Nanostructured lipid carriers engineered for intranasal delivery of teriflunomide in multiple sclerosis: optimization and in vivo studies

Leflunomide nanocarriers: a new prospect of therapeutic applications

Leflunomide (LEF) is a well-known disease-modifying anti-rheumatic agent (DMARDs) that was approved in 1998 for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) management. It is enzymatically converted into active metabolite teriflunomide (TER) inside the body. LEF and TER possess several pharmacological effects in a variety of diseases including multiple sclerosis, cancer, viral infections and neurobehavioral brain disorders. Despite the aforementioned pharmacological effects exploring these effects in nanomedicine applications has been focused mainly on RA and cancer treatment. This review summarises the main pharmacological, and pharmacokinetic effects of LEF along with highlighting the applications of nanoencapsulation of LEF and its metabolite in different diseases.

Nose to Brain: Exploring the Progress of Intranasal Delivery of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

The intranasal (IN) route of drug delivery can effectively penetrate the blood-brain barrier and deliver drugs directly to the brain for the treatment of central nervous system (CNS) disorders via intra-neuronal or extra-neuronal pathways. This approach has several advantages, including avoidance of first-pass metabolism, high bioavailability, ease of administration, and improved patient compliance. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have been conducted using drugs encapsulated in solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), and delivering them to the brain via the IN pathway. SLNs are the first-generation solid lipid nanocarriers, known for their excellent biocompatibility, high drug-loading capacity, and remarkable stability. NLCs, regarded as the second-generation SLNs, not only retain the advantages of SLNs but also exhibit enhanced stability, effectively preventing drug leakage during storage. In this review, we examined in vivo studies conducted between 2019 and 2024 that used SLNs and NLCs to address CNS disorders via the IN route. By using statistical methods to evaluate pharmacokinetic parameters, we found that IN delivery of SLNs and NLCs markedly enhanced drug accumulation and targeting within the brain. Additionally, pharmacodynamic evaluations indicated that this delivery method substantially improved the therapeutic effectiveness of the drugs in alleviating symptoms in rat models of CNS diseases. In addition, methods for enhancing the efficacy of nose-to-brain delivery of SLNs and NLCs are discussed, as well as advances in clinical trials regarding SLNs and NLCs.

Impact of calcitriol and PGD2-G-loaded lipid nanocapsules on oligodendrocyte progenitor cell differentiation and remyelination

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating and inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) in need of a curative treatment. MS research has recently focused on the development of pro-remyelinating treatments and neuroprotective therapies. Here, we aimed at favoring remyelination and reducing neuro-inflammation in a cuprizone mouse model of brain demyelination using nanomedicines. We have selected lipid nanocapsules (LNC) coated with the cell-penetrating peptide transactivator of translation (TAT), loaded with either a pro-remyelinating compound, calcitriol (Cal-LNC TAT), or an anti-inflammatory bioactive lipid, prostaglandin D2-glycerol ester (PGD2-G) (PGD2-G-LNC TAT). Following the characterization of these formulations, we showed that Cal-LNC TAT in combination with PGD2-G-LNC TAT increased the mRNA expression of oligodendrocyte differentiation markers both in the CG-4 cell line and in primary mixed glial cell (MGC) cultures. However, while the combination of Cal-LNC TAT and PGD2-G-LNC TAT showed promising results in vitro, no significant impact, in terms of remyelination, astrogliosis, and microgliosis, was observed in vivo in the corpus callosum of cuprizone-treated mice following intranasal administration. Thus, although calcitriol's beneficial effects have been abundantly described in the literature in the context of MS, here, we show that the different doses of calcitriol tested had a negative impact on the mice well-being and showed no beneficial effect in the cuprizone model in terms of remyelination and neuro-inflammation, alone and when combined with PGD2-G-LNC TAT.

Nano-based approaches for the treatment of neuro-immunological disorders: a special emphasis on multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neuroimmunological disorder which causes axonal damage, demyelination and paralysis. Although numerous therapeutics have been developed for the effective treatment of MS and a few have been approved in recent decades, complete remission and treatment of MS remain a matter of concern. Nanotechnology is a potential approach for manipulating the properties of materials at the molecular level to attain desired properties. This approach is effective in the treatment of several CNS disorders by enhancing drug delivery, bioavailability and efficacy. We have briefly discussed the neuroimmunological disorders with a particular emphasis on MS. We also explored nanoengineered drug delivery systems, describing several nano-formulations for the treatment of MS, challenges and future of nanotechnology.

Liposome-Assisted Drug Delivery in the Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated demyelinating disease of the nervous system that leads to neurological dysfunctions and severe disabilities. It is worth noting that conventional pharmacotherapy is poorly selective and causes toxicity problems and several systemic side effects. Thus, there is a need to develop new approaches to this medical challenge. The use of nanocarriers for drug delivery represents a good strategy to overcome several issues such as high therapeutic drug doses with side effects, such as diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal pain, and drug degradation processes; in addition, nanocarriers can provide controlled and targeted drug release. This review describes the application of liposomes for the delivery of pharmaceutical actives to target MS. Firstly, MS is explained. Then, liposomes are described along with their preparation, characterization, and stability. The literature about the use of liposomes for the treatment of MS is then analyzed.

Neurodegenerative disorders: Mechanisms of degeneration and therapeutic approaches with their clinical relevance

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) are expected to pose a significant challenge for both medicine and public health in the upcoming years due to global demographic changes. NDs are mainly represented by degeneration/loss of neurons, which is primarily accountable for severe mental illness. This neuronal degeneration leads to many neuropsychiatric problems and permanent disability in an individual. Moreover, the tight junction of the brain, blood-brain barrier (BBB)has a protective feature, functioning as a biological barrier that can prevent medicines, toxins, and foreign substances from entering the brain. However, delivering any medicinal agent to the brain in NDs (i.e., Multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, etc.) is enormously challenging. There are many approved therapies to address NDs, but most of them only help treat the associated manifestations. The available therapies have failed to control the progression of NDs due to certain factors, i.e., BBB and drug-associated undesirable effects. NDs have extremely complex pathology, with many pathogenic mechanisms involved in the initiation and progression; thereby, a limited survival rate has been observed in ND patients. Hence, understanding the exact mechanism behind NDs is crucial to developing alternative approaches for improving ND patients' survival rates. Thus, the present review sheds light on different cellular mechanisms involved in NDs and novel therapeutic approaches with their clinical relevance, which will assist researchers in developing alternate strategies to address the limitations of conventional ND therapies. The current work offers the scope into the near future to improve the therapeutic approach of NDs.

