TIMP-1 as a tumor marker in breast cancer--an update

Identification and immune landscape of sarcopenia-related molecular clusters in inflammatory bowel disease by machine learning and integrated bioinformatics

Sarcopenia, a prevalent comorbidity of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), is characterized by diminished skeletal muscle mass and strength. Nevertheless, the underlying interconnected mechanisms remain elusive. This study identified distinct expression patterns of sarcopenia-associated genes (SRGs) across individuals with IBD and in samples of normal tissue. By analyzing SRG expression profiles, we effectively segregated 541 IBD samples into three distinct clusters, each marked by its unique immune landscape. To unravel the transcriptional disruptions underlying these clusters, the Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) algorithm was employed to spotlight key genes linked to each cluster. A diagnostic model based on four key genes (TIMP1, PLAU, PHLDA1, TGFBI) was established using Random Forest and LASSO (least absolute shrinkage and selection operator) algorithms, and validated with the GSE179285 dataset. Moreover, the GSE112366 dataset facilitated the exploration of gene expression dynamics within the ileum mucosa of UC patients pre- and post-Ustekinumab treatment. Additionally, insights into the intricate relationship between immune cells and these pivotal genes were gleaned from the single-cell RNA dataset GSE162335. In conclusion, our findings collectively underscored the pivotal role of sarcopenia-related genes in the pathogenesis of IBD. Their potential as robust biomarkers for future diagnostic and therapeutic strategies is particularly promising, opening avenues for a deeper understanding and improved management of these interconnected conditions.

Comparative profiling by data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry reveals featured plasma proteins in breast cancer: a pilot study

Purpose

Breast cancer is known to be influenced by genetic and environmental factors, and several susceptibility genes have been discovered. Still, the majority of genetic contributors remain unknown. We aimed to analyze the plasma proteome of breast cancer patients in comparison to healthy individuals to identify differences in protein expression profiles and discover novel biomarkers.

Methods

This pilot study was conducted using bioresources from Seoul National University Bundang Hospital's Human Bioresource Center. Serum samples from 10 breast cancer patients and 10 healthy controls were obtained. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis was performed to identify differentially expressed proteins.

Results

We identified 891 proteins; 805 were expressed in the breast cancer group and 882 in the control group. Gene set enrichment and differential expression analysis identified 30 upregulated and 100 downregulated proteins in breast cancer. Among these, 10 proteins were selected as potential biomarkers. Three proteins were upregulated in breast cancer patients, including cluster of differentiation 44, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-α kinase 3, and fibronectin 1. Seven proteins downregulated in breast cancer patients were also selected: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, α-enolase, heat shock protein member 8, integrin-linked kinase, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1, vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein, and 14-3-3 protein gamma. All proteins had been previously reported to be related to tumor development and progression.

Conclusion

The findings suggest that plasma proteome profiling can reveal potential diagnostic biomarkers for breast cancer and may contribute to early detection and personalized treatment strategies. A further validation study with a larger sample cohort of breast cancer patients is planned.

TIMP1/CHI3L1 facilitates glioma progression and immunosuppression via NF-κB activation

Gliomas are highly heterogeneous brain tumours that are resistant to therapies. The molecular signatures of gliomas play a high-ranking role in tumour prognosis and treatment. In addition, patients with gliomas with a mesenchymal phenotype manifest overpowering immunosuppression and sophisticated resistance to treatment. Thus, studies on gene/protein coexpression networks and hub genes in gliomas holds promise in determining effective treatment strategies. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to. Using average linkage hierarchical clustering, 13 modules and 224 hub genes were described. Top ten hub genes (CLIC1, EMP3, TIMP1, CCDC109B, CASP4, MSN, ANXA2P2, CHI3L1, TAGLN2, S100A11), selected from the most meaningful module, were associated with poor prognosis. String analysis, co-immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence revealed a significant correlation between TIMP1 and CHI3L1. Furthermore, we found, both in vivo and in vitro, that TIMP1 promoted gliomagenesis via CHI3L1 overexpression as well as NF-κB activation. TIMP1 expression correlated with tumour immune infiltration and immune checkpoint-related gene expression. In addition, TIMP1 resulted in immunosuppressive macrophage polarization. In summary, TIMP1/CHI3L1 might be perceived as a diagnostic marker and an immunotherapy target for gliomas.

TIMP1 shapes an immunosuppressive microenvironment by regulating anoikis to promote the progression of clear cell renal cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The association between ccRCC and Anoikis remains to be thoroughly investigated.

METHODS

Anoikis-related clusters were identified using NMF. To identify prognostic anoikis-related genes (ARGs) and establish an optimal prognostic model, univariate Cox and LASSO regression were employed. The E-MTAB-1980 cohort was utilized for external validation. Multiple algorithms were used to evaluate the immune properties of the model. GO, KEGG and GSVA analyses were employed to analyze biological pathway functions. qRT-PCR was employed to measure RNA levels of specific genes. Cell Counting Kit-8, wound healing, and Transwell chamber assays were performed to determine changes in the proliferative and metastatic abilities of A498 and 786-O cells.

RESULTS

Based on the expression of 21 prognostic ARGs, we constructed anoikis-related clusters with different prognostic and immune characteristics. The cluster A1 showed a worse prognosis, higher infiltration of immunosuppressive cells and enrichment of several oncogenic pathways. We also calculated the Anoikis Index (AI). Patients in high AI group had a worse prognosis, higher infiltration of immunosuppressive cells and higher expression of immunosuppressive checkpoints. TIMP1 exerted a tumor-promoting role in ccRCC and was significantly associated with immunosuppressive cells and checkpoints. The downregulation of TIMP1 negatively regulated ccRCC cell proliferation and metastasis.

CONCLUSIONS

ARGs played crucial roles in tumorigenesis and progression and were positively associated with a poor prognosis. AI had great accuracy in predicting the prognosis and immune characteristics of ccRCC patients. TIMP1 was significantly associated with clinicopathological variables and the immunosuppressive microenvironment, which could be exploited to design novel immunotherapies for ccRCC patients.

RIG-I contributes to keratinocyte proliferation and wound repair by inducing TIMP-1 expression through NF-κB signaling pathway

Epithelial keratinocyte proliferation is an essential element of wound repair, and chronic wound conditions, such as diabetic foot, are characterized by aberrant re-epithelialization. In this study, we examined the functional role of retinoic acid inducible-gene I (RIG-I), a key regulator of epidermal keratinocyte proliferation, in promoting TIMP-1 expression. We found that RIG-I is overexpressed in keratinocytes of skin injury and underexpressed in skin wound sites of diabetic foot and streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Moreover, mice lacking RIG-I developed an aggravated phenotype when subjected to skin injury. Mechanistically, RIG-I promoted keratinocyte proliferation and wound repair by inducing TIMP-1 via the NF-κB signaling pathway. Indeed, recombinant TIMP-1 directly accelerated HaCaT cell proliferation in vitro and promoted wound healing in Ddx58-/- and diabetic mice in vivo. In summary, we demonstrated that RIG-I is a crucial factor that mediates epidermal keratinocyte proliferation and may be a potential biomarker for skin injury severity, thus making it an attractive locally therapeutic target for the treatment of chronic wounds such as diabetic foot.

