Sociodemographic risk and early environmental factors that contribute to resilience in executive control: A factor mixture model of 3-year-olds

Early executive control buffers risk for adolescent psychopathology during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a global impact on youth mental health, and there is a critical need for research examining individual factors that contribute to increased psychopathology during the pandemic. The current study explored whether executive control (EC) abilities in early childhood interact with COVID-related stress to attenuate risk for adolescent psychopathology during the first 6 months of the pandemic.

METHODS

Participants were 337 youth (49% female) living in a small midwestern city in the United States. Participants completed EC tasks when they were approximately 4.5 years old as part of a longitudinal study investigating cognitive development. At annual laboratory visits during adolescence and before the pandemic, participants (Mage  = 14.57) reported on mental health symptoms. In July and August of 2020, participants (Mage  = 16.57) reported on COVID-related stress and depression, anxiety, and trauma symptoms.

RESULTS

COVID-related stress was associated with increased internalizing problems after controlling for prepandemic symptom levels. Further, the impact of COVID-related stress on adolescent internalizing problems was moderated by preschool EC, with higher levels of EC buffering the effects of COVID-related stress on adolescent internalizing problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the importance of promoting EC early in development, as well as screening for EC deficits and implementing targeted intervention strategies across the lifespan to help reduce the impact of stress on adolescent internalizing problems.

Finite Mixture Modeling for Program Evaluation: Resampling and Pre-processing Approaches

BACKGROUND

Finite mixture models cluster individuals into latent subgroups based on observed traits. However, inaccurate enumeration of clusters can have lasting implications on policy decisions and allocations of resources. Applied and methodological researchers accept no obvious best model fit statistic, and different measures could suggest different numbers of latent clusters.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this article is to evaluate and compare different cluster enumeration techniques.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Study I demonstrates how recently proposed resampling methods result in no precise number of clusters on which all fit statistics agree. We recommend the pre-processing method in Study II as an alternative. Both studies used nationally representative data on working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control.

CONCLUSIONS

The data plus priors method shows promise to address inconsistencies among fit measures and help applied researchers using finite mixture models in the future.

Associations of Early Socio-familial Stress with Maladaptive and Adaptive Functioning in Middle Childhood: Roles of Executive Control and Foundational Cognitive Abilities

This study examined whether cognitive processes in preschool, conceptualized as a unitary construct of executive control (EC) as well as foundational cognitive abilities (FCA), predict both maladaptive and adaptive functioning in middle childhood and mediate associations between early childhood socio-familial stress and those functional outcomes. Performance-based, multidimensional, and age-appropriate measures of EC and FCA were collected in a laboratory setting from 313 preschool-age children at age 5, along with questionnaire data from children and their parents on three dimensions of early socio-familial stress and parent smoking. Parent, teacher, and child self-report data on 285 of these children were obtained when they were in grade 3 or 4. Middle childhood data were used to create indices of maladaptive and adaptive functioning. A bi-factor structural equation modeling analysis captured distinct dimensions of preschool EC and FCA and was used to test the hypothesized pathways. EC had a statistically significant negative association with later maladaptive functioning. FCA, but not EC, served as a mediator in links between each type of family stressor and both maladaptive and adaptive functioning in middle childhood. Results suggest that EC may play a role in predicting maladaptation, whereas early childhood FCA may operate as an intervening variable in pathways from early family stressors to subsequent maladaptation as well as adaptation. Findings point to the need to address FCA by reducing early family stressors. Early interventions that enhance cognitive abilities may help reduce maladaptive and promote adaptive functioning later in childhood, thereby potentially preventing, in turn, later behavioral problems.

