0.001). Additionally, turn section times were faster for short-, i.e., 100 and 200 m, than middle- and long-distance races, i.e., 400 to 1500 m races (p < 0.001). Regarding variation in turn performance, finalists showed lower CVs and ∆% for all turn section times (0.74% and 1.49%) compared to non-qualified swimmers (0.91% and 1.90%, respectively). Similarly, long-distance events, i.e., 800/1500 m, showed lower mean CVs and higher mean ∆% (0.69% and 1.93%) than short-distance, i.e., 100 m events (0.93% and 1.39%, respectively). Regarding turn sections, the largest CV and ∆% were found 5 m before wall contact (0.70% and 1.45%) with lower CV and more consistent turn section times 5 m after wall contact (0.42% and 0.54%). Non-qualified swimmers should aim to match the superior turn performances and faster times of finalists in all turn sections. Both finalists and non-qualified swimmers should pay particular attention to maintaining high velocities when approaching the wall as the race progresses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Cuenca-Fernández
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain; (F.C.-F.); (J.J.R.-N.); (R.A.)
| | - Jesús J. Ruiz-Navarro
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain; (F.C.-F.); (J.J.R.-N.); (R.A.)
| | - Marek Polach
- Department of Social Sciences in Kinanthropology, Palacký University Olomouc, 77147 Olomouc, Czech Republic;
- Department for Competitive Swimming, Czech Swimming Federation, 16017 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Raúl Arellano
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain; (F.C.-F.); (J.J.R.-N.); (R.A.)
| | - Dennis-Peter Born
- Section for High-Performance Sports, Swiss Swimming Federation, 3063 Bern, Switzerland
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, 2532 Magglingen, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Neuloh JE, Venhorst A, Forster S, Mauger AR, Meyer T. The association of end-spurt behaviour with seasonal best time in long-distance freestyle pool swimming. Eur J Sport Sci 2022; 23:469-477. [PMID: 35175179 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2043943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
AbstractPurpose: To analyse the association of seasonal best time, distance and different performance levels with end-spurt behaviour in one swimming season. METHODS Race results in 800 m and 1500 m pool freestyle swimming in the season 2018/2019 including 14,930 races and 2,650 swimmers were obtained. The end-spurt for each race was determined by means of an End-Spurt Indicator (ESI). Subsequently, ESI was used as a dependent variable and influences were analysed using a linear mixed model with fixed effects for seasonal best time, distance, and performance level amongst others. RESULTS In the 800 m and 1500 m races swimmers showed a mean ESI of 2.08 (95% CI: 2.02 to 2.13) and 3.68 (95% CI: 3.59 to 3.76), respectively. There was a significant association between seasonal best time and ESI, with a better seasonal best time showing a greater ESI (F = 70.5, P < .001, f2 = 0.04). A significant effect on greater ESI was also observed for longer distance (F = 1067.5, P < .001, f2 = 0.06) and higher performance level (F = 91.1, P < .001, f2 = 0.02). Elite swimmers had a mean ESI of 5.47 (95% CI: 4.91 to 6.03), sub-elite swimmers of 3.74 (95% CI: 3.53 to 3.95) and competitive swimmers of 2.41 (95% CI: 2.37 to 2.46). CONCLUSION A more pronounced end-spurt is associated with seasonal best time in long-distance pool swimming, higher performance level of the swimmer and longer race distance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua E Neuloh
- Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Andreas Venhorst
- Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Sabrina Forster
- Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Alexis R Mauger
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Kent, Chatham, Kent, England, United Kingdom
| | - Tim Meyer
- Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Demarie S, Chirico E, Galvani C. Prediction and Analysis of Tokyo Olympic Games Swimming Results: Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Swimmers' Performance. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:2110. [PMID: 35206298 PMCID: PMC8871566 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19042110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the 2019-2020 season, swimming competitions and training have been limited leading to a setback in performances. The study analyzed if, during the subsequent season, swimmers' have been able to regain the lost performance. Swimming time trends were analyzed comparing Tokyo with Rio Olympics and with mathematically predicted results. The gap between the gold medalist and the last finalist, and the differences between men and women have also been considered. Swimming competition results of females and males, in 100 m and 200 m Freestyle and Backstroke, were collected from the Olympics' official website. Results showed that at Tokyo Olympics almost all swimmers' times improved as compared to Rio's. Analysis of performance trends highlighted that performance progression does not proceed in a linear fashion and that is best predicted by more recent results. Women's progression was higher than men's and the gap between the first and last finalist constantly decreased, except for the Tokyo Olympics. In conclusion, the unprecedented Tokyo Olympic Games and qualification year seems not to have disrupted all Olympic swimmers' performance, suggesting that stakeholders support and athlete's coping ability might safeguard the subsistence of performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Demarie
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Roma, Italy;
| | - Emanuele Chirico
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Roma, Italy;
| | - Christel Galvani
- Applied Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 20123 Milano, Italy;
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Carlsen CH, Severin C, Sandbakk Ø, Baumgart JK. Comparison of Race Time-Differences Between and Within Para and Able-Bodied Cross-Country Skiers. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 3:823014. [PMID: 35211667 PMCID: PMC8861311 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.823014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To compare differences in race time (i.e., the average percent difference in race time for each skier compared to the winner, RTdiffs) between female and male Para and able-bodied (AB) skiers, and to examine whether RTdiffs change across seasons. Methods Race data from World Cups (WCs), World Championships (WCHs), and Paralympic/Olympic Winter Games (PWG/OWGs) of the 2011–2020 seasons was extracted from the website of the International Paralympic Committee and the International Ski Federation. All individual distance races for female and male visually impaired standing (VI), physically impaired sitting (SIT) and standing (STAND), and AB skiers with ≥10 competitors were included in the analyses. We investigated the main effect of skiing groups (i.e., VI, STAND, SIT, and AB skiers) and sex on RTdiffs for top-3 and top-8 skiers. Furthermore, the main effect of season and skiing group on RTdiffs for top-3 and top-8 skiers were investigated. All models were adjusted for distance, skiing style (classical- and freestyle), and event type (WC, WCH, and PWG/OWG). Results RTdiffs were significantly larger in Para compared to AB skiers (top-3: 2.1 vs. 0.9%; top-8: 6.2 vs. 2.1%, all p < 0.01), and in female compared to male skiers (top-3: 1.8 vs. 1.3%; top-8: 4.9 vs. 3.5%, all p < 0.05). For top-3 skiers, RTdiffs did not significantly differ between the Para categories (all p > 0.2), while for top-8 skiers RTdiffs were significantly larger for VI compared to SIT and STAND (7.0 vs. 5.5 and 5.6%, respectively, all p < 0.05). RTdiffs were stable across the 2011–2020 seasons for top-3 skiers (VI: 1.7–3.6%, STAND: 1.1–2.2%, SIT: 1.0–3.9%, AB: 0.4–1.1%; all p > 0.1) and top-8 skiers (VI: 3.4–12.0%, STAND: 2.6–5.7%, SIT: 1.9–5.9%, AB: 0.1–1.7%; all p > 0.1). Conclusion The larger RTdiffs in Para compared to AB skiers indicate larger variability in performance, which are in part disability related. Female skiers displayed larger RTdiffs than their male counterparts, indicating larger variability in performance among the female skiers. Our results provide insights about performance demands in Para cross-country skiing, which is of relevance for coaches and skiers.