Dihydrotanshinone I Inhibits the Lung Metastasis of Breast Cancer by Suppressing Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Formation

Breast cancer (BC) is a common female malignancy, worldwide. BC death is predominantly caused by lung metastasis. According to previous studies, Dihydrotanshinone I (DHT), a bioactive compound in Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (S. miltiorrhiza), has inhibitory effects on numerous cancers. Here, we investigated the anti-metastatic effect of DHT on BC, where DHT more strongly inhibited the growth of BC cells (MDA-MB-231, 4T1, MCF-7, and SKBR-3) than breast epithelial cells (MCF-10a). Additionally, DHT repressed the wound healing, invasion, and migration activities of 4T1 cells. In the 4T1 spontaneous metastasis model, DHT (20 mg/kg) blocked metastasis progression and distribution in the lung tissue by 74.9%. DHT reversed the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) induced by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, as well as ameliorated NETs-induced metastasis. Furthermore, it inhibited Ly6G⁺Mpo⁺ neutrophils infiltration and H3Cit expression in the lung tissues. RNA sequencing, western blot, and bioinformatical analysis indicated that TIMP1 could modulate DHT acting on lung metastasis inhibition. The study demonstrated a novel suppression mechanism of DHT on NETs formation to inhibit BC metastasis.

Sp1 induced gene TIMP1 is related to immune cell infiltration in glioblastoma

Tumor immune microenvironment exerts a profound effect on the population of infiltrating immune cells. Tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP1) is frequently overexpressed in a variety of cells, particularly during inflammation and tissue injury. However, its function in cancer and immunity remains enigmatic. In this study, we find that TIMP1 is substantially up-regulated during tumorigenesis through analyzing cancer bioinformatics databases, which is further confirmed by IHC tissue microarrays of clinical samples. The TIMP1 level is significantly increased in lymphocytes infiltrating the tumors and correlated with cancer progression, particularly in GBM. Notably, we find that the transcriptional factor Sp1 binds to the promoter of TIMP1 and triggers its expression in GBM. Together, our findings suggest that the Sp1-TIMP1 axis can be a potent biomarker for evaluating immune cell infiltration at the tumor sites and therefore, the malignant progression of GBM.

2-Methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (MNQ) regulates cancer key genes of MAPK, PI3K, and NF-κB pathways in Raji cells

2-Methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (MNQ) has been shown to cause cytotoxic towards various cancer cell lines. This study is designed to investigate the regulatory effect of MNQ on the key cancer genes in mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphoinositide 3-kinase, and nuclear factor кB signaling pathways. The expression levels of the genes were compared at different time point using polymerase chain reaction arrays and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis was performed to identify gene networks that are most significant to key cancer genes. A total of 43 differentially expressed genes were identified with 21 up-regulated and 22 down-regulated genes. Up-regulated genes were involved in apoptosis, cell cycle and act as tumor suppressor while down-regulated genes were involved in anti-apoptosis, angiogenesis, cell cycle and act as transcription factor as well as proto-oncogenes. MNQ exhibited multiple regulatory effects on the cancer key genes that targeting at cell proliferation, cell differentiation, cell transformation, apoptosis, reduce inflammatory responses, inhibits angiogenesis and metastasis.

Regulation of Tumor Metabolism and Extracellular Acidosis by the TIMP-10-CD63 Axis in Breast Carcinoma

A hallmark of malignant solid tumor is extracellular acidification coupled with metabolic switch to aerobic glycolysis. Using the human MCF10A progression model of breast cancer, we show that glycolytic switch and extracellular acidosis in aggressive cancer cells correlate with increased expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), known to induce intracellular signal transduction through the interaction with its cell surface receptor CD63, independent of its metalloproteinase inhibitory function. We found that, in aggressive breast carcinoma, the TIMP-1–CD63 signaling axis induced a metabolic switch by upregulating the rate of aerobic glycolysis, lowering mitochondrial respiration, preventing intracellular acidification, and inducing extracellular acidosis. Carbonic anhydrase IX (CAIX), a regulator of cellular pH through the hydration of metabolically released pericellular CO₂, was identified as a downstream mediator of the TIMP-1–CD63 signaling axis responsible for extracellular acidosis. Consistently with our previous study, the TIMP-1–CD63 signaling promoted survival of breast cancer cells. Interestingly, breast carcinoma cell survival was drastically reduced upon shRNA-mediated knockdown of CAIX expression, demonstrating the significance of CAIX-regulated pH in the TIMP-1–CD63-mediated cancer cell survival. Taken together, the present study demonstrates the functional significance of TIMP-1–CD63–CAXI signaling axis in the regulation of tumor metabolism, extracellular acidosis, and survival of breast carcinoma. We propose that this axis may serve as a novel therapeutic target.

Identification of Hub Gene TIMP1 and Relative ceRNAs Regulatory Network in Colorectal Cancer

Objective

This study aimed to discover the ceRNAs network in the pathophysiological development of human colorectal cancer (CRC) and to screen biomarkers for target therapy and prognosis by using integrated bioinformatics analysis.

Methods

Data on gene expressions of mRNAs, miRNAs, and circRNAs and clinical information were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Gene Expression Omnibus databases, respectively. Differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs) were identified by using the DESeq2 package of R software. Functional enrichment analysis was conducted using the ClusterProfiler package of R software. The protein–protein interaction (PPI) network was shown by the STRING website. Survival analysis of hub genes was performed using the survival package in R software. Interactions among hub genes, differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRNAs), and differentially expressed circRNAs (DEcircRNAs) were used to construct the ceRNAs network.

Results

A total of 412 DEmRNAs including 82 upregulated and 330 downregulated genes were screened out between 473 CRC and 41 normal samples. Two hundred and sixty DEcircRNAs including 253 upregulated and 7 downregulated genes were altered between 23 CRC and 23 normal samples. One hundred and ninety DEmiRNAs including 82 upregulated and 108 downregulated genes were obtained between 450 CRC and 8 normal samples. A ceRNAs and PPI network were successfully constructed, and TIMP1 associated with prognosis was employed.

Conclusion

The present study identified a novel circRNAs-miRNAs-mRNA ceRNAs network, which implied that TIMP1 and related miRNAs, circRNAs were potential biomarkers underlying the development of CRC, providing new insights for survival predictions and therapeutic targets.

Quercetin Inhibits the Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition through Suppressing Akt Mediated Nuclear Translocation of β-Catenin in Lung Cancer Cell Line

Lung cancer is a first leading cause of cancer related death worldwide. Quercetin (QUE) has chemo-preventive effect against a variety of cancers. However, the molecular mechanism of QUE mediated inhibition of cancer cell migration and epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is not clear in lung cancer. Therefore, this study investigates the effect of QUE on EMT and metastasis of lung cancer cell line (A549). The MTT assay, scratch wound healing assay, Transwell migration and invasion assay performed to assess the cell viability and migration potential of lung cancer cells after treatment with different concentration of QUE. Further, chemokines gene expression was analyzed by qPCR and EMT markers were analyzed by immunocytochemistry and Western blot. QUE inhibits cell viability in a dose-dependent (10-80 μM) manner both at 24 and 48 h treatment. The Akt/MAPK/β-catenin and EMT marker protein expressions were decreased significantly, whereas TIMP-2 expression was increased upon QUE treatment. QUE inhibits cell migration and invasion of A-549 cells. In addition, Immunocytochemistry result showed that QUE can reduce nuclear translocalisation of β-catenin in A549 cells. Our results suggest that QUE can inhibit the metastatic potential in lung cancer by altering the Akt/MAPK/β-catenin signaling pathway and inhibiting the nuclear translocation of β-catenin.

