Current and evolving approaches for improving the oral permeability of BCS Class III or analogous molecules

Buccal Absorption of Biopharmaceutics Classification System III Drugs: Formulation Approaches and Mechanistic Insights

Buccal drug delivery emerges as a promising strategy to enhance the absorption of drugs classified under the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) Class III, characterized by high solubility and low permeability. However, addressing the absorption challenges of BCS Class III drugs necessitates innovative formulation strategies. This review delves into optimizing buccal drug delivery for BCS III drugs, focusing on various formulation approaches to improve absorption. Strategies such as permeation enhancers, mucoadhesive polymers, pH modifiers, ion pairing, and prodrugs are systematically explored for their potential to overcome challenges associated with BCS Class III drugs. The mechanistic insight into how these strategies influence drug absorption is discussed, providing a detailed understanding of their applicability. Furthermore, the review advocates for integrating conventional buccal dosage forms with these formulation approaches as a potential strategy to enhance absorption. By emphasizing bioavailability enhancement, this review contributes to a holistic understanding of optimizing buccal absorption for BCS Class III drugs, presenting a unified approach to overcome inherent limitations in their delivery.

Absorption enhancement of peach kernel oil on hydroxysafflor yellow A in safflower extracts and its mechanisms

Carthamus tinctorius L. (Safflower) is extensively used as a functional food and herbal medicine, with its application closely associated with hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA). However, the low oral bioavailability of HSYA in safflower extract (SFE) limits its health benefits and application. Our study found that co-administration of 250, 330, and 400 mg/kg peach kernel oil (PKO) increased the oral bioavailability of HSYA in SFE by 1.99-, 2.11-, and 2.49-fold, respectively. The enhanced bioavailability is attributed to improved lipid solubility and intestinal permeability of HSYA in SFE due to PKO. PKO is believed to modify membrane fluidity and tight junctions, increase paracellular penetration, and inhibit the expression and function of P-glycoprotein, enhancing the transcellular transport of substrates. These mechanisms suggest that PKO is an effective absorption enhancer. Our findings provide valuable insights for developing functional foods with improved bioavailability.

Formulation and characterization of cholesterol-based nanoparticles of gabapentin protecting from retinal injury

Introduction

This study aimed to prepare cholesterol and stearic acid-based solid lipid nanoparticles of gabapentin (GAB-SLNs) for protection against streptozotocin (STZ)-induced retinal injury in rats.

Methods

We prepared four preparations of GAB-SLNs using a hot high-shear homogenization ultrasonication process, and the best formulation was selected and tested for biological activity. The retinal injury was brought in male adult albino rats while gabapentin doses continued for 6 weeks. Six groups of rats were assigned as the vehicle, diabetic, diabetic + gabapentin (10-20 mg/kg), and diabetic + GAB-SLNs (10-20 mg/kg). GAB-SLN#2 was selected as the optimized formulation with high entrapment efficacy (EE%, 98.64% ± 1.97%), small particle size (185.65 ± 2.41 nm), high negative Zeta potential (-32.18 ± 0.98 mV), low polydispersity index (0.28 ± 0.02), and elevated drug release (99.27% ± 3.48%). The TEM image of GAB-SLN#2 revealed a smooth surface with a spherical shape.

Results

GAB-SLNs provided greater protection against retinal injury than free gabapentin as indicated by the histopathology data which demonstrated more organization of retinal layers and less degeneration in ganglion cell layer in rats treated with GAB-SLN#2. Further, GAB-SLN#2 reduced the inflammatory proteins (IL-6/JAK2/STAT3) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).

Conclusion

The preparation of GAB-SLNs enhanced the physical properties of gabapentin and improved its biological activity as a neuroprotectant. Further studies are warranted to validate this technique for the use of oral gabapentin in other neurological disorders.