Collapse
|
18
|
López-Rivera E, González-Badillo JJ, España-Romero V. Which is the most reliable edge depth to measure maximum hanging time in sport climbers? Gait Posture 2022; 91:59-65. [PMID: 34649172 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2021.09.200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ability to generate high levels of force with the finger flexor muscles and sustain it for the maximum time was reported as a climbing performance factor. This study aimed to answer the question of which is the most reliable edge depth to measure maximum hanging time in non-elite and elite rock climbers: 6, 8, 10, 12 or 14 mm. METHODS Thirty-six climbers (10 female, 26 male; 6b-8c redpoint level) were assessed twice, one week apart. RESULTS Systematic bias (95 % limits of agreements) was -1.84 (6.31) for HT6, -0.26 (8.83) for HT8, -1.30 (8.72) for HT10, -4.37 (9.57) for HT12, and -2.94 (9.53) for HT14 at non-elite group (all P values > 0.05 but HT12 and HT14). Among elite group, -1.38 (7.58), 0.68 (12.09), -2.20 (13.35), -0.49 (9.80) and 0.73 (10.44) was found (all P > 0.05) for HT6, HT8, HT10, HT12 and HT14, respectively. No patterns of heteroscedasticity were observed for any of the trials for non-elite and elite climbers. SIGNIFICANCE Among all edge depths analysed, 8 mm seemed to be the most accurate edge to evaluate hanging time. Alternatively, a 10 mm hold depth could be recommended for climbers from 6b to 7c, and 12 mm for climbers from 7c+ to 8c.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva López-Rivera
- Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Castilla la Mancha, Avenida de Carlos III, s/n. 45071 Toledo, Spain.
| | - Juan José González-Badillo
- Physical Performance and Sports Research Center, University of Pablo de Olavide, Ctra. Utrera, 1, 41013 Seville, Spain.
| | - Vanesa España-Romero
- MOVE-IT Research Group and Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Cádiz, Paseo de Carlos III, 28, 11003 Cádiz, Spain; Biomedical Research and Innovation Institute of Cádiz (INiBICA) Research Unit, Puerta del Mar University Hospital, University of Cádiz, 9ª Planta Investigación Avda. Ana de Viya, 21, 11009, Cádiz, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
López-Belmonte Ó, Gay A, Ruiz-Navarro JJ, Cuenca-Fernández F, González-Ponce Á, Arellano R. Pacing profiles, variability and progression in 400, 800 and 1500-m freestyle swimming events at the 2021 European Championship. INT J PERF ANAL SPOR 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/24748668.2021.2010318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Óscar López-Belmonte
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Ana Gay
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Jesús J. Ruiz-Navarro
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Francisco Cuenca-Fernández
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Ángela González-Ponce
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Raúl Arellano
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Costa MJ, Garrido ND, Marinho DA, Santos CC. How Much the Swimming Performance Leading to Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games Was Impaired Due to the Covid-19 Lockdown? J Sports Sci Med 2021; 20:714-720. [PMID: 35321138 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2021.714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to analyze the progression and stability in the performance of world-ranked swimmers from 2015 to 2020, and the impairment induced by the COVID-19 lockdown. An observational retrospective design over five consecutive competitive seasons was selected. FINA's male Top-50 who were qualified for the Tokyo Olympic Games were considered in freestyle, backstroke, backstroke, and butterfly events. A total of 515 male swimmers and 2060 season-best performances were analyzed. All data was retrieved from two open-access and public websites (Swimrankings and Swimcloud). Repeated measures ANOVA followed by the Bonferroni post-hoc test was performed to analyze the variation between seasons. Stabilization in performance was assessed using spearman correlation coefficients. A significant improvement in performance ≈0.5-2.5% was found in most of the strokes and race distances until the 2018-2019 season. The 2020 lockdown impaired the performance by 1-2%. Moderate to high associations were found in the 2017-2018 season when considering the 2019-2020 performance. The breaststroke was the only stroke with a moderate-high stability (r > 0.40) in all race distances considering the overall time period. It can be concluded that world-ranked swimmers' performance was impaired by 1-2% due to the COVID-19 lockdown, returning to levels that were reached two years earlier.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mário J Costa
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Guarda, Guarda, Portugal.,Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Nuno D Garrido
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal.,Department of Sport Sciences, Exercise and Health, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Daniel A Marinho
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal.,Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Catarina C Santos
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Guarda, Guarda, Portugal.,Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal.,Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Cuenca-Fernández F, Ruiz-Navarro JJ, González-Ponce A, López-Belmonte O, Gay A, Arellano R. Progression and variation of competitive 100 and 200m performance at the 2021 European Swimming Championships. Sports Biomech 2021:1-15. [PMID: 34845976 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2021.1998591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Competitive progressions are necessary to ensure that peak performance occurs when medals are decided. This study aimed to: i) study the coefficient of variation (CV) and performance changes (%Δ) among swimmers who participated in different rounds (i.e., heats, semi-finals and finals); ii) study the CV changes as a function of FINA-points. A total of 1447 performances were analysed in the 100 and 200 m-races during the Budapest 2021 European-Championships. Linear mixed-effects models were applied for total and split-times to obtain intra-athlete CV and %Δ. The FINA-points were studied with two-way ANOVA and Pearson's correlation assessed the relations with CV. The CV in 100 m-races was: 0.48 ± 0.21% for males and 0.50 ± 0.20% for females (Δ = -0.66%); in 200 m-races: 0.63 ± 0.36% and 0.60 ± 0.34% (Δ = -0.82%). There were differences in FINA-points between strokes and distances (p < 0.02) associated with higher CV for the 200 m-races (r = 0.37; p = 0.003), indicating changes in performance over the rounds. Swimmers' finalists performed easier during the heats by going slower in the first 50 m-lap; however, some of them would have little chance of qualifying during major championships because some events were below FINA-points world-standards.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Cuenca-Fernández
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - J J Ruiz-Navarro
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - A González-Ponce
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - O López-Belmonte
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - A Gay
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - R Arellano
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
International Swimming League: Do Successive Events Lead to Improve Swimming Performance? Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 17:796-799. [PMID: 34814112 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To quantify the impact of successive competitions on swimming performance in world-class swimmers. METHODS An entire data set of all events swum during a new competition named the International Swimming League was collected. A Bayesian linear mixed model has been proposed to evaluate whether a progression could be observed during the International Swimming League's successive competitions and to quantify this effect according to event, age, and gender. RESULTS An overall progression of 0.0005 (0.0001 to 0.0010) m/s/d was observed. The daily mean progression (ie, faster performance) was twice as high for men as for women (0.0008 [0.00 to 0.0014] vs 0.0003 [-0.0003 to 0.0009] m·s-1). A tendency toward higher progression for middle distances (200 and 400 m) and for swimmers of a higher caliber (above 850 FINA [Fédération Internationale de Natation] points) was also observed. Swimmers between 23 and 26 years of age seemed to improve their swimming speed more in comparison with the other swimmers. CONCLUSIONS This new league format, which involves several competitions in a row, seems to allow for an enhancement in swimming performance. Coaches and their support staff can now adapt their periodization plan in order to promote competition participation.