Relationship between Metalloprotease-7 and -14 and Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloprotease 1 Expression by Mucosal Stromal Cells and Colorectal Cancer Development in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an example of an inflammation-related cancer. Matrix metalloproteases (MMP) are known to be associated with both processes. The aim of the study was to compare the expression of MMP-7, MMP-14 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteases-1 (TIMP-1) in sporadic CRC- and IBD-associated CRC, and to compare the expression in inflamed and non-inflamed colonic tissue samples from IBD patients without or with associated CRC. An immunohistochemical study of MMP-7, -14 and TIMP-1 was performed on sporadic CRC (n = 86), IBD-associated CRC (n = 23) and colorectal mucosa of non-tumor samples from IBD patients without (n = 47) and with (n = 23) associated CRC. These factors were more frequently expressed by cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) from IBD-associated CRC than by CAF from CRC not associated with IBD. Regarding the inflamed tissue of IBD patients, Crohn’s disease (CD) patients with CRC development showed a higher expression of MMP-14 by fibroblasts and by mononuclear inflammatory cells (MICs) than CD patients without CRC development. In non-inflamed tissue samples, MMP-7 associated with fibroblasts and MICs, and TIMP-1 associated with MICs, were more frequently expressed in CD patients with CRC development than in CD patients without CRC development. Our data suggest that these factor expressions by stromal cells may be biological markers of CRC development risk in IBD patients.

Clinical Evaluation of the Diagnostic Role of MicroRNA-155 in Breast Cancer

Aim

Biochemical markers, including microRNAs (miRs), may facilitate the diagnosis and prognosis of breast cancer. This study was aimed at assessing serum miR-155 expression in patients with breast cancer and receptors.

Methods

This case-control study was conducted on 36 patients with breast cancer and 36 healthy individuals. After RNA extraction from the patient's serum, cDNA was synthesized. The expression of miR-155 was measured using RT-qPCR. Demographic and histochemical data were extracted from patient documents. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software.

Results

The mean age of subjects in breast cancer and control groups was 47.64 ± 8.19 and 47.36 ± 7.52 years, respectively. The serum miR-155 expression was higher in the cancer group (1.68 ± 0.66) compared to the control group (p < 0.0001). There was a significant relationship between serum miR-155 expression and the tumor grade (p < 0.001), tumor stage (p < 0.001), and tumor size (p < 0.001) of the patients. However, no relationship between miR-155 expression and the presence of lymph node involvement (p = 0.15), HER2 (p = 0.79), Ki-67 (p = 0.9), progesterone receptor (p = 0.54), and estrogen receptors (p = 0.84) was found. The ROC curve analysis showed that the AUC was 0.89 (77.78% sensitivity and 88.89% specificity), and the cutoff was 1.4 (Youden index: 0.6667) for detecting breast cancer.

Conclusion

The findings of this study revealed that serum miR-155 may serve as a potential noninvasive molecular biomarker for breast cancer diagnosis and can help predict the grade of the disease.

TIMP-1: A key cytokine released from activated astrocytes protects neurons and ameliorates cognitive behaviours in a rodent model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by two pathologic species, extracellular amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles. Astrocytes that maintain normal homeostasis in the brain undergo a set of molecular, cellular and functional changes called reactive astrogliosis in various neurological diseases including AD. It is hypothesized that reactive astrocytes initially tend to protect neurons by reducing Aβ load and by secreting a plethora of cytokines, however, their functions have only been poorly investigated. Our studies on the kinetics of activation of cortical astrocytes following Aβ-exposure revealed significant level of activation as early as in 6 h. The astrocyte conditioned medium (ACM) from 6 h Aβ-treated astrocytes (Aβ-ACM) provided significant neuroprotection of cultured cortical neurons against Aβ insults. Analysis of the secreted proteins in Aβ-ACM revealed a marked increase of Tissue inhibitor of Metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) within 6 h. Interestingly, we found that neutralization of TIMP-1 with antibody or knockdown with siRNA in astrocytes abolished most of the neuroprotective ability of the 6 h Aβ-ACM on Aβ-treated cultured neurons. Furthermore addition of exogenous rat recombinant TIMP-1 protein protects primary neurons from Aβ mediated toxicity. In a well characterized Aβ-infused rodent model of AD, intra-cerebroventricular administration of TIMP-1 revealed a reduction in Aβ load and apoptosis in hippocampal and cortical regions. Finally, we found that TIMP-1 can ameliorate Aβ-induced cognitive dysfunctions through restoration of Akt and its downstream pathway and maintenance of synaptic integrity. Thus, our results not only provide a functional clarity for TIMP-1, secreted by activated astrocytes, but also support it as a major candidate in cytokine-mediated therapy of AD especially at the early phase of disease progression.

Integrative Gene Expression Profiling Analysis to Investigate Potential Prognostic Biomarkers for Colorectal Cancer

BACKGROUND Despite noteworthy advancements in the multidisciplinary treatment of colorectal cancer (CRC) and deeper understanding in the molecular mechanisms of CRC, many of CRC patients with histologically identical tumors present different treatment response and prognosis. Thus, more evidence on novel predictive and prognostic biomarkers for CRC remains urgently needed. This study aims to identify potential prognostic biomarkers for CRC with integrative gene expression profiling analysis. MATERIAL AND METHODS Differential expression analysis of paired CRC and adjacent normal tissue samples in 6 microarray datasets was independently performed, and the 6 datasets were integrated by the robust rank aggregation method to detect consistent differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Aberrant expression patterns of these genes were further validated in RNA sequencing data. Then, gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was performed to investigate significantly dysregulated biological functions in CRC. Finally, univariate, LASSO and multivariate Cox regression models were built to identify key prognostic genes in CRC patients. RESULTS A total of 990 DEGs (495 downregulated and 495 upregulated genes) were acquired after integratedly analyzing the 6 microarray datasets, and 4131 DEGs (2050 downregulated and 2081 upregulated genes) were obtained from the RNA sequencing dataset. Subsequently, these DEGs were intersected and 885 consistent DEGs were finally identified, including 458 downregulated and 427 upregulated genes. Two risky prognostic genes (TIMP1 and LZTS3) and 5 protective prognostic genes (AXIN2, CXCL1, ITLN1, CPT2 and CLDN23) were identified, which were significantly associated with the prognosis of CRC. CONCLUSIONS The 7 genes that we identified would provide more evidence for further applying novel diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in clinical practice to facilitate personalized treatment of CRC.

Proteomic analysis of cerebrospinal fluid in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients: a pilot study

Purpose

Involvement of central nervous system in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (CNSL) remains one of the major causes of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) treatment failure. However, the current understanding of the pathological process of CNSL is still limited. This study aimed to better understand the protein expression in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of ALL and discover valuable prognostic biomarkers.

Materials and methods

CSF samples were obtained from ALL patients and healthy controls. Comparative proteomic profiling using label-free liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was performed to detect differentially expressed proteins.

Results

In the present study, 51 differentially expressed proteins were found. Among them, two core clusters including ten proteins (TIMP1, LGALS3BP, A2M, FN1, AHSG, HRG, ITIH4, CF I, C2, and C4a) might be crucial for tumorigenesis and progression of ALL and can be potentially valuable indicators of CNSL.

Conclusion

These differentially expressed proteins of ALL children with central nervous system involvement and normal children may work as diagnostic and prognostic factors of ALL patients.

Expression and Activity of Matrix Metalloproteinases in Leukemia

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are responsible for the degradation of extracellular matrix components and hence play a crucial role in physiological and pathologic processes. The imbalance between the expression of MMPs and their inhibitors can be effective in leukemic cell processes such as migration, angiogenesis, survival, and apoptosis, playing a key role in the progression and prognosis of leukemia. In this review, we discuss the potential involvement of MMPs and their inhibitors in the pathogenesis and progression of leukemia by examining their role in the prognosis of leukemia. Inducing leukemic cell growth, migration, invasiveness, and angiogenesis are the main roles of MMPs in leukemia progression mediated by their degradative activity. Given the important role of MMPs in leukemia progression, further clinical trials are needed to confirm the link between MMPs' expressions and leukemia prognosis. It is hoped to use MMPs as therapeutic targets to improve patients' health by recognizing the prognostic value of MMPs in leukemia and their effect on the progression of these malignancies and their response to treatment.