Assembly of In-Situ Gel Containing Nano-Spanlastics of an Angiotensin II Inhibitor as a Novel Epitome for Hypertension Management: Factorial Design Optimization, In-vitro Gauging, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics Appraisal

More than 1 billion people worldwide suffer from hypertension; therefore, hypertension management has been categorized as a global health priority. Losartan potassium (LP) is an antihypertensive drug with a limited oral bioavailability of about 33% since it undergoes the initial metabolic cycle. Thus, nasal administration is a unique route to overcome first-pass metabolism. The investigation focused on the potential effects of LP-loaded spanlastic vesicles (SNVs) on LP pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic parameters, utilizing a thin-film hydration methodology established on a 3122 full factorial design. Entrapment efficiency (EE%) ranged from 39.8 ± 3.87.8 to 83.8 ± 2.92% for LP-SNVs. Vesicle size (VS) varied from 205.5 ± 6.5.10 to 445.1 ± 13.52 nm, and the percentage of LP released after 8 h (Q8h) ranged from 30.8 ± 3.10 to 68.8 ± 1.45%. LP permeated through the nasal mucosa during 24 h and flocculated from 194.1 ± 4.90 to 435.3 ± 13.53 µg/cm2. After twenty-four hours, the optimal LP-SNVs in-situ gel showed 2.35 times more permeation through the nasal mucosa than the LP solution. It also lowered systolic blood pressure, so it is thought to be better than the reference formulation in terms of pharmacodynamics. The pharmacokinetics studies demonstrated that the intranasal LP-SNVs gel boosted its bioavailability approximately 6.36 times compared to the oral LP solution. Our research showed that intranasal LP-SNVs could be a good nanoplatform because they are well-tolerated and have possible pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.

Mucoadhesive chitosan-poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles for intranasal delivery of quetiapine - Development & characterization in physiologically relevant 3D tissue models

Quetiapine hemifumarate (QF) delivery to the CNS via conventional formulations is challenging due to poor solubility and lower oral bioavailability (9 %). Similarly, many other second-generation antipsychotics, such as olanzapine, clozapine, and paliperidone, have also shown low oral bioavailability of <50 %. Hence, the present work was intended to formulate QF-loaded biodegradable PLGA-NPs with appropriate surface charge modification through poloxamer-chitosan and investigate its targeting potential on RPMI-2650 cell lines to overcome the limitations of conventional therapies. QF-loaded poloxamer-chitosan-PLGA in-situ gel (QF-PLGA-ISG) was designed using emulsification and solvent evaporation techniques. Developed QF-PLGA-ISG were subjected to evaluation for particle size, PDI, zeta potential, ex-vivo mucoadhesion, entrapment efficiency (%EE), and drug loading, which revealed 162.2 nm, 0.124, +20.5 mV, 52.4 g, 77.5 %, and 9.7 %, respectively. Additionally, QF-PLGA formulation showed >90 % release within 12 h compared to 80 % of QF-suspension, demonstrating that the surfactant with chitosan-poloxamer polymers could sustainably release medicine across the membrane. Ex-vivo hemolysis study proved that developed PLGA nanoparticles did not cause any hemolysis compared to negative control. Further, in-vitro cellular uptake and transepithelial permeation were assessed using the RPMI-2650 nasal epithelial cell line. QF-PLGA-ISG not only improved intracellular uptake but also demonstrated a 1.5-2-fold increase in QF transport across RPMI-2650 epithelial monolayer. Further studies in the EpiNasal™ 3D nasal tissue model confirmed the safety and efficacy of the developed QF-PLGA-ISG formulation with up to a 4-fold increase in transport compared to plain QF after 4 h. Additionally, histological reports demonstrated the safety of optimized formulation. Finally, favorable outcomes of IN QF-PLGA-ISG formulation could provide a novel platform for safe and effective delivery of QF in schizophrenic patients.

Navigating the Nose-to-Brain Route: A Systematic Review on Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Central Nervous System Disorders

Background: The blood–brain barrier (BBB) regulates brain substance entry, posing challenges for treating brain diseases. Traditional methods face limitations, leading to the exploration of non-invasive intranasal drug delivery. This approach exploits the direct nose-to-brain connection, overcoming BBB restrictions. Intranasal delivery enhances drug bioavailability, reduces dosage, and minimizes systemic side effects. Notably, lipid nanoparticles, such as solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers, offer advantages like improved stability and controlled release. Their nanoscale size facilitates efficient drug loading, enhancing solubility and bioavailability. Tailored lipid compositions enable optimal drug release, which is crucial for chronic brain diseases. This review assesses lipid nanoparticles in treating neuro-oncological and neurodegenerative conditions, providing insights for effective nose-to-brain drug delivery. Methods: A systematic search was conducted across major medical databases (PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, and Scopus) up to 6 January 2024. The search strategy utilized relevant Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) terms and keywords related to “lipid nanoparticles”, “intranasal administration”, “neuro-oncological diseases”, and “neurodegenerative disorders”. This review consists of studies in vitro, in vivo, or ex vivo on the intranasal administration of lipid-based nanocarriers for the treatment of brain diseases. Results: Out of the initial 891 papers identified, 26 articles met the eligibility criteria after a rigorous analysis. The exclusion of 360 articles was due to reasons such as irrelevance, non-reporting selected outcomes, the article being a systematic literature review or meta-analysis, and lack of method/results details. This systematic literature review, focusing on nose-to-brain drug delivery via lipid-based nanocarriers for neuro-oncological, neurodegenerative, and other brain diseases, encompassed 60 studies. A temporal distribution analysis indicated a peak in research interest between 2018 and 2020 (28.3%), with a steady increase over time. Regarding drug categories, Alzheimer’s disease was prominent (26.7%), followed by antiblastic drugs (25.0%). Among the 65 drugs investigated, Rivastigmine, Doxorubicin, and Carmustine were the most studied (5.0%), showcasing a diverse approach to neurological disorders. Notably, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were predominant (65.0%), followed by nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) (28.3%), highlighting their efficacy in intranasal drug delivery. Various lipids were employed, with glyceryl monostearate being prominent (20.0%), indicating preferences in formulation. Performance assessment assays were balanced, with in vivo studies taking precedence (43.3%), emphasizing the translation of findings to complex biological systems for potential clinical applications. Conclusions: This systematic review reveals the transformative potential of intranasal lipid nanoparticles in treating brain diseases, overcoming the BBB. Positive outcomes highlight the effectiveness of SLNs and NLCs, which are promising new approaches for ailments from AD to stroke and gliomas. While celebrating progress, addressing challenges like nanoparticle toxicity is also crucial.

Potential biomaterials and experimental animal models for inventing new drug delivery approaches in the neurodegenerative disorder: Multiple sclerosis

The tight junction of endothelial cells in the central nervous system (CNS) has an ideal characteristic, acting as a biological barrier that can securely regulate the movement of molecules in the brain. Tightly closed astrocyte cell junctions on blood capillaries are the blood-brain barrier (BBB). This biological barrier prohibits the entry of polar drugs, cells, and ions, which protect the brain from harmful toxins. However, delivering any therapeutic agent to the brain in neurodegenerative disorders (i.e., schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, etc.) is extremely difficult. Active immune responses such as microglia, astrocytes, and lymphocytes cross the BBB and attack the nerve cells, which causes the demyelination of neurons. Therefore, there is a hindrance in transmitting electrical signals properly, resulting in blindness, paralysis, and neuropsychiatric problems. The main objective of this article is to shed light on the performance of biomaterials, which will help researchers to create nanocarriers that can cross the blood-brain barrier and achieve a therapeutic concentration of drugs in the CNS of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). The present review focuses on the importance of biomaterials with diagnostic and therapeutic efficacy that can help enhance multiple sclerosis therapeutic potential. Currently, the development of MS in animal models is limited by immune responses, which prevent MS induction in healthy animals. Therefore, this article also showcases animal models currently used for treating MS. A future advance in developing a novel effective strategy for treating MS is now a potential area of research.

