Energy and macronutrient intake of a female vegan cyclist during an 8-day mountain bike stage race

Racing Experiences of Recreational Distance Runners following Omnivorous, Vegetarian, and Vegan Diets (Part B)-Results from the NURMI Study (Step 2)

The potential running or endurance performance difference based on following different general types of diets, such as omnivorous, vegetarian, or vegan, remains questionable. Several underlying modifiable factors of long-distance running performance, especially runner training behaviors and experience, diminish the clarity of results when analyzing dietary subgroups. Based on the cross-sectional design (survey), the NURMI Study Step 2 aimed to investigate a plethora of training behaviors among recreational long-distance running athletes and the relationship of general diet types with best time race performance. The statistical analysis was based on Chi-squared and Wilcoxon tests. The final sample (n = 245) included fit recreational long-distance runners following an omnivorous diet (n = 109), a vegetarian diet (n = 45), or a vegan diet (n = 91). Significant differences were found between the dietary subgroups in body mass index (p = 0.001), sex (p = 0.004), marital status (p = 0.029), and running-related motivations for well-being (p < 0.05) but not in age (p = 0.054). No significant difference was found for best time half-marathon, marathon, and/or ultra-marathon race performance based on diet type (p > 0.05). Whether the vegan diet is associated with enhanced endurance performance remains unclear. Although, the present results are suggestive that 100% plant-based (vegan) nutrition is compatible with distance running performance at the least.

Prevalence of Female and Male Vegan and Non-Vegan Endurance Runners and the Potential Associations of Diet Type and BMI with Performance-Results from the NURMI Study (Step 1)

This study aims to investigate vegetarian and mixed diet type prevalences among distance runners at running events around the world and associations with running-related patterns and performance. Following a cross-sectional approach, linear regression analyses were carried out to identify potential associations among body mass index (BMI), diet type, and average best performance times of half-marathon and marathon events for males and females. From a sample of 3835 runners who completed an online questionnaire, 2864 all-distance runners (age: 37 years; 57% females) were included in inferential analyses and categorized into dietary subgroups according to self-reports: 994 vegans (34.7%), 598 vegetarians (20.9%), and 1272 omnivores (44.4%). Significant associations were identified between kind of diet and best average time to finish (i) half-marathons in females where vegans (p = 0.001) took longer than omnivores, (ii) half-marathons in males where vegans (p < 0.001) and vegetarians (p = 0.002) took longer than omnivores, and (iii) marathons in males where vegans (p < 0.001) and vegetarians (p = 0.043) averaged slower than omnivores. Increased units of BMI (+1.0) in males influenced best runtimes: 2.75 (3.22−2.27) min slower for HM and 5.5 (5.69−4.31) min slower for M. The present study did not take detailed confounders into account such as runner motives or training behaviors; however, the results may provide valuable insight for running event organizers, nutrition experts, coaches, and trainers advising runners who adhere to a general diet type regarding the basic question of who participates in running events around the world.

Dietary Intake of Vegan and Non-Vegan Endurance Runners—Results from the NURMI Study (Step 2)

Nowadays, the growing popularity of distance running has been accompanied by the increasing prevalence of vegan and vegetarian diets, especially among endurance athletes. The present study aimed to examine the association between diet type and dietary intake of distance runners competing at distances longer than 10 km. From a total of 317 participants, 211 endurance runners (57% females) were considered the final sample after applying the exclusion criteria. Runners were assigned to three groups based on the self-reported diet types: 95 omnivores, 40 vegetarians, and 76 vegans. Data collection was conducted using an online survey with questions about sociodemographic information, dietary intake, and dietary-associated motives. A comprehensive food frequency questionnaire with 53 food groups (categorized in 14 basic—plus three umbrella—food clusters) was used to assess dietary intake. Vegan runners had a higher intake of “beans and seeds”, “fruit and vegetables”, and “dairy alternatives”, as well as lower intakes of “oils” than other two groups. Vegetarian runners had a lower intake of “dairy products” and “eggs” than omnivores. A greater intake of “alcohol” and a lower intake of “meat alternatives” was observed in omnivorous runners compared to vegans and vegetarians. Despite the existence of a tendency toward the consumption of health-related food clusters by vegan runners, further investigations are needed to verify the predominance of vegans in health-oriented dietary patterns.