Collapse
|
23
|
Origin of the Fastest 5 km, 10 km and 25 km Open-Water Swimmers-An Analysis from 20 Years and 9819 Swimmers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182111369. [PMID: 34769884 PMCID: PMC8583531 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182111369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In elite pool swimmers competing at world class level, mainly athletes from the United States of America and Australia are dominating. Little is known, however, for the nationality of dominating swimmers in elite open-water long-distance swimming races such as the official FINA races over 5 km, 10 km and 25 km-held since 2000. The aim of this study was to investigate the participation and performance trends by nationality of these elite open-water swimmers. Race results from all female and male swimmers competing in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km FINA races between 2000 and 2020 were analyzed. A total of 9819 swimmers competed between 2000 and 2020 in these races. The five countries that figure most times among the top ten in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km races over the years were Italy, Germany, Russia, Brazil and the Netherlands. In 10 km races, considering the all the athletes from each country, male athletes from Germany, Italy, and France presented faster race times than the other countries. In 10 km, female athletes presented no significant difference among the countries. In 5 and 25 km races, there were no differences between countries, for male and female athletes. Moreover, comparing only the 10 best results (top 10) from each country, there were no differences between countries in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km, for male and female athletes. Men were faster than women for all three distances. In summary, male swimmers from Europe (i.e., Germany, Italy, France) are dominating the 10 km FINA races. In the 5 km and 25 km FINA races, there is no dominating nationality, but among the top five countries in the top 10 over the years, three are European countries.
Collapse
|
24
|
Wu PPY, Garufi L, Drovandi C, Mengersen K, Mitchell LJG, Osborne MA, Pyne DB. Bayesian prediction of winning times for elite swimming events. J Sports Sci 2021; 40:24-31. [PMID: 34544331 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2021.1976485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
To develop a statistical model of winning times for international swimming events with the aim of predicting winning time distributions and the probability of winning for the 2020 and 2024 Olympic Games. The data set included first and third place times from all individual swimming events from the Olympics and World Championships from 1990 to 2019. We compared different model formulations fitted with Bayesian inference to obtain predictive distributions; comparisons were based on mean percentage error in out-of-sample predictions of Olympics and World Championships winning swim times from 2011 to 2019. The Bayesian time series regression model, comprising auto-regressive and moving average terms and other predictors, had the smallest mean prediction error of 0.57% (CI 0.46-0.74%). For context, using the respective previous Olympics or World Championships winning time resulted in a mean prediction error of 0.70% (CI 0.59-0.82%). The Olympics were on average 0.5% (CI 0.3-0.7%) faster than World Championships over the study period. The model computes the posterior predictive distribution, which allows coaches and athletes to evaluate the probability of winning given an individual's swim time, and the probability of being faster or slower than the previous winning time or even the world record.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Pao-Yen Wu
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,ACEMS Centre of Excellence in Mathematical and Statistical Frontiers (Acems), Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Lawrence Garufi
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,ACEMS Centre of Excellence in Mathematical and Statistical Frontiers (Acems), Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Christopher Drovandi
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,ACEMS Centre of Excellence in Mathematical and Statistical Frontiers (Acems), Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Kerrie Mengersen
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,ACEMS Centre of Excellence in Mathematical and Statistical Frontiers (Acems), Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | | | - Mark A Osborne
- Swimming Australia Limited, Qld, Australia; School of Human Movement & Nutrition Studies, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - David B Pyne
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Nikooharf Salehi E, Jaydari Fard S, Jaberzadeh S, Zoghi M. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Reduces the Negative Impact of Mental Fatigue on Swimming Performance. J Mot Behav 2021; 54:327-336. [PMID: 34433377 DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2021.1962238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The issue of using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to improve sport performance has recently been a topic of interest for researchers. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of tDCS over left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) on mental fatigue and physical performance in professional swimmers. Fifteen professional swimmers were randomly assigned in a single-blinded, randomized, counterbalanced order to sham, anodal and cathodal stimulation conditions. Mental fatigue was induced by using a 60-min modified Stroop color-word task. Subjective ratings of mental fatigue were measured before and after the stroop task. The results showed that only anodal tDCS of the left DLPFC reduces adverse effects of mental fatigue in 50-meter swimming performance, whereas cathodal stimulation had no significant effect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elahe Nikooharf Salehi
- Department of Motor Behavior and Sport Psychology, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeed Jaydari Fard
- Institute for Social Science Research, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Shapour Jaberzadeh
- Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Maryam Zoghi
- Discipline of Physiotherapy, Department of Rehabilitation, Nutrition and Sport, School of Allied Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Mohamed TJ, zied A, Francisco CF, Abderraouf BA. Physiological, perceptual responses, and strategy differences in age-group swimmers between heats and semi-finals in the 400 metres freestyle event. INT J PERF ANAL SPOR 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/24748668.2021.1963107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tijani Jed Mohamed
- Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Ksar-Said, University of Manouba, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Abbes zied
- Physical Education Program, College of Education, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Cuenca-Fernández Francisco
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Spain
| | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Italians Are the Fastest 3000 m Open-Water Master Swimmers in the World. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18147606. [PMID: 34300057 PMCID: PMC8304398 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18147606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It is well known that athletes originating from a specific region or country can master specific sports disciplines (e.g., East-African runners in long-distance running). In addition, physical and athletic performance are the result of an interaction between genetic, environmental and epigenetic factors. However, little is known about on what determines sports success and performance for long-distance master swimmers such as origin. The aim of the study was to investigate the participation and performance trends of elite master open-water swimmers competing in the World Championships (WC) in 3000 m open-water swimming between 1986 and 2019. METHODS A total of 9247 valid participants were analyzed using generalized linear models (GLMs) with a gamma probability distribution and log link function. Resultsː Most of the starters were from Italy (1646 participations), followed by the United States of America (USA) (1128 participations) and Germany (959 participations). Swimmers from Italy were significantly faster than swimmers from Canada, Germany, USA, Great Britain and also from all other countries grouped (p < 0.005). The age group from 35-39 years old was significantly faster than athletes from age groups of 25-29 years old, 30-34 years old, 40-44 years old, 45-49 years old and 50-54 years old (p < 0.005). The percentage of local athletes in WC was 36% and varied from 36% (Italy, 2004) to 43 % (Germany), 53% (Italy, 2012) and up to 68 % (USA, 1992). CONCLUSIONS Swimmers from Italy were the faster and the most numerous starters during this period of 27 years and 15 editions all over the world in 3000 m master open-water swimming.