Nano Lipid Carriers as a Promising Drug Delivery Carrier for Neurodegenerative Disorders - An Overview of Recent Advances

The last few decades have seen a rise in the number of deaths caused by neurological disorders. The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which is very complex and has multiple mechanisms, makes drug delivery to the brain challenging for many scientists. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) such as nanoemulsions, solid-lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, and nano lipid carriers (NLCs) exhibit enhanced bioavailability and flexibility among these nanocarriers. NLCs are found to be very effective. In the last few decades, they have been a center of attraction for controlled drug delivery. According to the current global status of specific neurological disorders, out of all LNPs, NLC significantly reduces the cross-permeability of drugs through the BBB due to their peculiar properties. They offer a host of advantages over other carriers because of their biocompatibility, safety, non-toxicity, non-irritating behavior, stability, high encapsulation efficiency, high drug loading, high drug targeting, control of drug release, and ease in manufacturing. The biocompatible lipid matrix is ideally suited as a drug carrier system due to the nano-size range. For certain neurological conditions such as Parkinsonism, Alzheimer's, Epilepsy, Multiple sclerosis, and Brain cancer, we examined recent advances in NLCs to improve brain targeting of bioactive with special attention to formulation aspects and pharmacokinetic characteristics. This article also provides a brief overview of a critical approach for brain targeting, i.e., direct nose-to-brain drug delivery and some recent patents published on NLC".

Nanomaterials in Targeting Cancer Cells with Nanotherapeutics: Transitioning Towards Responsive Systems

On a global scale, cancer is a difficult and devastating illness. Several problems with current chemotherapies include cytotoxicity, lack of selectivity, stem-like cell growth, and multi-drug resistance. The most appropriate nanomaterials for cancer treatment are those with characteristics, such as cytotoxicity, restricted specificity, and drug capacity and bioavailability; these materials are nanosized (1-100 nm). Nanodrugs are rarely licenced for therapeutic use despite growing research. These compounds need nanocarrier-targeted drug delivery experiments to improve their translation. This review describes new nanomaterials reported in the literature, impediments to their clinical studies, and their beneficial cancer therapeutic use. It also suggests ways to use nanomaterials in cancer therapy more efficiently and describes the intrinsic challenges of cancer treatment and the different nanocarriers and chemicals that can be utilised for specified tumour targeting. Furthermore, it provides a concise overview of cancer theranostics methods, with a focus on those that make use of nanomaterials. Although nanotechnology offers a great source for future advancements in cancer detection and therapy, there is an emerging need for more studies to address the present barriers to clinical translation.

A Nanoemulgel for Nose-to-Brain delivery of Quetiapine - QbD-Enabled formulation development & in-vitro characterization

Second-generation antipsychotics, quetiapine hemifumarate (QF), exhibited highly active against negative and positive signs of psychosis. However, contemporary reports have shown that long-term therapy with QF causes lethal thrombocytopenia and leukopenia. Hence, to circumvent the drawbacks of available therapies, the current work aimed to design a QF-loaded biodegradable nanoemulsion (QF-NE) with suitable surface charge modification by poloxamer-chitosan and evaluate its targeting efficiency against RPMI-2650 cell lines. QF-loaded poloxamer-chitosan in-situ gel (QF-Nanoemulgel) was formulated through the O/W emulsification aqueous titration technique and optimized using the QbD approach. Optimized QF-Nanoemulgel subjected to evaluate for globule size, PDI, zeta potential, %T, viscosity, %EE, and ex-vivo mucoadhesive strength were found to be 15.0 ± 0.3 nm, 0.05 ± 0.001, -18.3 ± 0.2 mV, 99.8 ± 0.8 %, 13.5 ± 2.1 cP, 69.0 ± 1.5 %, and 43.7 ± 1.5 g, respectively. QF-Nanoemulgel revealed sustained release and obeyed zero-order kinetics compared to QF-NE and QF-suspension. Additionally, nanoformulations treated blood samples did not cause hemolytic activity compared to drug and negative control after 10 h treatment. Further, in-vitro cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, and permeation of 12.5 and 25 μM QF-Nanoemulgel were assessed on RPMI-2650 cells and discovered nontoxic with 0.55 ± 0.02 µg and 1.1 ± 0.04 µg cellular permeation, respectively, which ensured the safety and potency of QF-Nanogel. Current research revealed the successful development of intranasal QF-Nanoemulgel as a novel dosage form for the safe and effective delivery of QF in schizophrenia patients.

Innovative drug delivery strategies to the CNS for the treatment of multiple sclerosis

Disorders of the central nervous system (CNS), such as multiple sclerosis (MS) represent a great emotional, financial and social burden. Despite intense efforts, great unmet medical needs remain in that field. MS is an autoimmune, chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease with no curative treatment up to date. The current therapies mostly act in the periphery and seek to modulate aberrant immune responses as well as slow down the progression of the disease. Some of these therapies are associated with adverse effects related partly to their administration route and show some limitations due to their rapid clearance and inability to reach the CNS. The scientific community have recently focused their research on developing MS therapies targeting different processes within the CNS. However, delivery of therapeutics to the CNS is mainly limited by the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Therefore, there is a pressing need to develop new drug delivery strategies that ensure CNS availability to capitalize on identified therapeutic targets. Several approaches have been developed to overcome or bypass the BBB and increase delivery of therapeutics to the CNS. Among these strategies, the use of alternative routes of administration, such as the nose-to-brain (N2B) pathway, offers a promising non-invasive option in the scope of MS, as it would allow a direct transport of the drugs from the nasal cavity to the brain. Moreover, the combination of bioactive molecules within nanocarriers bring forth new opportunities for MS therapies, allowing and/or increasing their transport to the CNS. Here we will review and discuss these alternative administration routes as well as the nanocarrier approaches useful to deliver drugs for MS.

Reconsidering the route of drug delivery in refractory multiple sclerosis: Toward a more effective drug accumulation in the central nervous system

Multiple sclerosis is a chronic demyelinating disease with different disease phenotypes. The current FDA-approved disease-modifying therapeutics (DMTs) cannot cure the disease, but only alleviate the disease progression. While the majority of patients respond well to treatment, some of them are suffering from rapid progression. Current drug delivery strategies include the oral, intravenous, subdermal, and intramuscular routes, so these drugs are delivered systemically, which is appropriate when the therapeutic targets are peripheral. However, the potential benefits may be diminished when these targets sequester behind the barriers of the central nervous system. Moreover, systemic drug administration is plagued with adverse effects, sometimes severe. In this context, it is prudent to consider other drug delivery strategies improving their accumulation in the brain, thus providing better prospects for patients with rapidly progressing disease course. These targeted drug delivery strategies may also reduce the severity of systemic adverse effects. Here, we discuss the possibilities and indications for reconsideration of drug delivery routes (especially for those "non-responding" patients) and the search for alternative drug delivery strategies. More targeted drug delivery strategies sometimes require quite invasive procedures, but the potential therapeutic benefits and reduction of adverse effects could outweigh the risks. We characterized the major FDA-approved DMTs focusing on their therapeutic mechanism and the potential benefits of improving the accumulation of these drugs in the brain.