Enzymatic Synthesis of Austroeupatol Esters with Enhanced Antiprotozoal Activity

Austroeupatol, the principal diterpene isolated from the invasive shrub Austroeupatorium inulifolium, holds promise for structural diversification and biological assessment of its derivatives due to its abundant availability and high yield isolation. We propose an efficient enzymatic synthesis of a series of austroeupatol esters derived from aliphatic and heterocyclic carboxylic acids. Systematic optimization of reaction parameters, including enzyme type and quantity, acylating agent amount, solvent, and temperature, was conducted. Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase in cyclohexane at 55 °C, yielded esters with favorable conversion rates. Through enzymatic catalysis, mono- and diacylated derivatives were obtained, with a diacylation-monoacylation ratio influenced by temperature and acylating agent amount. The antiprotozoal activity of austroeupatol and all synthesized derivatives was evaluated, observing that acylation improved it. The 19-valeroyl, 19-indolylpropyl, and 19-octyl derivatives were the most potent compounds against Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania infantum, highlighting this approach as a valuable method for synthesizing austroeupatol derivatives as potential antiparasitic agents.

Ligand-Based Design of Selective Peptidomimetic uPA and TMPRSS2 Inhibitors with Arg Bioisosteres

Trypsin-like serine proteases are involved in many important physiological processes like blood coagulation and remodeling of the extracellular matrix. On the other hand, they are also associated with pathological conditions. The urokinase-pwlasminogen activator (uPA), which is involved in tissue remodeling, can increase the metastatic behavior of various cancer types when overexpressed and dysregulated. Another member of this protease class that received attention during the SARS-CoV 2 pandemic is TMPRSS2. It is a transmembrane serine protease, which enables cell entry of the coronavirus by processing its spike protein. A variety of different inhibitors have been published against both proteases. However, the selectivity over other trypsin-like serine proteases remains a major challenge. In the current study, we replaced the arginine moiety at the P1 site of peptidomimetic inhibitors with different bioisosteres. Enzyme inhibition studies revealed that the phenylguanidine moiety in the P1 site led to strong affinity for TMPRSS2, whereas the cyclohexylguanidine derivate potently inhibited uPA. Both inhibitors exhibited high selectivity over other structurally similar and physiologically important proteases.

Towards Effective Antiviral Oral Therapy: Development of a Novel Self-Double Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Improved Zanamivir Intestinal Permeability

Self-double emulsifying drug delivery systems have the potential to enhance the intestinal permeability of drugs classified under the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) class III. One such example is the antiviral agent zanamivir, exhibiting suboptimal oral absorption (with a bioavailability range of 1-5%). To address this challenge, we have developed an innovative oral formulation for zanamivir: a self-double nanoemulsifying Winsor delivery system (SDNE-WDS) consisting of the microemulsion, which subsequently yields final double nanoemulsion (W1/O/W2) upon interaction with water. Two distinct formulations were prepared: SDNE-WDS1, classified as a W/O microemulsion, and SDNE-WDS2, discovered to be a bicontinuous microemulsion. The inner microemulsions displayed a consistent radius of gyration, with an average size of 35.1 ± 2.1 nm. Following self-emulsification, the resultant zanamivir-loaded nanoemulsion droplets for zSDNE-WDS1 and zSDNE-WDS2 measured 542.1 ± 36.1 and 174.4 ± 3.4 nm, respectively. Both types of emulsions demonstrated the ability to enhance the transport of zanamivir across a parallel artificial membrane. Additionally, in situ rat intestinal perfusion studies involving drug-loaded SDNE-WDSs revealed a significantly increased permeability of zanamivir through the small intestinal wall. Notably, both SDNE-WDS formulations exhibited effective permeability (Peff) values that were 3.5-5.5-fold higher than those of the low/high permeability boundary marker metoprolol. This research emphasizes the success of SDNE-WDSs in overcoming intestinal permeability barriers and enabling the effective oral administration of zanamivir. These findings hold promise for advancing the development of efficacious oral administration of BCS class III drugs.

Transition Metal Catalysis in Living Cells: Progress, Challenges, and Novel Supramolecular Solutions

The importance of transition metal catalysis is exemplified by its wide range of applications, for example in the synthesis of chemicals, natural products, and pharmaceuticals. However, one relatively new application is for carrying out new-to-nature reactions inside living cells. The complex environment of a living cell is not welcoming to transition metal catalysts, as a diverse range of biological components have the potential to inhibit or deactivate the catalyst. Here we review the current progress in the field of transition metal catalysis, and evaluation of catalysis efficiency in living cells and under biological (relevant) conditions. Catalyst poisoning is a ubiquitous problem in this field, and we propose that future research into the development of physical and kinetic protection strategies may provide a route to improve the reactivity of catalysts in cells.