Socioeconomic status and executive function in early childhood: Exploring proximal mechanisms

Although there is substantial evidence that socioeconomic status (SES) predicts children's executive function (EF), the mechanisms underlying this association are poorly understood. This study tested the utility of two theories proposed to link SES to children's EF: the family stress model and the family investment model. Data came from the Midwestern Infant Development Study (N = 151). To measure SES, parental education and income were assessed during pregnancy, and income was also assessed when children were 6 and 36 months old. Children's EF, operationalized as working memory/inhibitory control (WMIC) and self-control, was assessed at 36 months of age, along with potential mediators including maternal psychological distress, harsh parenting, and cognitive stimulation. Using structural equation modeling, we tested simultaneous pathways from SES to EF: (a) via maternal psychological distress to harsh parenting (family stress model) and (b) via cognitive stimulation (family investment model). Of the SES measures, lower education predicted poorer WMIC directly and indirectly via greater maternal psychological distress. Lower education also predicted poorer self-control via greater maternal psychological distress. This effect was partially suppressed by an indirect path from lower education to better self-control via greater psychological distress and increased harsh parenting. Cognitive stimulation did not act as a mediator. Income was not directly or indirectly associated with EF. These findings provide partial support for the family stress model and suggest that family functioning is an important proximal mechanism for children's EF development. This study also highlights the importance of considering SES as a multidimensional construct.

Prenatal Risk Predicts Preschooler Executive Function: A Cascade Model

Little research has considered whether prenatal experience contributes to executive function (EF) development above and beyond postnatal experience. This study tests direct, mediated, and moderated associations between prenatal risk factors and preschool EF and IQ in a longitudinal sample of 1,292 children from the Family Life Project. A composite of prenatal risk factors (i.e., low birth weight, prematurity, maternal emotional problems, maternal prepregnancy obesity, and obstetric complications) significantly predicted EF and IQ at age 3, above quality of the postnatal environment. This relationship was indirect, mediated through infant general cognitive abilities. Quality of the postnatal home and child-care environments did not moderate the cascade model. These findings highlight the role of prenatal experience as a contributor to individual differences in cognitive development.

Resilience in Extremely Preterm/Extremely Low Birth Weight Kindergarten Children

OBJECTIVES

Research on developmental outcomes of preterm birth has traditionally focused on adverse effects. This study investigated the prevalence and correlates of resilience in 146 extremely preterm/extremely low birth weight (EPT/ELBW) children (gestational age <28 weeks and/or birth weight <1000 g) attending kindergarten and 111 term-born normal birth weight (NBW) controls.

METHODS

Adaptive competence (i.e., "resilience" in the EPT/ELBW group) was defined by scores within grade expectations on achievement tests and the absence of clinically elevated parent ratings of child behavior problems. The "adaptive" children who met these criteria were compared to the "maladaptive" children who did not on child and family characteristics. Additional analyses were conducted to assess the conjoint effects of group (ELBW vs. NBW) and family factors on adaptive competence.

RESULTS

A substantial minority of the EPT/ELBW group (45%) were competent compared to a majority of NBW controls (73%), odds ratio (95% confidence interval)=0.26 (0.15, 0.45), p<.001. Adaptive competence was associated with higher cognitive skills, more favorable ratings of behavior and learning not used to define adaptive competence, and more advantaged family environments in both groups, as well as with a lower rate of earlier neurodevelopmental impairment in the EPT/ELBW group. Higher socioeconomic status and more favorable proximal home environments were associated with competence independent of group, and group differences in competence persisted across the next two school years.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings document resilience in kindergarten children with extreme prematurity and highlight the role of environmental factors as potential influences on outcome. (JINS, 2019, 25, 362-374).

Executive Control and Adolescent Health: Toward A Conceptual Framework

Executive control is a set of cognitive abilities that may impact a variety of adolescent health behaviors and outcomes; however, research on executive control as a contributor to the physical health of youth is relatively limited. Therefore, the current article explores the possible role of executive control in adolescent health by reviewing relevant literature and proposing a conceptual framework to guide future research in this area. The development of executive control from preschool through adolescence is described, with particular attention to executive control in the unique health context of adolescence. A new conceptual model is proposed, focusing on how executive control may play a critical role in supporting health in adolescence and beyond through the mechanisms of attentional, behavioral, and emotional control. Literature exploring associations between youth executive control and key health behaviors (including diet, physical activity, sleep and substance use) is reviewed. Researchers and clinicians are encouraged to consider executive control as an important cross-cutting contributor to health during adolescence and beyond and to incorporate this construct into longitudinal studies of health.