Intranasal Nanotransferosomal Gel for Quercetin Brain Targeting: I. Optimization, Characterization, Brain Localization, and Cytotoxic Studies

Numerous neurological disorders have a pathophysiology that involves an increase in free radical production in the brain. Quercetin (QER) is a nutraceutical compound that shields the brain against oxidative stress-induced neurodegeneration. Nonetheless, its low oral bioavailability diminishes brain delivery. Therefore, the current study aimed to formulate QER-loaded transferosomal nanovesicles (QER-TFS) in situ gel for QER brain delivery via the intranasal route. This study explored the impacts of lipid amount, edge activator (EA) amount, and EA type on vesicle diameter, entrapment, and cumulative amount permeated through nasal mucosa (24 h). The optimum formulation was then integrated into a thermosensitive gel after its physical and morphological characteristics were assessed. Assessments of the optimized QER-TFS showed nanometric vesicles (171.4 ± 3.4 nm) with spherical shapes and adequate entrapment efficiency (78.2 ± 2.8%). The results of short-term stability and high zeta potential value (-32.6 ± 1.4 mV) of QER-TFS confirmed their high stability. Compared with the QER solution, the optimized QER-TFS in situ gel formulation exhibited sustained release behavior and augmented nasal mucosa permeability. CT scanning of rat brains demonstrated the buildup of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in the brains of all treatment groups, with a greater level of GNPs noted in the rats given the transferosomal gel. Additionally, in vitro studies on PCS-200-014 cells revealed minimal cytotoxicity of QER-TFS in situ gel. Based on these results, the developed transferosomal nanovesicles may be a suitable nanocarrier for QER brain targeting through the intranasal route.

Nose-to-brain drug delivery for the treatment of CNS disease: New development and strategies

Delivering drugs to the brain has always been a challenging task due to the restrictive properties of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Intranasal delivery is therefore emerging as an efficient method of administration, making it easy to self-administration and thus provides a non-invasive and painless alternative to oral and parenteral administration for delivering therapeutics to the central nervous system (CNS). Recently, drug formulations have been developed to further enhance this nose-to-brain transport, primarily using nanoparticles (NPs). Therefore, the purposes of this review are to highlight and describe the anatomical basis of nasal-brain pathway and provide an overview of drug formulations and current drugs for intranasal administration in CNS disease.

Aceclofenac and methotrexate combination therapy could influence Th1/Th17 axis to modulate rheumatoid-arthritis-induced inflammation

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an inflammatory, autoimmune and connective-tissue arthropathy. The methotrexate (MTX) and aceclofenac (ACL) combination drug regimen is known to regulate the immunological pathways. Also, RA-elicited inflammation is decreased by the combination drug treatment. ACL and MTX combination treatment has been shown to regulate the signaling pathway controlled by NF-κB and FOXO1. The present manuscript reviews the importance of the combination drug regimen to treat and/or manage RA. The combination drug regimen could affect the Th1/Th17 axis to switch the balance toward the immunoregulatory (Th1) phenotype for establishing immune homeostasis. In conclusion, we propose the study of the immunological signaling pathways in experimental humanized RA mice.

Intranasal Drug Administration in Alzheimer-Type Dementia: Towards Clinical Applications

Alzheimer-type dementia (ATD) treatments face limitations in crossing the blood-brain barrier and systemic adverse effects. Intranasal administration offers a direct route to the brain via the nasal cavity's olfactory and trigeminal pathways. However, nasal physiology can hinder drug absorption and limit bioavailability. Therefore, the physicochemical characteristics of formulations must be optimized by means of technological strategies. Among the strategies that have been explored, lipid-based nanosystems, particularly nanostructured lipid carriers, are promising in preclinical investigations with minimal toxicity and therapeutic efficacy due to their ability to overcome challenges associated with other nanocarriers. We review the studies of nanostructured lipid carriers for intranasal administration in the treatment of ATD. Currently, no drugs for intranasal administration in ATD have marketing approval, with only three candidates, insulin, rivastigmine and APH-1105, being clinically investigated. Further studies with different candidates will eventually confirm the potential of the intranasal route of administration in the treatment of ATD.

Nose to brain delivery of ibudilast micelles for treatment of multiple sclerosis in an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis animal model

Multiple sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system ultimate to neurodegeneration and demyelination. Ibudilast is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, effective on the function of glial cells and lymphocytes, and inhibits the release of TNF-α by inflammatory cells. Dysregulation of glia is one of the most important pathological causes of MS. Therefore, ibudilast as a glial attenuator can be a useful treatment. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of nasal spray of polydopamine coated micelles of surfactin, a biosurfactant, loaded with ibudilast on its brain targeted delivery and effectiveness in remylination and neuroprotection in animal model of MS. In animal studies the micelles were administrated intranasally in different doses of 10, 25 and 50 mg/kg/day in C57/BL6 mice immunized by experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model. The results of Luxol fast blue staining indicated increment in myelin fiber percent more significantly (p<0.05) in the groups treated with the polydopamine coated micelles (PDAM) compared to nasal spray of free drug or oral administration. These formulations also increased expression of Mbp, Olig2 and Mog genes in the corpus callosum. These results suggest a positive outcome of polydopamine coated micelles loaded with ibudilast in active MS as an anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective agent.

Nose-to-brain delivery of paliperidone palmitate poloxamer-guar gum nanogel: Formulation, optimization and pharmacological studies in rats

Oral delivery of paliperidone palmitate (PPD), a potent antipsychotic agent, has been reported with a potential risk of very serious drug-induced adverse events such as tachycardia, hyperprolactinemia, sexual dysfunction, and neutropenia. Alternatively, the potential of nasal delivery has also been explored to treat CNS complications by delivering the medicines directly to the brain bypassing the blood-brain barrier. Hence, the objectives of current work were to formulate, design, optimize, and investigate the therapeutic potency of PPD-loaded intranasal in-situ gel (PPGISG) in the treatment of schizophrenia. PPD-nanoemulsion (PNE) was fabricated using water titration technique, was further optimized via Box-Behnken design. Furthermore, the optimized PNE was evaluated for parameters such as globule size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, and % entrapment efficiency were found to be 21.44±1.58nm, 0.268±0.02, -25.56±1.6mV, and 99.89±0.25%, respectively. PNE was further converted to PPGISG utilizing two polymers, poloxamer, and guar gum. Simultaneously, ex-vivo permeation for PNE, PPGISG, and PPD-suspension was found to be 211.40±4.8, 297.89±3.9 and 98.66±1.6μg/cm², respectively. While PPGISG nanoparticles showed 1.58 and 5.65-folds more J_ss than PNE and PPD-suspension. Behavioral studies confirmed that no extrapyramidal symptoms were observed in experimental animals post intranasal administration. Finally, the outcomes of the in-vivo hemato-compatibility study proved that intranasal formulation did not cause any alteration in leukocytes, RBCs, and neutrophils count. Therefore, intranasal delivery of PPGISG can be considered a novel tool for the safe delivery of PPD in schizophrenic patients.