Differential Mechanisms of Cell Death Induced by HDAC Inhibitor SAHA and MDM2 Inhibitor RG7388 in MCF-7 Cells

Gene expression is often altered by epigenetic modifications that can significantly influence the growth ability and progression of cancers. SAHA (Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid, also known as Vorinostat), a well-known Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, can stop cancer growth and metastatic processes through epigenetic alterations. On the other hand, Letrozole is an aromatase inhibitor that can elicit strong anti-cancer effects on breast cancer through direct and indirect mechanisms. A newly developed inhibitor, RG7388 specific for an oncogene-derived protein called MDM2, is in clinical trials for the treatment of various cancers. In this paper, we performed assays to measure the effects of cell cycle arrest resulting from individual drug treatments or combination treatments with SAHA + letrozole and SAHA + RG7388, using the MCF-7 breast cancer cells. When SAHA was used individually, or in combination treatments with RG7388, a significant increase in the cytotoxic effect was obtained. Induction of cell cycle arrest by SAHA in cancer cells was evidenced by elevated p21 protein levels. In addition, SAHA treatment in MCF-7 cells showed significant up-regulation in phospho-RIP3 and MLKL levels. Our results confirmed that cell death caused by SAHA treatment was primarily through the induction of necroptosis. On the other hand, the RG7388 treatment was able to induce apoptosis by elevating BAX levels. It appears that, during combination treatments, with SAHA and RG7388, two parallel pathways might be induced simultaneously, that could lead to increased cancer cell death. SAHA appears to induce cell necroptosis in a p21-dependent manner, and RG7388 seems to induce apoptosis in a p21-independent manner, outlining differential mechanisms of cell death induction. However, further studies are needed to fully understand the intracellular mechanisms that are triggered by these two anti-cancer agents.

The tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) promotes survival and migration of acute myeloid leukemia cells through CD63/PI3K/Akt/p21 signaling

We and others have shown that the Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1), a member of the inflammatory network exerting pleiotropic effects in the bone marrow (BM) microenvironment, regulates the survival and proliferation of different cell types, including normal hematopoietic progenitor cells. Moreover, TIMP-1 has been shown to be involved in cancer progression. However, its role in leukemic microenvironment has not been addressed. Here, we investigated the activity of TIMP-1 on Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML) cell functions. First, we found that TIMP-1 levels were increased in the BM plasma of AML patients at diagnosis. In vitro, recombinant human (rh)TIMP-1 promoted the survival and cell cycle S-phase entry of AML cells. These kinetic effects were related to the downregulation of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21. rhTIMP-1 increases CXCL12-driven migration of leukemic cells through PI3K signaling. Interestingly, activation of CD63 receptor was required for TIMP-1's cytokine/chemokine activity. Of note, rhTIMP-1 stimulation modulated mRNA expression of Hypoxia Inducible Factor (HIF)-1α, downstream of PI3K/Akt activation. We then co-cultured AML cells with normal or leukemic mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) to investigate the interaction of TIMP-1 with cellular component(s) of BM microenvironment. Our results showed that the proliferation and migration of leukemic cells were greatly enhanced by rhTIMP-1 in presence of AML-MSCs as compared to normal MSCs. Thus, we demonstrated that TIMP-1 modulates leukemic blasts survival, migration and function via CD63/PI3K/Akt/p21 signaling. As a “bad actor” in a “bad soil”, we propose TIMP-1 as a potential novel therapeutic target in leukemic BM microenvironment.

TIMP-1 is under regulation of the EGF signaling axis and promotes an aggressive phenotype in KRAS-mutated colorectal cancer cells: a potential novel approach to the treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer

It is now widely accepted that therapeutic antibodies targeting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) can have efficacy in KRAS wild-type advanced colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. What remains to be ascertained is whether a subgroup of KRAS-mutated CRC patients might not also derive benefit from EGFR inhibitors. Metalloproteinase inhibitor 1 (TIMP-1) is a pleiotropic factor predictive of survival outcome of CRC patients. Levels of TIMP-1 were measured in pre-treatment plasma samples (n = 426) of metastatic CRC patients randomized to Nordic FLOX (5-fluorouracil and oxaliplatin) +/− cetuximab (NORDIC VII study). Multivariate analysis demonstrated a significant interaction between plasma TIMP-1 protein levels, KRAS status and treatment with patients bearing KRAS mutated tumors and high TIMP-1 plasma level (> 3rd quartile) showing a significantly longer overall survival if treated with cetuximab (HR, 0.48; 95% CI, 0.25 to 0.93). To gain mechanistic insights into this association we analyzed a set of five different CRC cell lines. We show here that EGFR signaling induces TIMP-1 expression in CRC cells, and that TIMP-1 promotes a more aggressive behavior, specifically in KRAS mutated cells. The two sets of data, clinical and in vitro, are complementary and support each other, lending strength to our contention that TIMP- 1 plasma levels can identify a subset of patients with KRAS-mutated metastatic CRC that will have benefit from EGFR-inhibition therapy.

TIMP-1 downregulation modulates miR-125a-5p expression and triggers the apoptotic pathway

Matrix metalloproteinases and their natural inhibitors (TIMPs) are important elements in a wide range of oncology settings. Elevated levels of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) have often been associated with increased tumorigenesis. This has been demonstrated in a number of clinical and experimental models which include breast, gastric, colorectal and non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). Our earlier studies have identified increased angiogenic activity and aggressive tumor kinetics in TIMP-1 overexpressing H2009 lung adenocarcinoma cells. TIMP-1 overexpression has also been implicated in antiapoptotic responses, inducing a significant upregulation of Bcl-2. These TIMP-1 functions have been shown to be MMP-independent and provide insight into its pleiotropic activities. The current study examines microRNA (miRNA) interactions with this molecule. We have sought to define the relationship between TIMP-1 and miRNA by knocking down TIMP-1 in high TIMP-1 expressing lung adenocarcinoma cell lines. TIMP-1 knockdown resulted in increased expression of miR-125a-5p with a concomitant increase in apoptosis and attenuation of the tumorigenic features of these cells. We have identified TIMP-1 as a bona fide target of miR-125a-5p, and their interaction resulted in an increase in p53 expression. We further corroborated our in vitro data with patient samples, which exhibited an inverse correlation between TIMP-1 and miR-125a-5p expression. Our study lends support to the notion that elevated TIMP-1 levels, which are frequently associated with poor prognosis, cause aberrant modulation of miRNAs.

The Inhibitory Effect of C-phycocyanin Containing Protein Extract (C-PC Extract) on Human Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) in Hepatocellular Cancer Cell Line (HepG2)

Spirulina platensis :have been studied for several biological activities. In the current study C-phycocyanin containing protein extract (C-PC extract) of Spirulina platensis have been studied for its effect on human matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-1, MMP-2 and MMP-9) and tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMP-1 and TIMP-2). In the present study, breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB 231) and hepatocellular cancer cell line (HepG2) were examined for inhibition of MMPs at different levels of expression after C-PC extract treatment. Herein, we have demonstrated that C-PC extract significantly reduced activity of MMP-2 by 55.13% and MMP-9 by 57.9% in HepG2 cells at 15 μg concentration. Additionally, the treatment has reduced mRNA expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 at 20 μg concentration by 1.65-folds and 1.66-folds respectively. The C-PC extract treatment have also downregulated a mRNA expression of TIMP-2 by 1.12 folds at 20 μg concentration in HepG2 cells. Together, these results indicate that C-PC, extract successfully inhibited MMP-2 and -9 at different levels of expression and TIMP-2 at a mRNA expression level; however, extract did not have any effect on MMP-1 expressed in MDA-MB231 and TIMP-1 expressed in HepG2 cells as well as the exact mechanism of inhibition of MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP-2 remained unclear.