Current screening, design, and delivery approaches to address low permeability of chemically synthesized modalities in drug discovery and early clinical development

A drug's permeability across biological membranes is a key property associated with the successful development of an orally absorbed drug candidate. Although a variety of methods are available for predicting and assessing permeability, some are more preferred than others at specific stages of drug discovery and development across the pharmaceutical industry. Permeability measurements may be interpreted differently depending on the chosen method. Herein, we present a refreshed perspective on the screening approaches and philosophy in permeability evaluation, from early drug discovery to early clinical development. Additionally, we review and discuss chemical design and drug delivery technologies that can be leveraged to overcome permeability challenges, which are increasingly being used with emerging modalities.

Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems: A versatile approach to enhance the oral delivery of BCS class III drug via hydrophobic ion pairing

Biopharmaceutical classification systems (BCS) class III drugs belongs to a group of drugs with high solubility in gastrointestinal (GI) fluids and low membrane permeability result in significantly low bioavailability. Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) considered a suitable candidate to enhance the bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs by improving their membrane permeability, however, incorporating hydrophilic drugs in to these carriers remained a great challenge. The aim of this study was to develop hydrophobic ion pairs (HIPs) of a model BCS class-III drug tobramycin (TOB) in order to incorporate into SEDDS and improve its bioavailability. HIPs of TOB were formulated using anionic surfactants sodium docusate (DOC) and sodium dodecanoate (DOD). The efficiency of HIPs was estimated by measuring the concentration of formed complexes in water, zeta potential determination and log P value evaluation. Solubility studies of HIPs of TOB with DOC were accomplished to screen the suitable excipients for SEDDS development. Consequently, HIPs of TOB with DOC were loaded into SEDDS and assessed the log DSEDDS/release medium and dissociation of these complexes at different intestinal pH over time. Moreover, cytotoxic potential of HIPs of TOB and HIPs loaded SEDDS formulations was evaluated. HIPs of TOB with DOC exhibited the maximum precipitation efficiency at a stoichiometric ratio of 1:5. Log P of HIPs of TOB improved up to 1500-fold compared to free TOB. Zeta potential of TOB was shifted from positive to negative during hydrophobic ion pairing (HIP). HIPs of TOB with DOC was loaded at a concentration of 1% (w/v) into SEDDS formulations. Log DSEDDS/release medium of loaded complexes in to oily droplets was above 2 and dissociated up to 20% at various pH within 4 h. Finding of this study suggested that improvement of the lipophilic character of BCS class-III drugs followed by incorporation into oily droplets can be deliberated as a promising tool to enhance the permeation across biological membranes.

Enzymatic synthesis of amlodipine amides and evaluation of their anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activity

Advancing with our project about the development of new antiparasitic agents, we have enzymatically synthesized a series of amides derived from amlodipine, a calcium channel blocker used as an antihypertensive drug. Through lipase-catalyzed acylation with different carboxylic acids, nineteen amlodipine derivatives were obtained, eighteen of which were new compounds. To optimize the reaction conditions, the influence of several reaction parameters was analyzed, finding different requisites for aliphatic carboxylic acids and phenylacetic acids. All synthesized compounds were evaluated as antiproliferative agents against Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of American trypanosomiasis (Chagas' disease). Some of them showed significant activity against the amastigote form of T. cruzi, the clinically relevant form of the parasite. Among synthesized compounds, the derivatives of myristic and linolenic acids showed higher efficacy and lower cytotoxicity. These results added to the advantages shown by the enzymatic methodology, such as mild reaction conditions and low environmental impact, making this approach a valuable way to synthesize these amlodipine derivatives with an application as promising antiparasitic agents.

In vitro-in vivo correlation in nanocarriers: From protein corona to therapeutic implications

Understanding and establishing a link between the physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles (NPs) and their biological interactions poses to be a great challenge in the field of nanotherapeutics. Recent analytical advancements concerning bio-nanointerfaces have accelerated the quest to comprehend the fate of nanocarrier systems in vivo. Scientists have discovered that protein corona, an adsorbed layer of biomolecules on the surface of NPs takes a leading part in interacting with cells and in the cellular uptake process, thereby determining the in vivo behaviour of NPs. Another useful method to assess the in vivo fate of NPs is by performing dissolution testing. This forms the basis for in vitro in vivo correlation (IVIVC), relating in vitro dissolution of NPs and their in vivo properties. Scientists are continuously directing their efforts towards establishing IVIVC for different nanocarrier systems while concurrently gaining insights into protein corona. This review primarily summarizes the importance of protein corona and its interaction with nanoparticles. It also gives an insight into the factors affecting the interaction and various in vitro dissolution media used for varied nanocarrier systems. The article concludes with a discussion of the limitations of IVIVC modelling and its position from a regulatory perspective.