An emerging era in manufacturing of drug delivery systems: Nanofabrication techniques

Nanotechnology has the capability of making significant contributions to healthcare. Nanofabrication of multifunctional nano- or micro-character systems is becoming incredibly influential in various sectors like electronics, photonics, energy, and biomedical gadgets worldwide. The invention of such items led to the merger of moderate cost and excellent quality nano or micro-characters into 3D structures. Nanofabrication techniques have many benefits as the primary technology for manipulating cellular surroundings to research signaling processes. The inherent nanoscale mechanisms of cyto-reactions include the existence and death of cells, stem cell segmentation, multiplication, cellular relocation, etc. Nanofabrication is essential in developing various nano-formulations like solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, liposomes, niosomes, nanoemulsions, microemulsions etc. Despite the initial development cost in designing the nanofabrication-based products, it has also reduced the total cost of the healthcare system by considering the added benefits compared to the other standard formulations. Thus, the current review mainly focuses on nanofabrication techniques, advantages, disadvantages, applications in developing various nanocarrier systems, challenges and future perspectives.

Cod liver oil nano-structured lipid carriers (Cod-NLCs) as a promising platform for nose to brain delivery: Preparation, in vitro optimization, ex vivo cytotoxicity & in vivo biodistribution utilizing radioiodinated zopiclone

Nano-structured lipid carriers containing zopiclone were prepared as a targeted drug delivery system to convey zopiclone directly to brain via nasal route. Nano-structured lipid carriers were constructed adopting hot emulsification-ultrasonication method using palmitic acid in place of the solid lipid, cod liver oil as liquid lipid, and poloxamer 407 as a surfactant. A three-factor three-level central composite face-centered design was used to optimize the formulated nano-structured lipid carriers. The independent factors were lipid amount (X₁), surfactant amount (X₂), and sonication time (X₃). The examined responses were entrapment efficiency (EE,Y₁,%), particle size (PS,Y₂,nm), zeta potential(mV), polydispersity index(PDI,Y₃), in vitro release(Q8h,Y₄,%) and dissolution efficiency (DE,Y₅,%). The optimum formula showed high entrapment efficiency of 94.31% ± 2.44, in vitro drug release of 83.89% ± 1.77 with dissolution efficiency equals 88.63% ± 2.01, small particle size of 71.27 nm ± 13.57 and low polydispersity index 0.097 ± 0.15. In vivo biodistribution in mice was evaluated by a radiobiological technique using radioiodinated zopiclone([¹³¹I]iodo-ZP). Results revealed the superiority of the intranasal route to deliver zopiclone directly to brain faster and higher brain uptake (6.9 ± 1.02%ID/g at 5 min post-administration). The current study confirmed that intranasal administration of nano-structured lipid carriers had great potential as an effective tool for targeted brain zopiclone delivery for insomnia treatment.

Quality by design based development of nanostructured lipid carrier: a risk based approach

The aim of this review is to discuss the development of nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) by the application of quality by design (QbD). QbD started with the evolution of the quality concept and slow adaptation of quality guidelines, which has now become a regulatory requirement. In this review, brief history and elements of QbD including risk assessment (RA) have been discussed followed by the design of experiments (DoEs) that acts as a tool to analyze the input whose variation can optimize the output with the desired goal. NLC is a versatile delivery system as researchers widely use it to administer therapeutics with different physicochemical properties. The surface of NLC can be modified, making it a suitable delivery system with targeting potential for therapeutics. Implementation of QbD provides a high-quality robust formulation that can consistently meet the patient’s requirement throughout its life cycle without compromising the safety and effectiveness of the drug and delivery system. This review discusses QbD concepts followed by the systematic development of NLC by the application of DoE. Process analytical technology (PAT) and six sigma concepts have also been included which can benefit in the development of optimized NLC.

Theranostic potential of graphene quantum dots for multiple sclerosis

Nanomedicine offers great promise to solve healthcare problems using nanotechnology. Theranostics provide imaging/diagnosis and therapy simultaneously. Novel agents that target both the neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration component of multiple sclerosis (MS) are required. Progress has been achieved in developing smart, surface decorated nanoparticles that effectively transport the therapeutic drug into the central nervous system (CNS). Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) can be traced in vivo by fluorescence imaging due to their unique optical properties. They can also traverse the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and deliver drugs into the CNS. Moreover, GQDs have low cytotoxicity and higher biocompatibility. Therefore, GQDs can be utilized to design novel multifunctional nanocarrier theranostic tools for MS.

Formulation considerations for improving intranasal delivery of CNS acting therapeutics

One of the principal impediments for the treatment of neurological conditions is the lack of ability of most of the medicinal agents to evade the blood–brain barrier. Among all the novel approaches to bypass the blood–brain barrier, nose to brain transport is the most patient compliant, non-invasive and effective approach. It directly transports drugs to the CNS via the trigeminal and olfactory nerves present in the nasal cavity. This review article focuses on anatomy and physiology of nasal cavity, potential of intranasal drug delivery, mechanisms of drug transport to brain, its advantages and limitations, novel intranasal formulations, marketed products, factors affecting nose to brain transport, formulation consideration of intranasal products and the future perspectives of CNS targeting via intranasal drug administration.

Lipid nanoparticles strategies to modify pharmacokinetics of central nervous system targeting drugs: Crossing or circumventing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to manage neurological disorders

The main limitation to the success of central nervous system (CNS) therapies lies in the difficulty for drugs to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and reach the brain. Regarding its structure and enzymatic complexity, crossing the BBB is a challenge, although several alternatives have been identified. For instance, the use of drugs encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles has been described as one of the most efficient approaches to bypass the BBB, as they allow the passage of drugs through this barrier, improving brain bioavailability. In particular, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) have been a focus of research related to drug delivery to the brain. These systems provide protection of lipophilic drugs, improved delivery and bioavailability, having a major impact on treatments outcomes. In addition, the use of lipid nanoparticles administered via routes that transport drugs directly into the brain seems a promising solution to avoid the difficulties in crossing the BBB. For instance, the nose-to-brain route has gained considerable interest, as it has shown efficacy in 3D human nasal models and in animal models. This review addresses the state of the art on the use of lipid nanoparticles to modify the pharmacokinetics of drugs employed in the management of neurological disorders. A description of the structural components of the BBB, the role of the neurovascular unit and limitations for drugs to entry into the CNS is first addressed, along with the developments to increase drug delivery to the brain, with a special focus on lipid nanoparticles. In addition, the obstacle of BBB complexity in the creation of new effective drugs for the treatment of the most prevalent neurological disorders is also addressed. Finally, the proposed strategies for lipid nanoparticles to reach the CNS, crossing or circumventing the BBB, are described. Although promising results have been reported, especially with the nose-to-brain route, they are still ongoing to assess its real efficacy in vivo in the management of neurological disorders.