TIMPs: versatile extracellular regulators in cancer

A compelling long-term goal of cancer biology is to understand the crucial players during tumorigenesis in order to develop new interventions. Here, we review how the four non-redundant tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) regulate the pericellular proteolysis of a vast range of matrix and cell surface proteins, generating simultaneous effects on tumour architecture and cell signalling. Experimental studies demonstrate the contribution of TIMPs to the majority of cancer hallmarks, and human cancers invariably show TIMP deregulation in the tumour or stroma. Of the four TIMPs, TIMP1 overexpression or TIMP3 silencing is consistently associated with cancer progression or poor patient prognosis. Future efforts will align mouse model systems with changes in TIMPs in patients, will delineate protease-independent TIMP function, will pinpoint therapeutic targets within the TIMP-metalloproteinase-substrate network and will use TIMPs in liquid biopsy samples as biomarkers for cancer prognosis.

TIMP1 is a prognostic marker for the progression and metastasis of colon cancer through FAK-PI3K/AKT and MAPK pathway

BACKGROUND

Tissue inhibitor matrix metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP1) plays a vital role in carcinogenesis, yet its precise functional roles and regulation remain unclear. In this study, we aim to investigate its biological function and clinical significance in human colon cancer.

METHODS

We analyzed the expression of TIMP1 in both public database (Oncomine and TCGA) and 94 cases of primary colon cancer and matched normal colon tissue specimens. The underlying mechanisms of altered TIMP1 expression on cell tumorigenesis, proliferation, and metastasis were explored in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

TIMP1 was overexpressed in colon tumorous tissues and lymph node metastasis specimens than in normal tissues. The aberrant expression of TIMP1 was significantly associated with the regional lymph node metastasis (p = 0.033), distant metastasis (p = 0.039), vascular invasion (p = 0.024) and the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) stage (p = 0.026). Cox proportional hazards model showed that TIMP1 was an independent prognostic indicator of disease-free survival (HR = 2.603, 95 % CI: 1.115-6.077, p = 0.027) and overall survival (HR = 2.907, 95 % CI: 1.254-6.737, p = 0.013) for patients with colon cancer. Consistent with this, our findings highlight that suppression of TIMP1 expression decreased proliferation, and metastasis but increased apoptosis by inducing TIMP1 specific regulated FAK-PI3K/AKT and MAPK pathway.

CONCLUSION

TIMP1 might play an important role in promoting tumorigenesis and metastasis of human colon cancer and function as a potential prognostic indicator for colon cancer.

TIMP-1 Inhibits Apoptosis in Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells via Interaction with Bcl-2

Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are multifaceted molecules that exhibit properties beyond their classical proteinase inhibitory function. Although TIMP-1 is a known inhibitor of apoptosis in mammalian cells, the mechanisms by which it exerts its effects are not well-established. Our earlier studies using H2009 lung adenocarcinoma cells, implanted in the CNS, showed that TIMP-1 overexpressing H2009 cells (HB-1), resulted in more aggressive tumor kinetics and increased vasculature. The present study was undertaken to elucidate the role of TIMP-1 in the context of apoptosis, using the same lung cancer cell lines. Overexpressing TIMP-1 in a lung adenocarcinoma cell line H2009 resulted in an approximately 3-fold increased expression of Bcl-2, with a marked reduction in apoptosis upon staurosporine treatment. This was an MMP-independent function as a clone expressing TIMP-1 mutant T2G, lacking MMP inhibition activity, inhibited apoptosis as strongly as TIMP1 overexpressing clones, as determined by inhibition of PARP cleavage. Immunoprecipitation of Bcl-2 from cell lysates also co-immunoprecipitated TIMP-1, indicative of an interaction between these two proteins. This interaction was specific for TIMP-1 as TIMP-2 was not present in the Bcl-2 pull-down. Additionally, we show a co-dependency of TIMP-1 and Bcl-2 RNA and protein levels, such that abrogating Bcl-2 causes a downregulation of TIMP-1 but not TIMP-2. Finally, we demonstrate that TIMP-1 dependent inhibition of apoptosis occurs through p90RSK, with phosphorylation of the pro-apoptotic protein BAD at serine 112, ultimately reducing Bax levels and increasing mitochondrial permeability. Together, these studies define TIMP-1 as an important cancer biomarker and demonstrate the potential TIMP-1 as a crucial therapeutic target.

TIMP-1 signaling via CD63 triggers granulopoiesis and neutrophilia in mice

The homeostasis of neutrophil granulocytes can affect the outcome of several inflammation-associated diseases including cancer. The regulation of this homeostasis is still not completely understood. We previously found that elevated systemic levels of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) induce an increase of neutrophils in the liver, which in turn strongly promotes liver metastasis. Here, we report that increasing systemic TIMP-1 levels were sufficient to induce neutrophilia in mice. This was not attributed to prolonged survival or direct mobilization of neutrophils. However, TIMP-1 induced enrichment of myeloid progenitors and concomitant upregulation of granulopoiesis-associated genes in the bone marrow compartment. BrdU pulse-labeling confirmed that proliferating progenitors accounted for TIMP-1-induced neutrophilia. TIMP-1 variants that dissect its protease-inhibitory from its CD63 binding function relevant for cell signaling revealed that the TIMP-1 signaling domain was necessary and sufficient to augment granulopoiesis. Consequently, ablation of the TIMP-1 receptor CD63 abolished both neutrophilia and TIMP-1-enhanced granulopoiesis in the bone marrow. Our findings reveal that elevated levels of TIMP-1 impact on neutrophil homeostasis via signaling through CD63. This may provide a link to clinical observations, where TIMP-1 correlates with high severity and bad prognosis in inflammation-associated diseases.

A microfluidic device for label-free, physical capture of circulating tumor cell clusters

Cancer cells metastasize through the bloodstream either as single migratory circulating tumor cells (CTCs) or as multicellular groupings (CTC-clusters). Existing technologies for CTC enrichment are designed primarily to isolate single CTCs, and while CTC-clusters are detectable in some cases, their true prevalence and significance remain to be determined. Here, we developed a microchip technology (Cluster-Chip) specifically designed to capture CTC-clusters independent of tumor-specific markers from unprocessed blood. CTC-clusters are isolated through specialized bifurcating traps under low shear-stress conditions that preserve their integrity and even two-cell clusters are captured efficiently. Using the Cluster-Chip, we identify CTC-clusters in 30–40% of patients with metastatic cancers of the breast, prostate and melanoma. RNA sequencing of CTC-clusters confirms their tumor origin and identifies leukocytes within the clusters as tissue-derived macrophages. Together, the development of a device for efficient capture of CTC-clusters will enable detailed characterization of their biological properties and role in cancer metastasis.

Proteomics analysis of bodily fluids in pancreatic cancer

Proteomics study of pancreatic cancer using bodily fluids emphasizes biomarker discovery and clinical application, presenting unique prospect and challenges. Depending on the physiological nature of the bodily fluid and its proximity to pancreatic cancer, the proteomes of bodily fluids, such as pancreatic juice, pancreatic cyst fluid, blood, bile, and urine, can be substantially different in terms of protein constitution and the dynamic range of protein concentration. Thus, a comprehensive discovery and specific detection of cancer-associated proteins within these varied fluids is a complex task, requiring rigorous experiment design and a concerted approach. While major challenges still remain, fluid proteomics studies in pancreatic cancer to date have provided a wealth of information in revealing proteome alterations associated with pancreatic cancer in various bodily fluids.