Drug-dendrimer complexes and conjugates: Detailed furtherance through theory and experiments

Dendritic nanovectors-based drug delivery has gained significant attention in the past couple of decades. Dendrimers play a crucial role in deciding the solubility of sparingly soluble drug molecules and help in improving pharmacokinetics. A few important steps in drug delivery through dendrimers, such as drug encapsulation, formulation, and target-specific delivery, play an important role in deciding the fate of a drug molecule. It is also of prime importance to understand the interactions between a drug molecule and dendrimers at atomistic levels to decode the mechanism of action of drug-dendrimer complexes and their reliability in terms of drug delivery. Colossal progress in current experimental and computational approaches in the field has resulted in a vast amount of data that needs to be curated to be further implemented efficiently. Improved computational power has led to greater accuracy and prompt predictions of properties of drug-dendrimer complexes and their mechanism of action. The current review encapsulates the pioneering work in the field, experimental achievements in terms of drug delivery, and newer computational techniques employed in the advancement of the field.

Engineering of small-molecule lipidic prodrugs as novel nanomedicines for enhanced drug delivery

A widely established prodrug strategy can effectively optimize the unappealing properties of therapeutic agents in cancer treatment. Among them, lipidic prodrugs extremely uplift the physicochemical properties, site-specificity, and antitumor activities of therapeutic agents while reducing systemic toxicity. Although great perspectives have been summarized in the progress of prodrug-based nanoplatforms, no attention has been paid to emphasizing the rational design of small-molecule lipidic prodrugs (SLPs). With the aim of outlining the prospect of the SLPs approach, the review will first provide an overview of conjugation strategies that are amenable to SLPs fabrication. Then, the rational design of SLPs in response to the physiological barriers of chemotherapeutic agents is highlighted. Finally, their biomedical applications are also emphasized with special functions, followed by a brief introduction of the promising opportunities and potential challenges of SLPs-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) in clinical application.

Graphical Abstract

Increasing membrane permeability of carboxylic acid-containing drugs using synthetic transmembrane anion transporters

In this manuscript, we show that small-molecule-based anion transporters can significantly increase the permeability of carboxylic acid containing drugs across lipid bilayers of model vesicles. Due to the drug-like characteristics of the transporters, this finding could not only have implications for drug delivery, but also hints towards potential drug-drug and drug-food interactions.

In vitro dissolution considerations associated with nano drug delivery systems

Nano drug delivery systems (NDDS) offer promising solution for the translation of future nanomedicines. As bioavailability and therapeutic outcomes can be improved by altering the drug release from these NDDS, it becomes essential to thoroughly understand their drug release kinetics. Moreover, U.S. Food and Drug Administration requires critical evaluation of potential safety, efficacy, and public health impacts of nanomaterials. Spiraling up market share of NDDS has also stimulated the pharmaceutical industry to develop their cost-effective generic versions after the expiry of patent and associated exclusivity. However, unlike the conventional dosage forms, the in vivo disposition of NDDS is highly intricate and different from their in vitro behavior. Significant challenges exist in the establishment of in vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC) due to incomplete understanding of nanoparticles' in vivo biofate and its impact on in vitro experimental protocols. A rational design of dissolution may serve as quality and quantity control tool and help develop a meaningful IVIVC for favorable economic implications. Clinically relevant drug product specifications (critical quality attributes) can be identified by establishing a link between in vitro performance and in vivo exposure. In vitro dissolution may also play a pivotal role to understand the dissolution-mediated clearance and safety of NDDS. Prevalent in vitro dissolution methods for NDDS and their limitations are discussed in this review, among which USP 4 is gaining more interest recently. Researchers are working diligently to develop biorelevant in vitro release assays to ensure optimal therapeutic performance of generic versions of these NDDS. This article focuses on these studies and presents important considerations for the future development of clinically relevant in vitro release methods. This article is categorized under: Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Regulatory and Policy Issues in Nanomedicine.