Current Progress in Cancer Treatment Using Nanomaterials

The pathological processes of cancer are complex. Current methods used for chemotherapy have various limitations, such as cytotoxicity, multi-drug resistance, stem-like cells growth, and lack of specificity. Several types of nanomaterials are used for cancer treatment. Nanomaterials 1–100 nm in size have special optical, magnetic, and electrical characteristics. Nanomaterials have been fabricated for cancer treatments to overcome cytotoxicity and low specificity, and improve drug capacity and bioavailability. Despite the increasing number of related studies, few nanodrugs have been approved for clinical use. To improve translation of these materials, studies of targeted drug delivery using nanocarriers are needed. Cytotoxicity, enhanced permeability and retention effects, and the protective role of the protein corona remain to be addressed. This mini-review summarizes new nanomaterials manufactured in studies and in clinical use, analyses current barriers preventing their translation to clinical use, and describes the effective application of nanomaterials in cancer treatment.

Targeted Delivery Platforms for the Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative condition of the central nervous system (CNS) that presents with varying levels of disability in patients, displaying the significance of timely and effective management of this complication. Though several treatments have been developed to protect nerves, comprehensive improvement of MS is still considered an essential bottleneck. Therefore, the development of innovative treatment methods for MS is one of the core research areas. In this regard, nanoscale platforms can offer practical and ideal approaches to the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases, especially immunological disorders such as MS, to improve the effectiveness of conventional therapies. It should be noted that there is significant progress in the development of neuroprotective strategies through the implementation of various nanoparticles, monoclonal antibodies, peptides, and aptamers. In this study, we summarize different particle systems as well as targeted therapies, such as antibodies, peptides, nucleic acids, and engineered cells for the treatment of MS, and discuss their potential in the treatment of MS in the preclinical and clinical stages. Future advances in targeted delivery of medical supplies may offer new strategies for complete recovery as well as practical treatment of progressive forms of MS.

Nanotechnology-enabled immunoengineering approaches to advance therapeutic applications

Immunotherapy has reached clinical success in the last decade, with the emergence of new and effective treatments such as checkpoint blockade therapy and CAR T-cell therapy that have drastically improved patient outcomes. Still, these therapies can be improved to limit off-target effects, mitigate systemic toxicities, and increase overall efficacies. Nanoscale engineering offers strategies that enable researchers to attain these goals through the manipulation of immune cell functions, such as enhancing immunity against cancers and pathogens, controlling the site of immune response, and promoting tolerance via the delivery of small molecule drugs or biologics. By tuning the properties of the nanomaterials, such as size, shape, charge, and surface chemistry, different types of immune cells can be targeted and engineered, such as dendritic cells for immunization, or T cells for promoting adaptive immunity. Researchers have come to better understand the critical role the immune system plays in the progression of pathologies besides cancer, and developing nanoengineering approaches that seek to harness the potential of immune cell activities can lead to favorable outcomes for the treatment of injuries and diseases.

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Intranasal Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Nose-to-Brain Delivery

Nose-to-brain drug delivery has been of great interest for the treatment of many central nervous system (CNS) diseases and psychiatric disorders over past decades. Several nasally administered formulations have been developed to circumvent the blood-brain barrier and directly deliver drugs to the CNS through the olfactory and trigeminal pathways. However, the nasal mucosa's drug absorption is insufficient and the volume of the nasal cavity is small, which, in combination, make nose-to-brain drug delivery challenging. These problems could be minimized using formulations based on solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) or nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), which are effective nose-to-brain drug delivery systems that improve drug bioavailability by increasing drug solubility and permeation, extending drug action, and reducing enzymatic degradation. Various research groups have reported in vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of SLNs and NLCs nose-to-brain delivery systems. This review was undertaken to provide an overview of these studies and highlight research performed on SLN and NLC-based formulations aimed at improving the treatment of CNS diseases such neurodegenerative diseases, epilepsy, and schizophrenia. We discuss the efficacies and brain targeting efficiencies of these formulations based on considerations of their pharmacokinetic parameters and toxicities, point out some gaps in current knowledge, and propose future developmental targets.

Lipid-Based Nanocarriers via Nose-to-Brain Pathway for Central Nervous System Disorders

Neurodegenerative disorders are distinguished by the gradual deterioration of the nervous system's structure and function due to oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, protein misfolding, excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation. Among these NDs, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis characterized an increasing dysfunction and loss of neuronal structure leading to neuronal cell death. Although there is currently no drug to totally reverse the effects of NDs, such novel formulations and administration routes are developed for better management and nose-to-brain delivery is one of delivery for treating NDs. This review aimed to highlight advances in research on various lipid based nanocarriers such as liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, microemulsion, nanoemulsion, and cubosomes which are reported to treat and alleviate the symptoms of NDs via nose-to-brain route. The challenges during clinical translation of lipid nanocarriers from bench to bed side is also discussed.

Lipid Nanocarriers Overlaid with Chitosan for Brain Delivery of Berberine via the Nasal Route

This research aimed to design, optimize, and evaluate berberine-laden nanostructured lipid carriers overlaid with chitosan (BER-CTS-NLCs) for efficient brain delivery via the intranasal route. The nanostructured lipid carriers containing berberine (BER-NLCs) were formulated via hot homogenization and ultrasonication strategy and optimized for the influence of a variety of causal variables, including the amount of glycerol monostearate (solid lipid), poloxamer 407 (surfactant) concentration, and oleic acid (liquid lipid) amount, on size of the particles, entrapment, and the total drug release after 24 h. The optimal BER-NLCs formulation was then coated with chitosan. Their diameter, in vitro release, surface charge, morphology, ex vivo permeability, pH, histological, and in vivo (pharmacokinetics and brain uptake) parameters were estimated. BER-CTS-NLCs had a size of 180.9 ± 4.3 nm, sustained-release properties, positive surface charge of 36.8 mV, and augmented ex-vivo permeation via nasal mucosa. The histopathological assessment revealed that the BER-CTS-NLCs system is safe for nasal delivery. Pharmacokinetic and brain accumulation experiments showed that animals treated intranasally with BER-CTS-NLCs had substantially greater drug levels in the brain. The ratios of BER brain/blood levels at 30 min, AUCbrain/AUCblood, drug transport percentage, and drug targeting efficiency for BER-CTS-NLCs (IN) were higher compared to BER solution (IN), suggesting enhanced brain targeting. The optimized nanoparticulate system is speculated to be a successful approach for boosting the effect of BER in treating CNS diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, through intranasal therapy.