Preschool executive control and sleep problems in early adolescence

OBJECTIVE

Although numerous studies have documented the effects of sleep loss on executive control (EC) and related abilities, research examining the impact of early EC on subsequent sleep problems is lacking. Therefore, the current study reports on a longitudinal investigation of EC in preschool as a predictor of sleep-wake problems and daytime sleepiness in early adolescence.

PARTICIPANTS

The participants were 141 children (48.6% female) recruited from the community for a longitudinal study spanning preschool through early adolescence, with an oversampling for high sociodemographic risk (34.1% based on eligibility for public medical insurance, free or reduced lunch status, or family income-to-needs below the federal poverty line).

METHODS

Participants completed a battery of developmentally appropriate tasks assessing major aspects of EC (working memory, inhibitory control, flexible shifting) during a laboratory visit at age 4 years, 6 months. Participants also completed a follow-up session in early adolescence (between ages 11 years and 13.5 years; mean age = 11.82 years, SD = .62 years), during which they completed self-report measures of sleep-wake problems and daytime sleepiness.

RESULTS

Structural equation modeling results indicate that preschool EC (represented by a single latent construct) significantly negatively predicted both sleep-wake problems and daytime sleepiness in early adolescence, with poorer EC predicting greater subsequent sleep problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Poorer EC abilities during the critical period of preschool may be a risk factor for later sleep problems in adolescence. Given that EC appears to be modifiable, early interventions to promote EC development may help prevent subsequent sleep problems and promote long-term health trajectories.

Executive function assessment in New Zealand 2-year olds born at risk of neonatal hypoglycemia

A growing number of babies are born with perinatal risk factors that may impair later development. These children are often assessed at 2 years to help predict outcome and direct support services. Executive function is an important predictor of academic achievement and behavior, but there are limited assessments of executive function in 2-year-olds and few have been tested in at-risk populations. Therefore, we developed a battery of four age-appropriate tasks to assess executive function in 2-year-olds. At 24 months’ corrected age 368 children completed tasks assessing attention, inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility. Scores on different tasks were weakly correlated, suggesting that they measured separate aspects of executive function, with combined scores for this cohort approximating a normal distribution. Significantly more boys (67%) than girls (57%) were unable to inhibit their behavior on the Snack Delay Task and girls (M = 3.24, SD = 2.4) had higher mean scores than boys (M = 2.7, SD = 2.7) on the Ducks and Buckets Reverse Categorization Task of working memory. Performance was significantly affected by family socioeconomic status. Mean scores were lower on all four individual tasks and on the global score of overall performance in children from a low household income (<$40,000) compared to those from medium ($40,001-$70,000) and high income households (>$70,001). Maternal education was only associated with scores on the working memory task and the global score; and a measure of neighborhood deprivation was only associated with scores on the two inhibitory tasks and the global score. Our findings confirm the feasibility of assessing executive function in 2-year-olds, and its ability to discriminate effects of socioeconomic status, a common confounder in child development research. Further development and standardization of this test battery comparing at-risk children with a normative population would provide a much-needed measure of executive function in early childhood.

Executive control goes to school: Implications of preschool executive performance for observed elementary classroom learning engagement

The transition to elementary school is accompanied by increasing demands for children to regulate their attention and behavior within the classroom setting. Executive control (EC) may be critical for meeting these demands; however, few studies have rigorously examined the association between EC and observed classroom behavior. This study examined EC in preschool (age 5 years 3 months) as a predictor of classroom learning engagement behaviors in first grade, using a battery of performance-based EC tasks and live classroom observations in a longitudinal sample of 313 children. Multilevel modeling results indicated that stronger EC predicted more focused engagement and fewer task management and competing responses, controlling for socioeconomic status, child sex, and age at observations. Results suggest that early EC may support subsequent classroom engagement behaviors that are critical for successful transition to elementary school and long-term learning trajectories. (PsycINFO Database Record