Down-regulation of TIMP-1 inhibits cell migration, invasion, and metastatic colonization in lung adenocarcinoma

Tissue inhibitor metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) is clinically associated with a poor prognosis for various cancers, but the roles of TIMP-1 in lung cancer metastasis are controversial. Our previous secretomic study revealed that TIMP-1 is highly abundant in high invasiveness cells of lung adenocarcinoma. In the current study, TIMP-1 abundances in primary lung adenocarcinoma tissues, as revealed by immunohistochemistry, are significantly higher in patients with lymph invasion and distant metastasis than in those without. Receiver operating characteristic curve analyses suggest 73.7 and 86.2 % accuracy to separate patients with lymph node and distant metastasis and those without, respectively. Moreover, we demonstrate that the expression level of TIMP-1 positively associates with cell mobility, invasiveness, and metastatic colonization. Most notably, the novel mechanism in which TIMP-1 facilitates metastatic colonization through the mediation of pericellular polyFN1 assembly was revealed. In summary, this study presents novel functions of TIMP-1 in promoting cancer metastasis and suggests TIMP-1 is a potential tissue biomarker for lymph invasion and distant metastasis of lung adenocarcinoma.

Prominent IL-12 production and tumor reduction in athymic nude mice after Toxoplasma gondii lysate antigen treatment

Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan parasite that causes a Th1 cellular immunity. Our previous study showed that T. gondii lysate antigen (TLA) treatment in S180 tumor-bearing mice resulted in tumor reduction by suppressing CD31 expression, a marker of angiogenesis. In the present study, to investigate tumor suppressive effect of TLA under the absence of T lymphocytes, athymic nude mice were compared with euthymic mice in the anti-tumorigenic effect triggered by TLA in CT26 tumors. According to the results, intratumorally injected TLA reduced tumor growth and TIMP-1 level, a metastatic marker, in both euthymic and athymic mice. TLA treatment led to a sharp increase in IL-12 expression in serum cytokine profiling of athymic mice, and increased MyD88 signals in macrophages derived from the bone marrow, implying the activation of innate immunity. The selective induction of IL-12 by TLA treatment had an anti-tumorigenic effect.

BMP-2 promotes oral squamous carcinoma cell invasion by inducing CCL5 release

Bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2)-containing bone grafts are useful regenerative materials for oral and maxillofacial surgery; however, several in vitro and in vivo studies previously reported cancer progression-related adverse effects caused by BMP-2. In this study, by quantifying the rhBMP-2 content released from bone grafts, the rhBMP-2 concentration that did not show cytotoxicity in each cell line was determined and applied to the in vitro monoculture or coculture model in the invasion assay. Our results showed that 1 ng/ml rhBMP-2, while not affecting cancer cell viability, significantly increased the invasion ability of the cancer cells cocultured with fibroblasts. Cocultured medium with rhBMP-2 also contained increased levels of matrix metalloproteinases. rhBMP-2-treated cocultured fibroblasts did not show a prominent difference in mRNA expression profile. Some cytokines, however, were detected in the conditioned medium by a human cytokine antibody array. Among them, the cancer invasion-related factor CCL5 was quantified by ELISA. Interestingly, CCL5 neutralizing antibodies significantly reduced the invasion of oral cancer cells. In conclusion, our results suggest that 1 ng/ml rhBMP-2 may induce invasion of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells by CCL5 release in coculture models. Therefore, we propose that a careful clinical examination before the use of rhBMP-2-containing biomaterials is indispensable for using rhBMP-2 treatment to prevent cancer progression.

Serum tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) are associated with prognosis in esophageal cancer patients

PURPOSE

The matrix metalloproteinases, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases and angiogenesis contribute to growth and spread of cancer. We investigated the correlation between pretreatment serum levels of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), and clinicopathologic features and survival in patients with esophageal cancer (EC).

MATERIAL/METHODS

Serum TIMP-1 and VEGF-A were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in 89 patients with EC, and 30 healthy controls.

RESULTS

Serum TIMP-1 and VEGF-A levels were significantly higher in patients with esophageal carcinoma than in the control group (p=0.001 and p<0.001, respectively). High levels of TIMP-1 were associated with histological type (p<0.001), tumor depth (p<0.001), stage (p<0.001) and lymph node metastases (p=0.001). Subgroup analysis showed that tumor size (p<0.001), tumor depth (p<0.001), stage (p<0.001), lymph node metastases (p=0.002), distant metastases (p=0.009) and resectability (p=0.003), were correlated with an elevated level of VEGF-A. Patients with elevated levels of TIMP-1 and VEGF-A had a significantly lower overall survival (p=0.02 and p=0.048, respectively), and disease-free survival (TIMP-1, p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

High serum levels of TIMP-1 and VEGF-A were found to be associated with tumor progression and unfavorable prognosis in patients with EC.

TIMP-1 via TWIST1 induces EMT phenotypes in human breast epithelial cells

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) regulates intracellular signaling networks for inhibition of apoptosis. Tetraspanin (CD63), a cell surface binding partner for TIMP-1, was previously shown to regulate integrin-mediated survival pathways in the human breast epithelial cell line MCF10A. In the current study, we show that TIMP-1 expression induces phenotypic changes in cell morphology, cell adhesion, cytoskeletal remodeling, and motility, indicative of an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). This is evidenced by loss of the epithelial cell adhesion molecule E-cadherin with an increase in the mesenchymal markers vimentin, N-cadherin, and fibronectin. Signaling through TIMP-1, but not TIMP-2, induces the expression of TWIST1, an important EMT transcription factor known to suppress E-cadherin transcription, in a CD63-dependent manner. RNAi-mediated knockdown of TWIST1 rescued E-cadherin expression in TIMP-1-overexpressing cells, demonstrating a functional significance of TWIST1 in TIMP-1-mediated EMT. Furthermore, analysis of TIMP-1 structural mutants reveals that TIMP-1 interactions with CD63 that activate cell survival signaling and EMT do not require the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-inhibitory domain of TIMP-1. Taken together, these data demonstrate that TIMP-1 binding to CD63 activates intracellular signal transduction pathways, resulting in EMT-like changes in breast epithelial cells, independent of its MMP-inhibitory function.

IMPLICATIONS

TIMP-1's function as an endogenous inhibitor of MMP or as a "cytokine-like" signaling molecule may be a critical determinant for tumor cell behavior.

TIMP-1 and responsiveness to gemcitabine in advanced breast cancer; results from a randomized phase III trial from the Danish breast cancer cooperative group

Background

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) has anti-apoptotic functions, which may protect TIMP-1 positive cancer cells from the effects of chemotherapy such as docetaxel and gemcitabine. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate TIMP-1 immunoreactivity as a prognostic and predictive marker in advanced breast cancer patients receiving docetaxel (D) or gemcitabine plus docetaxel (GD).

Methods

Patients with locally advanced or metastatic breast cancer who were assigned to D or GD by participation in a randomized phase III trial were included in the study. Assessment of TIMP-1 status was performed retrospectively on primary tumor whole-tissue sections by immunohistochemistry and tumor samples were considered positive if epithelial breast cancer cells were stained by the anti-TIMP-1 monoclonal antibody VT7. Time to progression (TTP) was the primary endpoint. Overall survival (OS) and response rate (RR) were secondary endpoints. Associations between TIMP-1 status and outcome after chemotherapy were analyzed by Kaplan-Meier estimates and Cox proportional hazards regression models.