Recent advancements in nanoparticle-mediated approaches for restoration of multiple sclerosis

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease with complicated immunopathology which necessitates considering multifactorial aspects for its management. Nano-sized pharmaceutical carriers named nanoparticles (NPs) can support impressive management of disease not only in early detection and prognosis level but also in a therapeutic manner. The most prominent initiator of MS is the domination of cellular immunity to humoral immunity and increment of inflammatory cytokines. The administration of several platforms of NPs for MS management holds great promise so far. The efforts for MS management through in vitro and in vivo (experimental animal models) evaluations, pave a new way to a highly efficient therapeutic means and aiding its translation to the clinic in the near future.

Multi-disciplinary Approach for Drug and Gene Delivery Systems to the Brain

Drug delivery into the brain has for long been a huge challenge as the blood–brain barrier (BBB) offers great resistance to entry of foreign substances (with drugs inclusive) into the brain. This barrier in healthy individuals is protective to the brain, disallowing noxious substances present in the blood to get to the brain while allowing for the exchange of small molecules into the brain by diffusion. However, BBB is disrupted under certain disease conditions, such as cerebrovascular diseases including acute ischemic stroke and intracerebral hemorrhage, and neurodegenerative disorders including multiple sclerosis (MS), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and cancers. This review aims to provide a broad overview of present-day strategies for brain drug delivery, emphasizing novel delivery systems. Hopefully, this review would inspire scientists and researchers in the field of drug delivery across BBB to uncover new techniques and strategies to optimize drug delivery to the brain. Considering the anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiological functioning of the BBB in health and disease conditions, this review is focused on the controversies drawn from conclusions of recently published studies on issues such as the penetrability of nanoparticles into the brain, and whether active targeted drug delivery into the brain could be achieved with the use of nanoparticles. We also extended the review to cover novel non-nanoparticle strategies such as using viral and peptide vectors and other non-invasive techniques to enhance brain uptake of drugs.

Nanotherapeutics for Nose-to-Brain Drug Delivery: An Approach to Bypass the Blood Brain Barrier

Treatment of neurodegenerative diseases or other central nervous system (CNS) disorders has always been a significant challenge. The nature of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) limits the penetration of therapeutic molecules to the brain after oral or parenteral administration, which, in combination with hepatic metabolism and drug elimination and inactivation during its journey in the systemic circulation, decreases the efficacy of the treatment, requires high drug doses and often induces adverse side effects. Nose-to-brain drug delivery allows the direct transport of therapeutic molecules by bypassing the BBB and increases drug concentration in the brain. The present review describes mechanisms of nose-to-brain drug delivery and discusses recent advances in this area with especial emphasis on nanotechnology-based approaches.

Nanosystems and exosomes as future approaches in treating multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated demyelinating disease of the central nervous system which leads to neurological dysfunctions and severe disabilities. MS pathology is characterised by damage of the blood-brain barrier and infiltration of autoreactive T cells that overactivate glial cells, thereby initiating neuroinflammation accompanied by the formation of demyelinating plaques and neurodegeneration. Clinical deficits in this multifactorial disease depend on the progression of myelin loss, the stage of inflammation, the status of axons and the activity of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). Despite significant progress in the treatment of MS, current therapies remain limited and new approaches are highly desirable. Nanosystems based on liposomes and nanoparticles are among some of the more noteworthy therapeutic strategies being investigated. Applications of nanosystems alone or as drug carriers in animal models of MS have been found to successfully alleviate the symptoms of the disease and exert anti-inflammatory potential. Exosomes are a specific type of nanosystem based on nanometre-sized extracellular vesicles released by different cells which exhibit important healing features. Exosomes contain an array of anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective agents which may contribute to modulation of the immune system as well as promoting remyelination and tissue repair. In this review, opportunities to use nanosystems against progression of MS will be discussed in context of cell-specific pathologies associated with MS.

Nose-to-brain delivery of amisulpride-loaded lipid-based poloxamer-gellan gum nanoemulgel: In vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies

Unfavorable side effects of available antipsychotics limit the use of conventional delivery systems, where limited exposure of the drugs to the systemic circulation could reduce the associated risks. The potential of intranasal delivery is gaining interest to treat brain disorders by delivering the drugs directly to the brain circumventing the tight junctions of the blood-brain barrier with limited systemic exposure of the entrapped therapeutic. Therefore, the present research was aimed to fabricate, optimize and investigate the therapeutic efficacy of amisulpride (AMS)-loaded intranasal in situ nanoemulgel (AMS-NG) in the treatment of schizophrenia. In this context, AMS nanoemulsion (AMS-NE) was prepared by employing aqueous-titration method and optimized using Box-Behnken statistical design. The optimized nanoemulsion was subjected to evaluation of globule size, transmittance, zeta potential, and mucoadhesive strength, which were found to be 92.15 nm, 99.57%, -18.22 mV, and 8.90 g, respectively. The AMS-NE was converted to AMS-NG using poloxamer 407 and gellan gum. Following pharmacokinetic evaluation in Wistar rats, the brain C_max for intranasal AMS-NG was found to be 1.48-folds and 3.39-folds higher when compared to intranasal AMS-NE and intravenous AMS-NE, respectively. Moreover, behavioral investigations of developed formulations were devoid of any extrapyramidal side effects in the experimental model. Finally, outcomes of the in vivo hematological study confirmed that intranasal administration of formulation for 28 days did not alter leukocytes and agranulocytes count. In conclusion, the promising results of the developed and optimized intranasal AMS-NG could provide a novel platform for the effective and safe delivery of AMS in schizophrenic patients.

Design and optimization of curcumin loaded nano lipid carrier system using Box-Behnken design

Herbal antioxidant like curcumin holds great potential to treat neurodegenerative disease like Alzheimer's disease. However, its therapeutic potency is obstructed due to rapid metabolism, poor solubility, GI susceptibility, enzymatic degradation and lower bioavailability. Thus, the present work aimed to design and optimize curcumin-loaded NLC (CNL) with higher drug entrapment, prolonged release and better stability. CNL was prepared by modified melt emulsification method followed by ultrasonication. The formulation was optimized by 3 factor 3 level Box-Behnken design using solid: liquid lipid, surfactant concentration and ultrasonication time as independent variable while particle size, entrapment efficiency and % drug release as dependant variable. The design suggested 3.092 solid:liquid lipid, 2.131% surfactant and 4.757 min ultrasonication fit best to get the optimized formulation. The size of the optimized CNL was noted 124.37 ± 55.81 nm, which is in the acceptable range for brain delivery. SEM results also comply with this size range (near 150 nm) and demonstrated almost spherical and uniform particles with porous and uneven surface structures. PDI, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency and % drug release were observed as 0.201 ± 0.00, - 17.2 ± 2.35 mV, 93.62 ± 0.68% and 92.73 ± 0.06%, respectively. The NLC demonstrated initial burst release with subsequent prolonged release of drug for 48 h. Weibull kinetic equation with 0.9958 R², minimum AIC and maximum MSC value was found best fit to explain the release behavior. The β exponent and diffusional coefficient (n) indicated combined release mechanism with Fickian diffusion as drug release mechanism. Formulation was also found stable at different storage condition.