Collapse
|
28
|
Hołub M, Stanula A, Baron J, Głyk W, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. Predicting Breaststroke and Butterfly Stroke Results in Swimming Based on Olympics History. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18126621. [PMID: 34202950 PMCID: PMC8296408 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18126621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Here we describe historic variations in Olympic breaststroke and butterfly performance and predict swimming results for the 2021 Olympic Games in Tokyo. The results of the finalists, winners, and last participants in the women’s and men’s finals were analyzed, and a mathematical predictive model was created. The predicted times for the future Olympics were presented. Swimming performance among Olympians has been steadily improving, with record times of 18.51 s for female finalists in the 100 m butterfly (a 24.63% improvement) and 31.33 s for male finalists in the 200 m butterfly (21.44%). The results in all analyzed groups showed improvement in athletic performance, and the gap between the finalists has narrowed. Women Olympians’ performances have improved faster than men’s, reducing the gap between genders. We conclude that swimming performance among Olympians is continuing to improve.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Hołub
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Arkadiusz Stanula
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Jakub Baron
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Wojciech Głyk
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
The Influence of Muscle Fiber Typology on the Pacing Strategy of 200-m Freestyle Swimmers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:1670-1675. [PMID: 33873156 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine the influence of muscle fiber typology (MFT) on the pacing strategy of elite swimmers competing in the 200-m freestyle event. METHOD The top 3 career-best performances from 25 elite 200-m freestyle swimmers were analyzed-12 women (1:58.0 [0:01.3] min:s) and 13 men (1:48.4 [0:02.5]). Muscle carnosine concentration was quantified by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles and expressed as a carnosine aggregate z score (CAZ score) relative to an age- and gender-matched nonathlete control group to estimate MFT. Linear regression models were employed to examine the influence of MFT on the percentage of overall race time spent in each 50-m lap. RESULTS Swimmers with a higher CAZ score spent a greater percentage of race time in lap 3 compared with swimmers with a lower CAZ score (0.1%, 0.0% to 0.2%; mean, 90% confidence interval, P = .02). For every 1% increase in the percentage of race time spent in lap 1, the percentage of race time spent in lap 3 decreased by 0.4% for swimmers with a higher CAZ score (0.2% to -0.5%, P = .00, r = -.51), but not for swimmers with a lower CAZ score (-0.1%, -0.3% to 0.1%, P = .28, r = -.18). The percentage of race time spent in lap 4 decreased by 0.8% for higher-CAZ-score swimmers (-0.5% to -1.0%, P = .00, r = -.66) and by 0.9% for lower-CAZ-score swimmers (-0.6% to -1.3%, P = .00, r = -.65) when lap 1 percentage increased by 1%. CONCLUSION MFT may influence the pacing strategy of swimmers in the 200-m freestyle event, which provides an avenue for maximizing individualized pacing strategies of elite swimmers.
Collapse
|
30
|
Veiga S, Del Cerro JS, Rodriguez L, Trinidad A, González-Ravé JM. How Mixed Relay Teams in Swimming Should Be Organized for International Championship Success. Front Psychol 2021; 12:573285. [PMID: 33716847 PMCID: PMC7943605 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.573285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The primary goal of the present research was to determine the order of swimmers on a mixed relay team that would ensure the best performance in the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) World Championships held in Kazan (Russia, 2015), Budapest (Hungary, 2017), and Gwangju (South Korea, 2019). The data were obtained from database websites for the 4 × 100 m freestyle and 4 × 100 m medley official results,1 including 660 records from 188 entries of finals and 472 preliminary events. The results showed that the fastest swimmers (according to their best season times) were located primarily in the first or second positions of the freestyle relay. The most successful gender strategy for the 4 × 100 m freestyle (57 out of 82 observations) and for the 4 × 100 m medley (29 out of 83) relays was the order male-male-female-female, although no statistical differences were found (p = 0.79) for the medley relays. In the 4 × 100 m freestyle, the second (p = 0.002; β = 1.62) and third (p =0.003; β = 1.41) relay legs had a statistical effect on the total relay time, whereas in the 4 × 100 m medley, all four relay legs had a statistical effect (p < 0.001) on the final performance, the weight of the four strokes being different in heats with respect to the final round. Also, a later position of the first female swimmer or the consecutive position of two female swimmers in the team order significantly affected the relay performance in specific events. Mixed relay events appeared to present specific strategies in comparison to traditional male- or female-only relay lineups.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Veiga
- Health and Human Performance Department, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Royal Spanish Swimming Federation, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Alfonso Trinidad
- Faculty of Education and Humanities, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Madrid, Spain
| | - José María González-Ravé
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Zacca R, Azevedo R, Ramos VR, Abraldes JA, Vilas-Boas JP, Castro FADS, Pyne DB, Fernandes RJ. Biophysical Follow-up of Age-Group Swimmers During a Traditional Three-Peak Preparation Program. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 34:2585-2595. [PMID: 30640304 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Zacca, R, Azevedo, R, Ramos, VR, Abraldes, JA, Vilas-Boas, JP, Castro, FAdS, Pyne, DB, and Fernandes, RJ. Biophysical follow-up of age-group swimmers during a traditional three-peak preparation program. J Strength Cond Res 34(9): 2585-2595, 2020-The aim of this study was to quantify changes and contributions of bioenergetic, technique, and anthropometric profiles across a traditional 3-peak swimming season. Twenty-four age-group swimmers (11 boys: 15 years 6 months ± 1 year 1 month; 13 girls: 14 years 5 months ± 10 months) of equal maturational stage were monitored through a 400-m test in front crawl (T400). Bioenergetic, technique, and anthropometric characteristics were compared before and after macrocycles I, II and III. Sex interaction was verified only for amplitude of the fast oxygen uptake component and height (moderate). Multiple linear regressions and principal component analysis were used to identify the most influential variables and the relative contribution of each domain (bioenergetics, technique, and anthropometrics) to changes in swimming performance of T400. The relative contributions for the performance of T400 after macrocycles I, II, and III were, respectively, 6, 18, and 27% for bioenergetics, 88, 69, and 54% for technique, and 6, 13, and 20% for anthropometrics. Technique was the biggest contributor (71%) for changes in the performance of T400 over the training season, followed by bioenergetics (17%) and anthropometrics (12%). Technique played the main role during the competitive season, regardless of gradual increase in the contribution of bioenergetics and anthropometrics. Despite that, bioenergetics and technique are closely connected, thus a powerful and endurable metabolic base and cannot be overlooked. Changes and contribution of bioenergetics, technique, and anthropometrics on age-group swimmers' performance over a traditional 3-peak swimming season could be described by the T400 swimming test, providing a comprehensive biophysical overview of the main contributors to swimming performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Zacca
- Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Rui Azevedo
- CESPU, Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies (IINFACTS), Gandra PRD, Portugal
| | - Valdir R Ramos
- Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília, Brazil.,Institute of Physical Education and Sports, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
| | | | - João P Vilas-Boas
- Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - David B Pyne
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
| | - Ricardo J Fernandes
- Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Alshdokhi K, Petersen C, Clarke J. Improvement and Variability of Adolescent Backstroke Swimming Performance by Age. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:46. [PMID: 33345038 PMCID: PMC7739572 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
To predict future performance, coaches rely on their previous experiences with a relatively small number of adolescent competitive swimmers to estimate the rate of improvement. The purpose of this study is to quantify the annual change in competition performance as backstroke swimmers mature. Data from 2006 to 2017 provided 9,956 swimming years of accumulated data which was used to estimate the rate of improvement of male and female backstroke swimmers as they aged from 8 to 18 years. Swimming performance improved rapidly between 8 and 13 years, and improvements diminished as swimmers approached their performance potential around 18 years old. These results provide accurate age-based progression data for adolescent backstroke swimmers, providing baseline performance prediction for coaches to predict future performance as swimmers mature, and providing a measure against which potential improvements from novel coaching and training methods can be objectively evaluated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Khaled Alshdokhi
- School of Health Sciences, College of Education, Health and Human Development, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Carl Petersen
- School of Health Sciences, College of Education, Health and Human Development, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Jenny Clarke
- School of Health Sciences, College of Education, Health and Human Development, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Born DP, Lomax I, Horvath S, Meisser E, Seidenschwarz P, Burkhardt D, Romann M. Competition-Based Success Factors During the Talent Pathway of Elite Male Swimmers. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:589938. [PMID: 33345166 PMCID: PMC7739743 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.589938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Marginal differences in race results between top swimmers have evoked the interest in competition-based success factors of long-term athlete development. To identify novel factors for the multi-dimensional model of talent development, the aim of the study was to investigate annual variation in competition performance (ACV), number of races per year, and age. Therefore, 45,398 race results of all male participants (n = 353) competing in individual events, i.e., butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle, and individual medley, at the 2018 European Long-Course Swimming Championships (2018EC) were analyzed retrospectively for all 10 years prior to the championships with Pearson's correlation coefficient and multiple linear regression analysis. Higher ranked swimmers at the 2018EC showed significant medium correlations with a greater number of races per year and small but significant correlations with higher ACV in 10 and nine consecutive years, respectively, prior to the championships. Additionally, better swimmers were older than their lower ranked peers (r = −0.21, p < 0.001). Regression model explained a significant proportion of 2018EC ranking for 50 m (47%), 100 m (45%), 200 m (31%), and 400 m races (29%) but not for 800 and 1,500 m races with number of races having the largest effect followed by age and ACV. In conclusion, higher performance variation with results off the personal best in some races did not impair success at the season's main event and young competitors at international championships may benefit from success chances that increase with age. The higher number of races swum per year throughout the career of higher ranked swimmers may have provided learning opportunities and specific adaptations. Future studies should quantify these success factors in a multi-dimensional talent development model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis-Peter Born
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland.,Swiss Swimming Federation, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ishbel Lomax
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Stephan Horvath
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Elena Meisser
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland.,Swiss Swimming Federation, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Philipp Seidenschwarz
- Centre of Technologies in Sports and Medicine, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Nidau-Biel, Switzerland.,Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Michael Romann
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
A Novel Method to Characterize the Pacing Profile of Elite Male 1500-m Freestyle Swimmers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 16:818-824. [PMID: 33291067 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Pacing, or the distribution of energy expenditure, is particularly important in swimming; however, there is limited research examining pacing profiles in long-distance freestyle events. This study aimed to characterize the pacing profiles of elite male 1500-m freestyle swimmers using a novel method to provide a detailed analysis of different race segments. METHODS The race data for 327 male 1500-m freestyle long-course races between 2010 and 2019 were analyzed retrospectively. The raw 50-m split times for each lap were converted to a percentage of overall race time. The races were classified as a fast-, average-, or slow-start strategy (laps 1-2); as an even, negative, or positive pacing strategy (laps 3-28); and as a fast-, average-, or slow-finish strategy (laps 29-30) to give an overall pacing profile. RESULTS Slow- and average-start strategies were associated with faster overall 1500-m times than a fast-start strategy (mean = -21.2 s; 90% confidence interval, -11.4 to -32.3 s, P = .00). An even pacing strategy in laps 3 to 28 yielded faster overall 1500-m times than a positive pacing strategy (-8.4 s, -3.9 to -13.0 s, P = .00). The overall 1500-m times did not differ substantially across the finish strategies (P = .99). The start strategy differed across age groups and nationalities, where younger swimmers and swimmers from Australia and Great Britain typically spent a lower percentage of race time in laps 1 to 2 (faster start strategy; -0.10%, -0.01% to -0.23%, P ≤ .02). CONCLUSION Adopting a relatively slower start strategy helps conserve energy for the latter stages of a 1500-m freestyle race.