Results

TIMP-1 status was available from 264 of 337 patients and 210 (80%) of the tumors were classified as cancer cell TIMP-1 positive. No significant difference for TTP between TIMP-1 positive versus TIMP-1 negative patients was observed in multivariate analysis, and RR did not differ according to TIMP-1 status. However, patients with TIMP-1 positive tumors had a significant reduction in OS events (hazard ratio = 0.71, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.52-0.98, P = 0.03). Additionally, a borderline significant interaction for OS was observed between TIMP-1 status and benefit from GD compared to D (P_interaction = 0.06) such that median OS increased by nine months for TIMP-1 negative patients receiving GD.

Conclusions

TIMP-1 status was an independent prognostic factor for OS but not TTP in patients with advanced breast cancer receiving either D or GD. There was no statistically significant interaction between TIMP-1 status and treatment, but a trend towards an incremental OS from the addition of gemcitabine to docetaxel in patients with TIMP-1 negative tumors suggests further investigation.

Cytokine functions of TIMP-1

The tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are well recognized for their role in extracellular matrix remodeling by controlling the activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Independent of MMP inhibition, TIMPs act as signaling molecules with cytokine-like activities thereby influencing various biological processes including cell growth, apoptosis, differentiation, angiogenesis, and oncogenesis. Recent studies on TIMP-1's cytokine functions have identified complex regulatory networks involving a specific surface receptor and subsequent signaling pathways including miRNA-mediated posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression that ultimately control the fate and behavior of the cells. The present review summarizes the current knowledge on TIMP-1 as a cytokine modulator of cell functions, outlines recent progress in defining molecular pathways that transmit TIMP-1 signals from the cell periphery into the nucleus, and discusses TIMP-1's role as a cytokine in the pathophysiology of cancer and other human diseases.

A four-marker signature of TNF-RII, TGF-α, TIMP-1 and CRP is prognostic of worse survival in high-risk surgically resected melanoma

Background

E1694 tested GM2-KLH-QS21 vaccine versus high-dose interferon-α2b (HDI) as adjuvant therapy for operable stage IIB-III melanoma. We tested banked serum specimens from patients in the vaccine arm of E1694 for prognostic biomarkers.

Methods

Aushon Multiplex Platform was used to quantitate baseline serum levels of 115 analytes from 40 patients. Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator proportional hazard regression (Lasso PH) was used to select markers that are most informative for relapse-free survival (RFS) and overall survival (OS). Regular Cox PH models were then fit with the markers selected by the Lasso PH. Survival receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was used to evaluate the ability of the models to predict 1-year RFS and 5-year OS.

Results

Four markers that include Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha Receptor II (TNF-RII), Transforming Growth Factor alpha (TGF-α), Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinases 1 (TIMP-1), and C-reactive protein (CRP) were found to be most informative for the prediction of OS (high levels correlate with worse prognosis). The dichotomized risk score based on the four markers could significantly separate the OS curves (p = 0.0005). When using the four-marker PH model to predict 5-year OS, we achieved an area under the curve (AUC) of 89% (cross validated AUC = 72%). High baseline TNF-RII was also significantly associated with worse RFS. The RFS with high (above median) TNF-RII was significantly lower than low TNF-RII (p = 0.01).

Conclusions

The biomarker signature consisting of TNFR-II, TGF-α, TIMP-1 and CRP is significantly prognostic of survival in patients with high-risk melanoma and warrants further investigation.

Deficiency of metabolic regulator FGFR4 delays breast cancer progression through systemic and microenvironmental metabolic alterations

BACKGROUND

Endocrine FGF21 and FGF19 target adipocytes and hepatocytes through betaKlotho (KLB) and FGFR tyrosine kinases effecting glucose, lipid and energy metabolism. Both factors alleviate obesity and metabolic abnormalities which are contributing factors to breast tumor progression. Genomic manipulation of hepatic FGFR4 has uncovered roles of endocrine FGF signaling in both metabolic and cellular homeostasis. Here we determined whether systemic and microenvironmental metabolic alterations caused by the FGFR4 deficiency affect tumorigenesis in breast where FGFR4 is negligible. Breast tumors were induced in the bigenic mice with ablation of FGFR4 and overexpression of TGFα that activates Her2 in the ductal and lobular epithelium surrounded by adipocytes. Mammary tumorigenesis and alterations in systemic and breast microenvironmental metabolic parameters and regulatory pathways were analyzed.

RESULTS

Ablation of FGFR4 had no effect on cellular homeostasis and Her2 activity of normal breast tissue. However, the absence of FGFR4 reduced TGFα-driven breast tumor incidence and progression and improved host survival. Notable increases in hepatic and serum FGF21, ileal FGF15/19, adiponectin and adipsin, and decreases in systemic Fetuin A, IGF-1, IGFBP-1, RBP4 and TIMP1 were observed. The ablation affected adipogenesis and secretory function of adipocytes as well as lipogenesis, glycolysis and energy homeostasis associated with the functions of mitochondria, ER and peroxisomes in the breast and tumor foci. Treatment with a chemical inhibitor of NAMPT involved in the pathways inhibited the growth and survival of breast tumor cells and tumor-initiating cell-containing spheres. The FGFR4 ablation also caused elevation of inflammatory factors in the breast.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the primary role of FGFR4 in metabolism occurs in hepatocytes, its ablation results in a net inhibitory effect on mammary tumor progression. We suggest that the tumor-delaying effect of FGFR4 deficiency may be in large part due to elevated anti-obesogenic FGF21 that triggers tumor-suppressing signals from both peripheral and breast adipocytes. The predominant changes in metabolic pathways suggested roles of metabolic effects from both peripheral and breast adipocytes on metabolic reprogramming in breast epithelial cells that contribute to the suppression of tumor progression. These results provide new insights into the contribution of systemic and microenvironmental metabolic effects controlled by endocrine FGF signaling to breast carcinogenesis.

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1) as a biomarker in gastric cancer: a review

OBJECTIVE

The value of Tissue Inhibitor of MetalloProteinase-1 (TIMP-1) as a biomarker in patients with gastric cancer (GC) is widely debated. The aim of this review is to evaluate available literature describing the association between levels of TIMP-1 in tumor tissue and/or blood and the prognosis of patients suffering from GC.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Using the search words 'TIMP-1', 'Gastric Cancer' and 'Tumor marker', a search was carried out on PubMed. Exclusion criteria were articles never published in English, articles from before 1995 and articles evaluating tumor markers other than TIMP-1 in GC.

RESULTS

Of initially 50 articles, 17 were found to fulfill the selection criteria and relevant for this study. The 17 articles evaluated the usefulness of TIMP-1 levels in tumor tissue or blood, respectively, as a prognostic marker in patients with GC.

CONCLUSIONS

A literature search showed that elevated protein levels of TIMP-1 in either tumor tissue extracts or in plasma from patients suffering from GC associates with poor patient outcome.

TIMP1 overexpression mediates resistance of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells to fulvestrant and down-regulates progesterone receptor expression

High levels of Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP1) are associated with poor prognosis, reduced response to chemotherapy, and, potentially, also poor response to endocrine therapy in breast cancer patients. Our objective was to further investigate the hypothesis that TIMP1 is associated with endocrine sensitivity. We established a panel of 11 MCF-7 subclones with a wide range of TIMP1 mRNA and protein expression levels. Cells with high expression of TIMP1 versus low TIMP1 displayed significantly reduced sensitivity to the antiestrogen fulvestrant (ICI 182,780, Faslodex®), while TIMP1 levels did not influence the sensitivity to 4-hydroxytamoxifen. An inverse correlation between expression of the progesterone receptor and TIMP1 was found, but TIMP1 levels did not correlate with estrogen receptor levels or growth-promoting effects of estrogen (estradiol, E2). Additionally, the effects of fulvestrant, 4-hydroxytamoxifen, or estrogen on estrogen receptor expression were not associated with TIMP1 levels. Gene expression analyses revealed associations between expression of TIMP1 and genes involved in metabolic pathways, epidermal growth factor receptor 1/cancer signaling pathways, and cell cycle. Gene and protein expression analyses showed no general defects in estrogen receptor signaling except from lack of progesterone receptor expression and estrogen inducibility in clones with high TIMP1. The present study suggests a relation between high expression level of TIMP1 and loss of progesterone receptor expression combined with fulvestrant resistance. Our findings in vitro may have clinical implications as the data suggest that high tumor levels of TIMP1 may be a predictive biomarker for reduced response to fulvestrant.