Nanotechnologies for intranasal drug delivery: an update of literature

Scientific research has focused its attention on finding an alternative route to systemic oral and parenteral administration, to overcome their usual drawbacks, such as hepatic first-pass which decreases drug bioavailability after oral administration, off-target effects, low patient compliance and low speed of onset of the pharmacological action in first-aid cases. Innovative drug delivery systems (DDS), mainly based on polymer and lipid biocompatible materials, have given a great prompt in this direction in the last years. The intranasal (IN) route of administration is a valid non-invasive alternative. It is highly suitable for self-administration, the drug quickly reaches the bloodstream, largely avoiding the first pass effect, and can also reach directly the brain bypassing BBB. Association of IN route with DDS can thus become a winning strategy for the controlled delivery of drugs, especially when a very quick effect is desired or needed. This review aims at analyzing the scientific literature regarding IN-DDS and their different ways of administration (systemic, topical, pulmonary, nose-to-brain). In particular, attention was devoted to polymer- and lipid-based micro- and nanocarriers, being the topic of most published articles in the last decade, but the whole plethora of colloidal DDS investigated in recent years for IN administration was presented.

Improving Drug Delivery for Alzheimer's Disease Through Nose-to-Brain Delivery Using Nanoemulsions, Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC) and in situ Hydrogels

Current treatments for Alzheimer's disease (AD) attenuate the progression of symptoms and aim to improve the patient's quality of life. Licensed medicines are mostly for oral administration and are limited by the difficulty in crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Here in, the nasal route has been explored as an alternative pathway that allows drugs to be directly delivered to the brain via the nasal cavity. However, clearance mechanisms in the nasal cavity impair the delivery of drugs to the brain and limit their bioavailability. To optimize nose-to-brain delivery, formulations of lipid-based nanosystems, namely nanoemulsions and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), formulated in situ gelling hydrogels have been proposed as approaches for nose-to-brain delivery. These formulations possess characteristics that facilitate drug transport directly to the brain, minimizing side effects and maximizing therapeutic benefits. It has been recommended that the manufacture of these drug delivery systems follows the quality by design (QbD) approach based on nasal administration requirements. This review provides an insight into the current knowledge of the AD, highlighting the need for an effective drug delivery to the brain. Considering the mounting interest in the use of nanoemulsions and NLC for nose-to-brain delivery, a description of drug transport pathways in the nasal cavity and the application of these nanosystems and their in situ hydrogels through the intranasal route are presented. Relevant preclinical studies are summarised, and the future prospects for the use of lipid-based nanosystems in the treatment of AD are emphasized.

Intranasal delivery of nanostructured lipid carriers, solid lipid nanoparticles and nanoemulsions: A current overview of in vivo studies

The management of the central nervous system (CNS) disorders is challenging, due to the need of drugs to cross the blood‒brain barrier (BBB) and reach the brain. Among the various strategies that have been studied to circumvent this challenge, the use of the intranasal route to transport drugs from the nose directly to the brain has been showing promising results. In addition, the encapsulation of the drugs in lipid-based nanocarriers, such as solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) or nanoemulsions (NEs), can improve nose-to-brain transport by increasing the bioavailability and site-specific delivery. This review provides the state-of-the-art of in vivo studies with lipid-based nanocarriers (SLNs, NLCs and NEs) for nose-to-brain delivery. Based on the literature available from the past two years, we present an insight into the different mechanisms that drugs can follow to reach the brain after intranasal administration. The results of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics studies are reported and a critical analysis of the differences between the anatomy of the nasal cavity of the different animal species used in in vivo studies is carried out. Although the exact mechanism of drug transport from the nose to the brain is not fully understood and its effectiveness in humans is unclear, it appears that the intranasal route together with the use of NLCs, SLNs or NEs is advantageous for targeting drugs to the brain. These systems have been shown to be more effective for nose-to-brain delivery than other routes or formulations with non-encapsulated drugs, so they are expected to be approved by regulatory authorities in the coming years.

Brain targeting of agomelatine egg lecithin based chitosan coated nanoemulsion

Intranasal drug delivery system has been proposed as an alternative delivery system to target agomelatine (AGO) to the brain and improving its bioavailability. Mucoadhesive egg lecithin nanoemulsions were optimized using D-optimal design and by investigating the effect of four independent variables: oil concentration (A), chitosan concentration (B), type of oil (C) and egg lecithin: oil (D). The responses of globule size, polydispersity index, zeta potential and drug content were evaluated. The optimized agomelatine mucoadhesive nanoemulsion (AGO MNE) with a desirability value of 0.856 was subjected to further investigations for mucoadhesion, in vitro diffusion, transmission electron microscopy and in vivo biodistribution. It showed significantly successful distribution to the brain, the optimized AGO MNE intranasal gave a brain targeting efficiency (BTE) of 278.71% indicating increased drug brain targeting by the nasal route compared with the intravenous route. Additionally, the optimized AGO MNE by intranasal had a direct transport percentage (DTP) of 64.109%, which indicates a significant contribution of the direct nose-to-brain pathway in the brain drug delivery. The study proposed egg lecithin mucoadhesive nanoemulsion as a successful and promising strategy to directly and efficiently deliver drug to the brain.

Mucoadhesive nanostructured lipid carriers as a cannabidiol nasal delivery system for the treatment of neuropathic pain

The therapeutic potential of cannabidiol (CBD) has been explored to treat several pathologies, including those in which pain is prevalent. However, the oral bioavailability of CBD is low owing to its high lipophilicity and extensive first-pass metabolism. Considering the ability of the nasal route to prevent liver metabolism and increase brain bioavailability, we developed nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) for the nasal administration of CBD. We prepared particles with a positively charged surface, employing stearic acid, oleic acid, Span 20^Ⓡ, and cetylpyridinium chloride to obtain mucoadhesive formulations. Characterisation of the CBD-NLC dispersions showed uniform nano-sized particles with diameters smaller than 200 nm, and high drug encapsulation. The mucoadhesion of cationic particles has been related to interactions with negatively charged mucin. Next, we added in-situ gelling polymers to the CBD-NLC dispersion to obtain a CBD-NLC-gel. A thermo-reversible in-situ forming gel was prepared by the addition of Pluronics^Ⓡ. CBD-NLC-gel was characterised by its gelation temperature, rheological behaviour, and mucoadhesion. Both formulations, CBD-NLC and CBD-NLC-gel, showed high mucoadhesion, as assessed by the flow-through method and similar in vitro drug release profiles. The in vivo evaluation showed that CBD-NLC dispersion (without gel), administered intranasally, produced a more significant and lasting antinociceptive effect in animals with neuropathic pain than the oral or nasal administration of CBD solution. However, the nasal administration of CBD-NLC-gel did not lessen mechanical allodynia. These findings demonstrate that in-situ gelling hydrogels are not suitable vehicles for highly lipophilic drugs such as CBD, while cationic CBD-NLC dispersions are promising formulations for the nasal administration of CBD.