Female Endurance Runners Have a Healthier Diet than Males-Results from the NURMI Study (Step 2)

Sex has been recognized to be an important indicator of physiological, psychological, and nutritional characteristics among endurance athletes. However, there are limited data addressing sex-based differences in dietary behaviors of distance runners. The aim of the present study is to explore the sex-specific differences in dietary intake of female and male distance runners competing at >10-km distances. From the initial number of 317 participants, 211 endurance runners (121 females and 90 males) were selected as the final sample after a multi-level data clearance. Participants were classified to race distance (10-km, half-marathon, marathon/ultra-marathon) and type of diet (omnivorous, vegetarian, vegan) subgroups. An online survey was conducted to collect data on sociodemographic information and dietary intake (using a comprehensive food frequency questionnaire with 53 food groups categorized in 14 basic and three umbrella food clusters). Compared to male runners, female runners had a significantly greater intake in four food clusters, including “beans and seeds”, “fruit and vegetables”, “dairy alternatives”, and “water”. Males reported higher intakes of seven food clusters, including “meat”, “fish”, “eggs”, “oils”, “grains”, “alcohol”, and “processed foods”. Generally, it can be suggested that female runners have a tendency to consume healthier foods than males. The predominance of females with healthy dietary behavior can be potentially linked to the well-known differences between females and males in health attitudes and lifestyle patterns.

Comparison of Plate Waste between Vegetarian and Meat-Containing Meals in a Hospital Setting: Environmental and Nutritional Considerations

Vegetarian diets can satisfy nutritional requirements and have lower environmental impacts than those containing meat. However, fruits and vegetables are wasted at higher rates than meat. Reducing both food waste (FW) and the environmental impacts associated with food production is an important sustainability goal. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine potential tradeoffs between vegetarian meals’ lower impacts but potentially higher FW compared to meat-containing meals. To examine this, seven consecutive days of plate FW data from Loma Linda University Medical Center (LLUMC) patients were collected and recorded from 471 meals. Mean total FW and associated greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) were higher among meat-containing meals (293 g/plate, 604 g CO2-eq/plate) than vegetarian meals (259 g/plate, 357 g CO2-eq/plate) by 34 g (p = 0.05) and 240 g CO2-eq (p < 0.001), respectively. Statistically significant differences were observed in both FW and associated GHGE across major food categories, except fruit, when comparing vegetarian and meat-containing meals. Overall, vegetarian meals were preferable to meat-containing meals served at LLUMC both in terms of minimizing FW and lowering environmental impacts. Other institutions serving vegetarian meal options could expect similar advantages, especially in reduced GHGE due to the high CO2 embodied in meat.

Who Is Running in the D-A-CH Countries? An Epidemiological Approach of 2455 Omnivorous, Vegetarian, and Vegan Recreational Runners-Results from the NURMI Study (Step 1)

Accompanied by the growing popularity of distance running, the prevalence of vegan and vegetarian diets in endurance runners has increased across the globe and especially in German-speaking (D-A-CH: Germany, Austria, Switzerland) countries. The present study aimed to investigate and compare the epidemiological characteristics associated with diet types and running behaviors of recreational endurance runners. From a total number of 7422 runners who started to fill in the online survey, 3835 runners completed the questionnaire. After data clearance, 2455 distance runners (mean age: 37 years; 56% females, 44% males) were selected as the final sample and classified as 1162 omnivores (47.4%), 529 vegetarians (21.5%), and 764 vegans (31.1%). Sociodemographic information and general characteristics in training and competition were evaluated using a questionnaire-based approach. A significant association was found between diet type and race distance (p < 0.001). In females, vegan ultra-marathoners and omnivorous half-marathoners had better individual running records among dietary groups. Sex differences in running performance had a minimizing trend with increasing race distance. Most runners reported independent race preparation (90%) over less than four months (73%). From an epidemiological viewpoint, the present findings suggest a central role of plant-based diets in running performance and behaviors among active distance runners in D-A-CH countries and that vegetarian and vegan diets are compatible with competitive running.