Investigation on Potential of Chitosan Nanoparticles for Oral Bioavailability Enhancement of Risedronate Sodium

Risedronate sodium (RS) is used in osteoporosis for bone reabsorption. It is a BCS class III drug having poor oral bioavailability (<0.63%) due to low permeability. In the present study, RS-loaded chitosan nanoparticles were developed to increase oral bioavailability and evaluated for various parameters. The DSC study indicated compatibility of RS with excipients in their physical mixture. The nanoparticles were prepared by ionotropic gelation technique and lyophilized. The optimized batch (RS-CNs) was found to have particles of size 268.7 nm and zeta potential of 24.9 mV. The TEM image of RS-CNs revealed discrete spherical particles. Angle of repose of 27.02 indicates good flow property of nanoparticles. FT-IR spectra of RS-CNs showed characteristic peaks of RS indicating compatibility of RS with the excipients. The mucin binding efficiency of RS-CNs was obtained as 63.42%. The in vitro release study of RS indicated controlled delivery from RS-CNs over 22 h. The release mechanism was found to be diffusion- and erosion-controlled release. Ex vivo study using rat intestine revealed faster permeation of 32.78% in 6 h from RS-CNs compared to plain drug solution. In vivo pharmacokinetic study in rats showed increased C_max (1.8 fold) from RS-CNs compared to marketed formulation. The relative bioavailability of 193% from RS-CNs indicated significant enhancement in bioavailability upon nanoparticle formulation. The RS-CNs were found to be stable at room and refrigerated conditions. In conclusion, developed RS-loaded chitosan nanoparticles seem to be a promising approach to increase oral bioavailability and can avoid upper GI tract side effects.

The influence of the gut microbiota on the bioavailability of oral drugs

Due to its safety, convenience, low cost and good compliance, oral administration attracts lots of attention. However, the efficacy of many oral drugs is limited to their unsatisfactory bioavailability in the gastrointestinal tract. One of the critical and most overlooked factors is the symbiotic gut microbiota that can modulate the bioavailability of oral drugs by participating in the biotransformation of oral drugs, influencing the drug transport process and altering some gastrointestinal properties. In this review, we summarized the existing research investigating the possible relationship between the gut microbiota and the bioavailability of oral drugs, which may provide great ideas and useful instructions for the design of novel drug delivery systems or the achievement of personalized medicine.

Nanoparticles that do not compete with endogenous ligands - Molecular characterization in vitro, acute safety in canine, and interspecies pharmacokinetics modeling to humans

A vast majority, if not all of the receptor-mediated drug delivery systems utilize nanoparticles that are conjugated to physiological mimic ligands, with testing restricted to in vitro and rodent models. In this report, we present for the first time, a full spectrum characterization of transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1)-targeted polymeric nanoparticles (abbreviated, P2Ns-GA) that do not compete with endogenous transferrin, and serve as a versatile platform for oral drug delivery. Based on endocytosis inhibitors and receptor knockdown, the cellular uptake of P2Ns-GA is clathrin-mediated and dependent on TfR1 expression, but other trafficking mechanisms, particularly those involving caveolae/lipid rafts, can also play a role. The utility of P2Ns-GA in promoting the oral bioavailability of encapsulated compounds is demonstrated with a hydrophobic polyphenol, urolithin A (UA). When compared against plain UA or UA in ligand-free nanoparticles, UA-loaded P2Ns-GA led to markedly higher plasma concentrations among healthy canines, with no adverse health effects observed after oral dosing. Finally, a semi-mechanistic pharmacokinetic model was developed using both rat and dog datasets to quantitatively evaluate the effect of P2Ns-GA on oral bioavailability of UA. The model was allometrically scaled to humans to simulate clinical pharmacokinetics of plain UA and UA-loaded P2Ns-GA following oral administration.