Collapse
|
35
|
Variation in competition performance, number of races, and age: Long-term athlete development in elite female swimmers. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242442. [PMID: 33206722 PMCID: PMC7673509 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
While talent development and the contributing factors to success are hardly discussed among the experts in the field, the aim of the study was to investigate annual variation in competition performance (AVCP), number of races per year, and age, as potential success factors for international swimming competitions. Data from 40’277 long-course races, performed by all individual female starters (n = 253) at the 2018 European Swimming Championships (2018EC) for all 10 years prior to these championships, were analyzed. Relationships between 2018EC ranking and potential success factors, i.e., AVCP, number of races per year, and age, were determined using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and multiple linear regression analysis. While AVCP was not related to ranking, higher ranked swimmers at the 2018EC swam more races during each of the ten years prior to the championships (P < 0.001). Additionally, older athletes were more successful (r = -0.42, P < 0.001). The regression model explained highly significant proportions (P < 0.001) and 43%, 34%, 35%, 49% of total variance in the 2018EC ranking for 50m, 100m, 200m, and 400m races, respectively. As number of races per year (β = -0.29 –-0.40) had a significant effect on ranking of 50-400m races, and age (β = -0.40 –-0.61) showed a significant effect on ranking over all race distances, number of races per year and age may serve as success factors for international swimming competitions. The larger number of races swum by higher ranked female swimmers may have aided long-term athlete development regarding technical, physiological, and mental skill acquisitions. As older athletes were more successful, female swimmers under the age of peak performance, who did not reach semi-finals or finals, may increase their chances of success in following championships with increased experience.
Collapse
|
36
|
Zacca R, Azevedo R, Chainok P, Vilas-Boas JP, Castro FADS, Pyne DB, Fernandes RJ. Monitoring Age-Group Swimmers Over a Training Macrocycle: Energetics, Technique, and Anthropometrics. J Strength Cond Res 2020; 34:818-827. [PMID: 30113917 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Zacca, R, Azevedo, R, Chainok, P, Vilas-Boas, JP, Castro, FAdS, Pyne, DB, and Fernandes, RJ. Monitoring age-group swimmers over a training macrocycle: energetics, technique, and anthropometrics. J Strength Cond Res 34(3): 818-827, 2020-The aim of this study was to quantify changes and contributions of energetic, technique, and anthropometric profiles across the first training macrocycle (16-week) in a traditional 3-peak swimming season. Twenty-four age-group swimmers (10 boys and 14 girls age 14.4 ± 0.9 years) of equal maturational stage were monitored through a 400-m test in front crawl (T400). Energetic, technique, and anthropometric characteristics were compared before (experimental testing 1, E1) and after the preparatory (E2), specific (E3), and competitive (E4) training periods. Sex interaction was not significant for any variable. Multiple linear regressions and principal component analysis were used to identify the most influential variables and the relative contribution of each domain (energetics, technique, and anthropometrics) to changes in swimming performance of T400. The relative contributions for performance of T400 at E1, E2, E3, and E4 were 15, 12, 6, and 13% for energetics, 78, 85, 75, and 70% for technique, and 7, 3, 19 and 17% for anthropometrics, respectively. Technique played the main role during the first 16-week macrocycle in a competitive season, regardless of small fluctuations in the influence of energetics and anthropometrics. Changes and influence of energetics, technique, and anthropometric on age-group swimmers' performance could be described by the T400 swimming test, providing a comprehensive biophysical overview of the main contributors to swimming performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Zacca
- Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasilia, Brazil
| | - Rui Azevedo
- CESPU, Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies (IINFACTS), Gandra PRD, Portugal
| | - Phornpot Chainok
- Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Faculty of Sport Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand
| | - João Paulo Vilas-Boas
- Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Flávio A de S Castro
- Aquatic Sports Research Group, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - David B Pyne
- Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, Australia; and.,Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
| | - Ricardo J Fernandes
- Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Josefsson T, Gustafsson H, Iversen Rostad T, Gardner FL, Ivarsson A. Mindfulness and shooting performance in biathlon. A prospective study. Eur J Sport Sci 2020; 21:1176-1182. [PMID: 32907493 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1821787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to examine the temporal relationship between facets of sport-specific dispositional mindfulness (i e., Awareness, Refocusing, Nonjudgemental attitude) and shooting performance in actual competitions, in a population of 25 elite biathlon athletes. Findings indicated that mindfulness facets were positively associated with shooting performance, with higher levels of Awareness, Refocusing, and Awareness being related to better shooting performance in competitions. In spite of the fact that the explained variance was quite small, even a minor shooting performance enhancement may increase an athlete's chance of winning a biathlon competition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Torbjörn Josefsson
- Center of Research on Welfare, Health, and Sport, Halmstad University, Halmstad, Sweden
| | - Henrik Gustafsson
- Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Karlstad University, Karlstad, Sweden
| | - Trym Iversen Rostad
- Department of Sport and Social Sciences, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Frank L Gardner
- Department of Advanced Studies in Psychology, Kean University, Hillsdale, NJ, USA
| | - Andreas Ivarsson
- Center of Research on Welfare, Health, and Sport, Halmstad University, Halmstad, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
McGibbon KE, Shephard ME, Osborne MA, Thompson KG, Pyne DB. Pacing and Performance in Swimming: Differences Between Individual and Relay Events. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 15:1059-1066. [PMID: 32283539 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 09/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Although pacing is considered crucial for success in individual swimming events, there is a lack of research examining pacing in relays. The authors investigated the impact of start lap and pacing strategy on swimming performance and whether these strategies differ between relays and the corresponding individual event. METHODS Race data for 716 relay (4 × 200-m freestyle) finals from 14 international competitions between 2010 and 2018 were analyzed retrospectively. Each swimmer's individual 200-m freestyle season's best time for the same year was used for comparison. Races were classified as a fast, average, or slow start lap strategy (lap 1) and as an even, negative, or positive pacing strategy (laps 2-4) to give an overall race strategy, for example, average start lap even pacing. RESULTS A fast start lap strategy was associated with slower 200-m times (range 0.5-0.9 s, P ≤ .04) irrespective of gender, and positive pacing led to slower 200-m (0.4-0.5 s, P ≤ .03) times in females. A fast start lap strategy led to positive pacing in 71% of swimmers. Half of the swimmers changed pacing strategy, with 13% and 7% more female and male swimmers, respectively, displaying positive pacing in relays compared with individual events. In relays, a fast start lap and positive pacing was utilized more frequently by swimmers positioned on second to fourth relay legs (+13%) compared with lead-off leg swimmers (+3%). CONCLUSION To maximize performance, swimmers should be more conservative in the first lap and avoid unnecessary alterations in race strategy in relay events.