Nitric oxide synthase and breast cancer: role of TIMP-1 in NO-mediated Akt activation

Prediction of therapeutic response and cancer patient survival can be improved by the identification of molecular markers including tumor Akt status. A direct correlation between NOS2 expression and elevated Akt phosphorylation status has been observed in breast tumors. Tissue inhibitor matrix metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) has been proposed to exert oncogenic properties through CD63 cell surface receptor pathway initiation of pro-survival PI3k/Akt signaling. We employed immunohistochemistry to examine the influence of TIMP-1 on the functional relationship between NOS2 and phosphorylated Akt in breast tumors and found that NOS2-associated Akt phosphorylation was significantly increased in tumors expressing high TIMP-1, indicating that TIMP-1 may further enhance NO-induced Akt pathway activation. Moreover, TIMP-1 silencing by antisense technology blocked NO-induced PI3k/Akt/BAD phosphorylation in cultured MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. TIMP-1 protein nitration and TIMP-1/CD63 co-immunoprecipitation was observed at NO concentrations that induced PI3k/Akt/BAD pro-survival signaling. In the survival analysis, elevated tumor TIMP-1 predicted poor patient survival. This association appears to be mainly restricted to tumors with high NOS2 protein. In contrast, TIMP-1 did not predict poor survival in patient tumors with low NOS2 expression. In summary, our findings suggest that tumors with high TIMP-1 and NOS2 behave more aggressively by mechanisms that favor Akt pathway activation.

Prognostic significance of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 in breast cancer

Introduction. Despite advances in breast cancer systemic treatment, new prognostic and predictive factors are still needed. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), a physiologic inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), can act in both pro- and antitumoral effects. As role of TIMP-1 in breast cancer is controversial, we aimed to determine the prognostic significance of TIMP-1 in breast cancer. Methods. A single center-based case-control study was applied. Primary breast cancers from women with early stage disease treated with standard adjuvant therapy were analyzed by gene expression microarrays and immunohistochemistry for TIMP-1. Results. At the optimized cut-point, patients with high TIMP-1 RNA levels had a significantly shorter time to relapse, with a hazard ratio (HR) of 1.64 (P = 0.04), but without significant differences in overall survival (HR 1.29, P = 0.37). Although cytoplasmic overexpression of TIMP-1 protein was not correlated with early relapse (HR 1.0, P = 0.92), there was a tendency for short overall survival in patients with high expression (HR 1.41, P = 0.21). Conclusions. Our data indicate that elevated TIMP-1 RNA levels are independently prognostic for early recurrence, and there is a tendency for association of high cytoplasmic TIMP-1 protein levels with short survival in primary breast cancer.

TIMP-1 induces an EMT-like phenotypic conversion in MDCK cells independent of its MMP-inhibitory domain

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their endogenous inhibitors (TIMPs) regulate epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) critical for the development of epithelial organs as well as cancer cell invasion. TIMP-1 is frequently overexpressed in several types of human cancers and serves as a prognostic marker. The present study investigates the roles of TIMP-1 on the EMT process and formation of the lumen-like structure in a 3D Matrigel culture of MDCK cells. We show that TIMP-1 overexpression effectively prevents cell polarization and acinar-like structure formation. TIMP-1 induces expression of the developmental EMT transcription factors such as SLUG, TWIST, ZEB1 and ZEB2, leading to downregulation of epithelial marker and upregulation of mesenchymal markers. Importantly, TIMP-1's ability to induce the EMT-like process is independent of its MMP-inhibitory domain. To our surprise, TIMP-1 induces migratory and invasive properties in MDCK cells. Here, we present a novel finding that TIMP-1 signaling upregulates MT1-MMP and MMP-2 expression, and potentiates MT1-MMP activation of pro-MMP-2, contributing to tumor cell invasion. In spite of the fact that TIMP-1, as opposed to TIMP-2, does not interact with and inhibit MT1-MMP, TIMP-1 may act as a key regulator of MT1-MMP/MMP-2 axis. Collectively, our findings suggest a model in which TIMP-1 functions as a signaling molecule and also as an endogenous inhibitor of MMPs. This concept represents a paradigm shift in the current view of TIMP-1/MT1-MMP interactions and functions during cancer development/progression.

Surgical removal of the parametrial fat pads stimulates apoptosis and inhibits UVB-induced carcinogenesis in mice fed a high-fat diet

Removal of the parametrial fat pads (partial lipectomy) from female SKH-1 mice fed a high-fat diet inhibited UVB-induced carcinogenesis, but this was not observed in mice fed a low-fat chow diet. Partial lipectomy in high-fat-fed mice decreased the number of keratoacanthomas and squamous cell carcinomas per mouse by 76 and 79%, respectively, compared with sham-operated control mice irradiated with UVB for 33 wk. Immunohistochemical analysis indicated that partial lipectomy increased caspase 3 (active form) positive cells by 48% in precancerous epidermis away from tumors, by 68% in keratoacanthomas, and by 224% in squamous cell carcinomas compared with sham-operated control mice. In addition, partial lipectomy decreased cell proliferation away from tumors and in tumors. RT-PCR analysis for adipokines revealed that mRNAs for TIMP1, MCP1, and SerpinE1 (proinflammatory/antiapoptotic cytokines) in the parametrial fat pads of sham-operated control mice were 54- to 83-fold higher than levels in compensatory fat that returned after surgery in partially lipectomized mice at the end of the tumor study. Feeding mice high-fat diets for 2 wk increased levels of TIMP1 and other adipokines in serum and epidermis, and these increases were inhibited by removal of the parametrial fat pads. Our results are a unique demonstration that surgical removal of a specific tissue fat results in inhibition of carcinogenesis in obese mice. This inhibition was associated with an increase in apoptosis and a decrease in proliferation in tumors and in precancerous areas away from tumors.

Tumor tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) in hormone-independent breast cancer might originate in stromal cells, and improves stratification of prognosis together with nodal status

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) is shown to be a potential marker for poor prognosis in breast cancer, but the biology of TIMP-1 is only partially understood. In this study, TIMP-1 production was studied in a co-culture model of hormone-independent breast cancer cell lines and mesenchymal stem cells mimicking the stromal components of the tumor. In addition, the prognostic value of TIMP-1 was histologically evaluated in a clinical material of 168 patients with hormone-independent breast tumors. The hormone-independent breast cancer (BC) cell lines MDA-MB-231, M4A4 and NM2C5 did not produce TIMP-1 protein in measureable quantities. Six tested primary mesenchymal stem cell lines all produced TIMP-1. Co-culturing of mesenchymal stem cells and breast cancer cells resulted in positive immunocytochemical diffuse staining for TIMP-1 for both cell types. Culturing breast cancer cells with MSC-conditioned media resulted in a positive cytoplasmic immunoreactivity for TIMP-1, and TIMP-1 protein concentration in cell lysates increased 2.7-fold (range 1.1-4.7). The TIMP-1 mRNA levels remained unaffected in BC cells. This might suggest that breast cancer cells can take up TIMP-1 produced by stromal cells and are thus displaying cellular immunoreactivity. In addition, TIMP-1 was shown to improve stratification of prognosis in clinical material.