Training and Racing Behaviors of Omnivorous, Vegetarian, and Vegan Endurance Runners-Results from the NURMI Study (Step 1)

As a key modulator of training adaptations and racing performance, nutrition plays a critical role in endurance runners' success, and the training/racing behaviors of runners are potentially affected by their diet types. The present study aimed to investigate whether distance runners with a vegan diet (i.e., devoid of foods or ingredients from animal sources), vegetarian diet (i.e., devoid of meat and flesh foods), and omnivorous diet (i.e., a mixed diet with no restriction on food sources) have different training and racing patterns in general and based on race distance subgroups. A total of 3835 recreational runners completed an online survey. Runners were assigned to dietary (omnivorous, vegetarian, and vegan) and race distance (<21 km, half-marathon, and marathon/ultra-marathon) groups. In addition to sociodemographic information, a complete profile of data sets focusing on running and racing behaviors/patterns was evaluated using a questionnaire-based epidemiological approach. There were 1272 omnivores (47% females), 598 vegetarians (64% females), and 994 vegans (65% females). Compared to vegans and vegetarians, omnivorous runners prepared for a longer time period for running events, had a higher number of half-marathons and marathons completed with a better finish time, and had more reliance on training under supervision (p < 0.05). The present findings indicate an important association of diet types with patterns of training and racing amongst endurance runners that may be related to different motives of omnivorous, vegetarian, and vegan runners for participating in events.

Vegan vs. omnivore diets paradox: A whole-metagenomic approach for defining metabolic networks during the race in ultra-marathoners- a before and after study design

BACKGROUND

The effect of vegan diets on metabolic processes in the body is still controversial in ultra endurance athletes. The study aims to determine gut microbiome adaptation to extreme exercise according to vegan or omnivore diet consumed in ultra-marathoners. We also seek to evaluate long-term vegan diets' effects on redox homeostasis, and muscle fatigue, and assess energy availability.

METHODS

Seventy participants will be assigned to the study, including 35 vegan ultra-marathoners and 35 omnivores competing in the Sri-Chinmoy ultra marathon race. Research data will be collected from the participants at four steps (three visits to the research laboratory and the race day) throughout the study. At the first visit (seven days before the race), fecal samples, and anthropometric measurements will be collected. Body composition will be measured using DXA. Participants will be informed about keeping detailed food records and will be asked to record their diet data and activity logs during the entire study period. At second visit, maximum oxygen consumption will be measured on treadmill. On race day, blood samples will be collected immediately before, and 0. min, 2 hours, and 24 hours after the race. Body weight will be measured before and after the race. The blood and fecal samples will be stored at -80 C until analysis. Plasma malondialdehyde, reactive oxygen metabolites, total antioxidant capacity, Heatshockprotein-70, and serum Orosomucoid-1 will be analyzed in blood samples. Fecal samples will be analyzed with shotgun metagenomic analysis and interpreted using bioinformatics pipeline (HumanN2). Statistical tests will be analyzed using SPSS version 23.0 and R Software.

DISCUSSION

Study findings will determine the effects of the vegan diet on sports performance, revealing the multiple interactions between host and gut microbiome at the whole metagenomic level. Additionally, results will show the possible adaptation throughout the race by analyzing blood and fecal samples. Furthermore, by assessing energy availability and determining host-metabolite crosstalk for ultra-endurance athletes, possible nutritional deficiencies can be identified. Thus, advanced nutritional strategies can be developed based on metabolic needs.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Current controlled trials, ISRCTN registry 69541705. Registered on 8 December 2019.