Collapse
|
39
|
Alshdokhi KA, Petersen CJ, Clarke JC. Effect of 8 Weeks of Grip Strength Training on Adolescent Sprint Swimming: A Randomized Controlled Trial. EXERCISE MEDICINE 2020. [DOI: 10.26644/em.2020.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
|
40
|
Lipinska P, Hopkins WG. Pacing Profiles and Competitive Performance of Elite Female 400-m Freestyle Swimmers. J Strength Cond Res 2020; 34:218-224. [PMID: 28796129 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Lipinska, P, and Hopkins, WG. Pacing profiles and competitive performance of elite female 400-m freestyle swimmers. J Strength Cond Res 34(1): 218-224, 2020-Pacing can impact competitive endurance performance. The objective of this study was to determine relationships between pacing parameters and competitive performance of elite female 400-m freestyle swimmers. Publicly available websites provided 50-m split and final times for 381 swims of 20 elite female swimmers in over 150 national and international competitions between 2004 and 2016. Most pacing profiles displayed negative quadratic curvature, with the fifth of the 8 laps being the median slowest. The mean times for the first and last laps were faster than predicted by the quadratic by 5.6 and 1.9%, respectively, and lap-to-lap variability was 0.65%. Scatter plots of each swimmer's final time often showed no obvious relationships with their pacing parameters, suggesting that swimmers compensated for changes in one parameter with changes in another. However, some plots showed a U shape or linear trend that allowed tentative identification of optimum values of the pacing parameters. In these plots, it was apparent that about half the swimmers might make small to moderate improvements (up to ∼1%) by changing the slope or curvature of their pacing profile or by changing time in the first or last laps. This approach for characterizing pacing profiles to identify possible improvements might be appropriate to assess pacing in other sports with multiple laps, frequent competitions, and relatively constant environmental conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrycja Lipinska
- Institute of Physical Education, Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland; and
| | - Will G Hopkins
- College of Sport and Exercise Science, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Variation and progression in performance of national junior athletes and their development to national athletes. GERMAN JOURNAL OF EXERCISE AND SPORT RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12662-019-00602-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
42
|
Post AK, Koning RH, Visscher C, Elferink-Gemser MT. Multigenerational performance development of male and female top-elite swimmers-A global study of the 100 m freestyle event. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2019; 30:564-571. [PMID: 31725946 PMCID: PMC7028091 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The present study investigated longitudinally the performance development of a multigenerational sample of competitive swimmers. The aim of the study was to provide unique insight into the junior toward senior performance development of those few who reached top-elite level. Season Best Times (SBT) of 100 m freestyle performance of international swimmers, (1.305 males, aged 12-26 and 1.841 females, aged 12-24) competing in at least five seasons between 1993 and 2018, were corrected for the prevailing world record (WR). Swim performance was defined as a relative measure: relative Season Best Time=(SBT/WR) × 100. Based on rSBT, four performance groups were defined: top-elite, elite, sub-elite, and high-competitive. RESULTS Univariate analyses of variance showed that male top-elite swimmers outperformed high-competitive swimmers from the age of 12, sub-elite swimmers from the age of 14 and elite swimmers from the age of 18 while female top-elite swimmers outperformed high-competitive and sub-elite swimmers from the age of 12 and elite swimmers from the age of 14 (P < .05). Frequency analysis showed that male top-elite swimmers for the first time achieved top-elite level between the 17 and 24 years old (mean age of 21) while female top-elite swimmers started to perform at top-elite level between the 14 and 24 years old (mean age of 18). CONCLUSION Male and female top-elite swimmers are characterized by a high-performance level from 12 years on and progressively outperform swimmers from similar age. However, this goes together with a large variety in the individual pathways toward top-elite level within and between sexes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aylin K Post
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud H Koning
- Department of Economics, Econometrics & Finance, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Chris Visscher
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marije T Elferink-Gemser
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Swimming Fast When It Counts: A 7-Year Analysis of Olympic and World Championships Performance. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2019; 14:1132-1139. [PMID: 30702363 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2018] [Revised: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Context/Background: International-level swimmers periodize their training to qualify for major championships, then improve further at these events. However, the effects of various factors that could affect performance progressions have not been described systematically. PURPOSE To quantify the pattern of change in performance between season best qualifying time and the major championships of the year and to assess the influence of time between performance peaks, ranking at the major events, stroke, event distance, sex, age, and country. METHODS A total of 7832 official competition times recorded at 4 FINA World Championships and 2 Olympic Games between 2011 and 2017 were compared with each swimmer's season best time prior to the major event of the year. Percentage change in performance was related with the time elapsed between season best and major competition, race event, sex, age, and country using linear mixed modeling. RESULTS Faster performance (-0.79% [0.67%]; mean [SD]) at the major competition of the year occurred in 38% of all observations vs 62% no change or regression (1.10% [0.88%]). The timing between performance peaks (<34 to >130 d) had little effect on performance progressions (P = .83). Only medal winners (-0.87% [0.91%]), finalists (-0.16% [0.97%]), and US swimmers (-0.44% [1.08%]) progressed between competitions. Stroke, event distance, sex, and age had trivial impact on performance progression. CONCLUSIONS Performance progressions at Olympic Games and World Championships were not determined by timing between performance peaks. Performance progression at a major competition appears necessary to win a medal or make the final, independent of race event, sex, and age.
Collapse
|
44
|
Yustres I, Santos Del Cerro J, González-Mohíno F, Peyrebrune M, González-Ravé JM. Comparing the Pathway to Success in European Countries Competing in the Swimming World Championships. Front Psychol 2019; 10:1437. [PMID: 31297075 PMCID: PMC6607921 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: This study aimed to compare the performance progression model of the European countries that participated in the World Championships (WCs) from 2006 to 2017. Data from all championships were compared between the top five (1-5) and the next five (6-10) countries on the medal table. The study also identifies the ages of peak performance in senior swimmers, the annual ratio of progression and the effect of junior performance on senior success by these groups of countries. We hypothesized that: (1) countries with swimmers achieving better performances at the Junior WCs would also be higher in the medal ranking at the Senior WCs and (2) a higher annual performance progression in their swimmers increases the chances of countries being ranked in the top 5 at the Senior World Championships. Methods: Participant's data from all Junior and Senior WCs between 2006 and 2017 were obtained from FINA. The final, filtered database included 629 swimmers after removing those participating only in the Junior WCs and selecting swimmers from the top 10 countries. One-way ANOVA, F test, and decision tree methods were used to examine differences between the top (1-5) and the next best (6-10) countries on the medal table for first participation age, annual progress, and best-time in junior and senior championships. Results: There was no difference (p = 0.492 and p = 0.97) between 1-5 and 6-10 ranked countries for best senior time and annual progression, respectively. Countries ranked in the top 5 at the Senior WCs had swimmers with faster times at the Junior WCs (p > 0.001). Decision tree analysis found that best-time at the Junior WC had the greatest explanatory capacity (94%). Conclusion: European countries with swimmers who perform best at the Junior WCs are also likely to be in the top 5 countries that win medals at the Senior WCs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Inmaculada Yustres
- Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | | | - Fernando González-Mohíno
- Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain.,Departamento de Educación, Facultad de Educación y Lenguas, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
| | - Michael Peyrebrune
- Department of Exercise and Health Sciences, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
| | - José María González-Ravé
- Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Yustres I, Santos del Cerro J, Martín R, González-Mohíno F, Logan O, González-Ravé JM. Influence of early specialization in world-ranked swimmers and general patterns to success. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0218601. [PMID: 31220159 PMCID: PMC6586317 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives The primary goal was to examine the influence of early specialization on the performance of senior elite swimmers. Secondly, to provide information about the influence of swim style, distance, sex, status, country, years of high-level competition (YHLC) and age in swimmer’s performance. Design Data was obtained from International Federation of Swimming (FINA) regarding the participants 2006–2017 of junior and senior World Championships (WCs). The final filtered database included 4076 swimmers after removing those participating only in junior WCs. Method Cramer V coefficient, double and triple-entry tables were used to measure the relationship between the positions occupied in junior and senior phases. A One-Way ANOVA analysis was used to explain the variables time and rank between swimmers who participated in junior and senior WC or just in senior in all the distances and swim styles (SS). A univariate general linear model (GLM) was used to examine the association between time/rank and category (swimmers that participated previously in junior WC or not); YHLC; country; status (highest finishing position: final/semi-final/heats) and age. Results Significant differences (p < .001) were found in the GLM, with Rank as dependent variable, for all the variables. Showing that swimmers that participated previously in junior categories obtained greater results in all the interactions, except in 1500m freestyle. Significant differences (p < .001) were found between the variables position and YHLC, showing the variable position improvements as swimmers attended more WCs. Conclusion Competing in junior WC has a positive influence in achieve posteriori success in FINA WC. YHLC have a positive impact to achieve better positions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Inmaculada Yustres
- Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, University of Castilla la Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Jesús Santos del Cerro
- Department of Statistics, University of Castilla la Mancha, San Pedro Mártir, Toledo, Spain
| | - Raúl Martín
- Department of Mathematics, University of Castilla la Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Fernando González-Mohíno
- Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, University of Castilla la Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- Facultad de Educación y Lenguas, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
| | - Oliver Logan
- British Swimming, Sportpark, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - José María González-Ravé
- Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, University of Castilla la Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Jackman JS, Bell PG, Gill S, van Someren K, Davison GW, Cockburn E. Assessing the usefulness of acute physiological responses following resistance exercise: sensitivity, magnitude of change, and time course of measures. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2019; 44:309-319. [DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2018-0200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A variety of strategies exist to modulate the acute physiological responses following resistance exercise aimed at enhancing recovery and/or adaptation processes. To assess the true impact of these strategies, it is important to know the ability of different measures to detect meaningful change. We investigated the sensitivity of measures used to quantify acute physiological responses to resistance exercise and constructed a physiological profile to characterise the magnitude of change and the time course of these responses. Eight males accustomed to regular resistance exercise performed experimental sessions during a “control week”, void of an exercise stimulus. The following week, termed the “exercise week”, participants repeated this sequence of experimental sessions, and they also performed a bout of lower-limb resistance exercise following the baseline assessments. Assessments were conducted at baseline and at 2, 6, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after the intervention. On the basis of the signal-to-noise ratio, the most sensitive measures were maximal voluntary isometric contraction, 20-m sprint, countermovement jump peak force, rate of force development (100–200 ms), muscle soreness, Daily Analysis Of Life Demands For Athletes part B, limb girth, matrix metalloproteinase-9, interleukin-6, creatine kinase, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein with ratios >1.5. Clear changes in these measures following resistance exercise were determined via magnitude-based inferences. These findings highlight measures that can detect real changes in acute physiological responses following resistance exercise in trained individuals. Researchers investigating strategies to manipulate acute physiological responses for recovery and/or adaptation can use these measures, as well as the recommended sampling points, to be confident that their interventions are making a worthwhile impact.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Phillip G. Bell
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Simone Gill
- Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UR, UK
| | - Ken van Someren
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Gareth W. Davison
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Institute, Ulster University, Ulster BT37 0QB, UK
| | - Emma Cockburn
- London Sport Institute, Middlesex University, London NW4 4BT, UK
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 7RU, UK
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Clephas C, Wilhelm A. Variability of competition results during one season in swimming. GERMAN JOURNAL OF EXERCISE AND SPORT RESEARCH 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s12662-018-0563-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
48
|
Fischer S, Braun C, Kibele A. Jason Lezak again and again - linear mixed modelling analysis of change–over times in relay swimming races. J Sports Sci 2019; 37:1609-1616. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2019.1578448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Fischer
- Institute for Sports and Sport Science, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany
| | - Claudia Braun
- Institute for Sports and Sport Science, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany
| | - Armin Kibele
- Institute for Sports and Sport Science, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Morais JE, Barbosa TM, Neiva HP, Marinho DA. Stability of pace and turn parameters of elite long-distance swimmers. Hum Mov Sci 2019; 63:108-119. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2018.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
50
|
McGibbon KE, Pyne DB, Shephard ME, Thompson KG. Pacing in Swimming: A Systematic Review. Sports Med 2019; 48:1621-1633. [PMID: 29560605 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-018-0901-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pacing strategy, or how energy is distributed during exercise, can substantially impact athletic performance and is considered crucial for optimal performance in many sports. This is particularly true in swimming given the highly resistive properties of water and low mechanical efficiency of the swimming action. OBJECTIVES The aim of this systematic review was to determine the pacing strategies utilised by competitive swimmers in competition and their reproducibility, and to examine the impact of different pacing strategies on kinematic, metabolic and performance variables. This will provide valuable and practical information to coaches and sports science practitioners. DATA SOURCES The databases Web of Science, Scopus, SPORTDiscus and PubMed were searched for published articles up to 1 August 2017. STUDY SELECTION A total of 23 studies examining pool-based swimming competitions or experimental trials in English-language and peer-reviewed journals were included in this review. RESULTS In short- and middle-distance swimming events maintenance of swimming velocity is critical, whereas in long-distance events a low lap-to-lap variability and the ability to produce an end spurt in the final lap(s) are key. The most effective strategy in the individual medley (IM) is to conserve energy during the butterfly leg to optimise performance in subsequent legs. The pacing profiles of senior swimmers remain relatively stable irrespective of opponents, competition stage or type, and performance time. CONCLUSION Implementing event-specific pacing strategies should benefit the performance of competitive swimmers. Given differences between swimmers, there is a need for greater individualisation when considering pacing strategy selection across distances and strokes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katie E McGibbon
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Building 29, Bruce, ACT, Australia. .,Queensland Academy of Sport, Nathan, QLD, Australia.
| | - D B Pyne
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Building 29, Bruce, ACT, Australia.,Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | - M E Shephard
- Queensland Academy of Sport, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - K G Thompson
- New South Wales Institute of Sport, Sydney Olympic Park, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|