Bile acid transporter-mediated oral drug delivery

Bile acids are synthesized in the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and secreted into the duodenum at meals. Apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT), an ileal Na⁺-dependent transporter, plays the leading role of bile acid absorption into enterocytes, where bile acids are delivered to basolateral side by ileal bile acid binding protein (IBABP) and then released by organic solute transporter OSTα/β. The absorbed bile acids are delivered to the liver via portal vein. In this process called "enterohepatic recycling", only 5% of the bile acid pool (~3 g in human) is excreted in feces, indicating the large recycling capacity and high transport efficacy of ASBT-mediated absorption. Therefore, bile acid transporter-mediated oral drug delivery has been regarded as a feasible and potential strategy to improve the oral bioavailability. This review introduces the key factors in enterohepatic recycling, especially the mechanism of bile acid uptake by ASBT, and the development of bile acid-based oral drug delivery for ASBT-targeting, including bile acid-based prodrugs, bile acid/drug electrostatic complexation and bile acid-containing nanocarriers. Furthermore, the specific transport pathways of bile acid in enterocytes are described and the recent finding of lymphatic delivery of bile acid-containing nanocarriers is discussed.

Intestinal transport mechanism and in vivo anticancer efficacy of a solid oral formulation incorporating an ion-pairing complex of pemetrexed with deoxycholic acid derivative

Objective

The rational combination of immunotherapy with standard chemotherapy shows synergistic clinical activities in cancer treatment. In the present study, an oral powder formulation of pemetrexed (PMX) was developed to enhance intestinal membrane permeability and investigate its application in metronomic chemotherapy in combination with immunotherapy.

Methods

PMX was ionically complexed with a bile acid derivative (N^α-deoxycholyl-l-lysyl-methylester; DCK) as a permeation enhancer and mixed with dispersing agents, such as poloxamer 188 (P188) and Labrasol, to form an amorphous oral powder formulation of PMX/DCK (PMX/DCK-OP).

Results

The apparent permeability (P_app) of PMX/DCK-OP across a Caco-2 cell monolayer was 2.46- and 8.26-fold greater than that of PMX/DCK and free PMX, respectively, which may have been due to the specific interaction of DCK with bile acid transporters, as well as the alteration of membrane fluidity due to Labrasol and P188. Furthermore, inhibition of bile acid transporters by actinomycin D in Caco-2 cell monolayers decreased the P_app of PMX/DCK-OP by 75.4%, suggesting a predominant role of bile acid transporters in the intestinal absorption of PMX/DCK-OP. In addition, caveola/lipid raft-dependent endocytosis, macropinocytosis, passive diffusion, and paracellular transport mechanisms significantly influenced the permeation of PMX/DCK-OP through the intestinal membrane. Therefore, the oral bioavailability of PMX/DCK-OP in rats was 19.8%±6.93%, which was 294% higher than that of oral PMX. Moreover, an in vivo anticancer efficacy study in B16F10 cell-bearing mice treated with a combination of oral PMX/DCK-OP and intraperitoneal anti-PD1 exhibited significant suppression of tumor growth, and the tumor volume was maximally inhibited by 2.03- and 3.16-fold compared to the oral PMX/DCK-OP and control groups, respectively.

Conclusion

These findings indicated the therapeutic potential of a combination of low-dose oral chemotherapy and immunotherapy for synergistic anticancer efficacy.

Synthesis and Physicochemical Evaluation of Entecavir-Fatty Acid Conjugates in Reducing Food Effect on Intestinal Absorption

The oral bioavailability of entecavir (EV), an anti-viral agent commonly prescribed to treat hepatitis B infections, is drastically reduced under a post-prandial state. This is primarily due to its low permeability in the gastrointestinal tract. To reduce the food effect on the intestinal absorption of the nucleotide analogue, four lipidic prodrugs were synthesized via the esterification of the primary alcohol of EV with fatty acids (hexanoic acid, octanoic acid, decanoic acid, and dodecanoic acid). EV-3-dodecanoate (or EV-C12) exhibited high solubility in a fed state simulated intestinal fluid (78.8 μg/mL), with the acceptable calculated logP value (3.62) and the lowest hydrolysis rate (22.5% for 12 h in simulated gastric fluid, pH 1.2). Therefore, it was chosen as a candidate to improve intestinal absorption of EV, especially under a fed state condition. Physical characterization using scanning electron microscopy, a differential scanning calorimeter, and X-ray powder diffraction revealed that EV-C12 had a rectangular-shaped crystalline form, with a melting point of about 170 °C. In a release test in biorelevant media, such as fasted and fed state-simulated intestinal and/or gastric fluid, more than 90% of the prodrug was released within 2 h in all media tested. These data suggest that this lipidic prodrug might have the potential to alleviate the negative food effect on the intestinal absorption of EV with increased therapeutic efficacy and patient compliance.