Sex Differences in Supplement Intake in Recreational Endurance Runners-Results from the NURMI Study (Step 2)

It has been well-documented that female and male athletes differ in many physiological and psychological characteristics related to endurance performance. This sex-based difference appears to be associated with their nutritional demands including the patterns of supplement intake. However, there is a paucity of research addressing the sex differences in supplement intake amongst distance runners. The present study aimed to investigate and compare supplement intake between female and male distance runners (10 km, half-marathon, (ultra-)marathon) and the potential associations with diet type and race distance. A total of 317 runners participated in an online survey, and 220 distance runners (127 females and 93 males) made up the final sample after a multi-stage data clearance. Participants were also assigned to dietary (omnivorous, vegetarian, vegan) and race distance (10-km, half-marathon, marathon/ultra-marathon) subgroups. Sociodemographic characteristics and the patterns of supplement intake including type, frequency, dosage, and brands were collected using a questionnaire. One-way ANOVA and logistic regression were used for data analysis. A total of 54.3% of female runners and 47.3% male runners reported consuming supplements regularly. The frequency of supplement intake was similar between females and males (generally or across dietary and distance subgroups). There was no significant relationship for sex alone or sex interactions with diet type and race distance on supplement intake (p < 0.05). However, a non-significant higher intake of vitamin and mineral (but not CHO/protein) supplements was reported by vegan and vegetarian (but not by omnivorous) females compared to their male counterparts. In summary, despite the reported findings, sex could not be considered as a strong modulator of supplement intake among different groups of endurance runners.

Supplement Intake in Recreational Vegan, Vegetarian, and Omnivorous Endurance Runners-Results from the NURMI Study (Step 2)

Nutrient deficiency is a common cause of underperformance in endurance athletes, and supplement intake is frequently considered compensatory for vegan and vegetarian athletes specifically. This study aimed to investigate the patterns of supplement intake among vegan, vegetarian, and omnivorous distance (>10 km) runners and its association with age, sex, and race distance. From a total of 317 runners who participated in an online survey, 220 distance runners (mean age: 38.5 years; mean BMI: 21.75 kg/m²) were selected for the final sample after data clearance and assigned to 100 omnivores, 40 vegetarians, or 80 vegans. Sociodemographic information, racing experience, and patterns of supplement intake, including type, frequency, dosage, etc., were collected using a questionnaire. Macronutrient intake was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire. ANOVA and logistic regression were used for data analysis. The prevalence of supplement intake was 51% for total runners and 72% among vegan runners. Age, sex, and race distance had no significant effect on the type of supplement intake (p > 0.05). Compared to omnivores and vegetarians, vegan runners reported consuming more vitamin (but not carbohydrate/protein or mineral) supplements (p < 0.05). Vitamin B₁₂, magnesium, and multivitamin had the most prevalent use amongst micronutrient supplements. This study points to a central role for supplementary nutritional strategies in different groups of distance runners. The present findings may help future investigations by design to identify specific requirements of endurance runners when adhering to specific kinds of diet particularly plant-based diets.

Efficacy of Popular Diets Applied by Endurance Athletes on Sports Performance: Beneficial or Detrimental? A Narrative Review

Endurance athletes need a regular and well-detailed nutrition program in order to fill their energy stores before training/racing, to provide nutritional support that will allow them to endure the harsh conditions during training/race, and to provide effective recovery after training/racing. Since exercise-related gastrointestinal symptoms can significantly affect performance, they also need to develop strategies to address these issues. All these factors force endurance athletes to constantly seek a better nutritional strategy. Therefore, several new dietary approaches have gained interest among endurance athletes in recent decades. This review provides a current perspective to five popular diet approaches: (a) vegetarian diets, (b) high-fat diets, (c) intermittent fasting diets, (d) gluten-free diet, and (e) low fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAP) diets. We reviewed scientific studies published from 1983 to January 2021 investigating the impact of these popular diets on the endurance performance and health aspects of endurance athletes. We also discuss all the beneficial and harmful aspects of these diets, and offer key suggestions for endurance athletes to consider when following these diets.

Exercise capacity of vegan, lacto-ovo-vegetarian and omnivorous recreational runners

BACKGROUND

In search of the right nutrition for the athlete, numerous nutritional strategies and diets were discussed over time. However, the influence of plant-based diets, especially veganism, on exercise capacity has not been clarified.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study to compare the exercise capacity of vegan (VEG, n = 24), lacto-ovo-vegetarian (LOV, n = 26) and omnivorous (OMN, n = 26) recreational runners. To determine maximal exercise capacity, participants performed an incremental exercise test on a bicycle ergometer until voluntary exhaustion. During the test capillary blood samples were taken at several time points for the measurement of arterial lactate [lac] and glucose [glc] concentrations. To determine nutrient intake, a 24 h dietary recall was conducted.

RESULTS

The groups showed comparable training habits in terms of training frequency (mean 3.08 ± 0.90 time/wk., p = 0.735), time (mean 2.93 ± 1.34 h/wk., p = 0.079) and running distance (mean 29.5 ± 14.3 km/wk., p = 0.054). Moreover, similar maximum power output (PmaxBW) was observed in all three groups (OMN: 4.15 ± 0.48 W/kg, LOV: 4.20 ± 0.47 W/kg, VEG: 4.16 ± 0.55 W/kg; p = 0.917) and no differences regarding [lac] throughout the exercise test and maximum lactate could be observed between the groups (OMN: 11.3 ± 2.19 mmol/l, LOV: 11.0 ± 2.59 mmol/l, VEG: 11.9 ± 1.98 mmol/l; p = 0.648).

CONCLUSION

The data indicate that each examined diet has neither advantages nor disadvantages with regard to exercise capacity. These results suggest that a vegan diet can be a suitable alternative for ambitious recreational runners.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

German Clinical Trials Register ( DRKS00012377 ). Registered on 28 April 2017.

Plant-Based Diets: Considerations for Environmental Impact, Protein Quality, and Exercise Performance

Plant-based diets provide well-established physical and environmental health benefits. These benefits stem in part from the degree of restriction of animal-derived foods. Historically, meat and other animal-derived proteins have been viewed as an integral component of athletes' diets, leading some to question the adequacy of vegetarian or vegan diets for supporting athletic performance. The purpose of this review is to examine the impact of plant-based diets on human physical health, environmental sustainability, and exercise performance capacity. Based on currently available literature, it is unlikely that plant-based diets provide advantages, but do not suffer from disadvantages, compared to omnivorous diets for strength, anaerobic, or aerobic exercise performance. However, plant-based diets typically reduce the risk of developing numerous chronic diseases over the lifespan and require fewer natural resources for production compared to meat-containing diets. As such, plant-based diets appear to be viable options for adequately supporting athletic performance while concurrently contributing to overall physical and environmental health. Given the sparse literature comparing omnivore, vegetarian, and vegan athletes, particularly at the elite level, further research is warranted to ascertain differences that might appear at the highest levels of training and athletic performance.

Prevalence in running events and running performance of endurance runners following a vegetarian or vegan diet compared to non-vegetarian endurance runners: the NURMI Study

Background

Beneficial and detrimental effects of various vegetarian and vegan diets on the health status are well known. Considering the growing background numbers of vegetarians and vegans, the number of vegetarian and vegan runners is likely to rise, too. Therefore, the Nutrition and Running High Mileage (NURMI) Study was designed as a comparative study to investigate the prevalence of omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans in running events and to detect potential differences in running performance comparing these three subgroups.

Methods/design

The NURMI Study will be conducted in three steps following a cross-sectional design. Step 1 will determine epidemiological aspects of endurance runners (any distance) using a short standardized questionnaire. Step 2 will investigate dietary habits and running history from eligible participants (capable of running a half-marathon at least) using an extended standardized questionnaire. Step 3 will collect data after a running event on finishing time and final ranking as well as a post-race rating of perceived exertion, mood status, nutrient and fluid intake during the race.

Discussion

Our study will provide a major contribution to overcome the lack of data on the prevalence and running performance of vegetarian and vegan runners in endurance running events. We estimate the prevalence of vegetarians and vegans participating in a running event to be less compared to the respective proportion of vegetarians and vegans to the general population. Furthermore we will validate the subject’s self-assessment of their respective diet. This comparative study may identify possible effects of dietary behavior on running performance und may detect possible differences between the respective subgroups: omnivorous, vegetarian and vegan runners.

Trial registration Current controlled trials, ISRCTN73074080