Advances on application of fenugreek seeds as functional foods: Pharmacology, clinical application, products, patents and market

Metabolic profiling and antioxidant activity of fenugreek seeds cultivars 'Giza 2' and 'Giza 30' compared to other geographically-related seeds

This study addresses a comparative comprehensive metabolic profiling of two Egyptian cultivars of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) seeds 'Giza 2' and 'Giza 30' via RP-HPLC-DAD-QTOF-MS and MS/MS. Briefly, 126 metabolites were detected in the samples under investigation, being classified into hydroxybenzoic acids (8), hydroxycinnamic acids (7), flavonoids (49 with a predominancy of flavones in particular apigenin derivatives), coumarins (1), furostanol saponins (17), alkaloids (2), amino acids (11), peptides (2), jasmonates (6), nucleosides (30), organic acids (16), terpenoids (1), and sugars (3). In addition, the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity were determined and compared with other geographically related seeds (chickpea Giza-1, sesame Giza-32, and linseed, Giza-10), showing slight differences among them but higher values than the other geographically related seeds that were segregated from them upon chemometric analysis. This is the first comprehensive metabolic profiling of these cultivars, presenting an initial account of some metabolites found in Fabaceae, such as apigenin di C pentoside, with a significant occurrence of biologically active furostanol saponins. It gives a prospect of fenugreeks richness of bioactive metabolites as an essential functional food that could add value to the food and nutraceutical industries' sustainability.

Effect of fenugreek oil on healing of experimentally induced buccal mucosal ulcer by immunohistochemical evaluation of Ki-67 expression

Wound healing involves multiple populations of cells, the extracellular matrix, and soluble mediators' actions like growth factors and cytokines. Wound care was the target of many research, utilizing new therapy techniques and the progression of acute and chronic wound treatments with techniques involving plants to improve healing and decrease the side effects of drugs. When fenugreek is applied to an ulcer, its anti-inflammatory components are released, reducing unnecessary inflammation and accelerating the healing process. Healing is controlled by growth factors that naturally activate and boost the proliferation of cells, such as Ki-67, which is associated with the growth fraction and represents the cell's ability to proliferate. The current study aims to assess the expression of Ki-67 in rat mucosal ulcers treated with fenugreek leave oil. Twenty-four male Wistar albino rats of 350-450 gm weight were used. The rats were grouped as follows; normal group (normal tissue without ulcer induction), control group (tissue with surgical ulcer induction on the right side), and study group (ulcer treated with fenugreek leave oil on the left side), and had been sacrificed at 3- and 7-day healing durations. Thereafter, the tissue specimens were used for immunohistochemical analysis of Ki-67. The obtained outcomes showed that expression of Ki-67 increased in groups where ulcers were induced, with significant differences between control and study groups on the 3rd day. It was concluded that the application of fenugreek oil had an accelerating effect on the healing process of mucosal ulcers, as indicated by the elevated expression level of Ki-67.

Effects of Separation and Purification Methods on Antioxidation, Hypoglycemic and DNA Protection Activity of Fenugreek Polysaccharide

Six low molecular weight fenugreek polysaccharides (FP) were isolated and purified by ethanol stepwise precipitation (EFP-20, EFP-40, and EFP-60) and DEAE-52 cellulose column method (DFP-0, DFP-0.15, and DFP-0.3), respectively. The effects of different separation and purification techniques on the preliminary properties and biological activities of fenugreek polysaccharides were compared. The results showed that the DEAE-52 cellulose-eluted fractions had a higher total sugar content and displayed a looser structure. The molecular weights of all six fractions were in the range of 4-19 kDa, with significant changes in the ratio of galactose to mannose. All six fractions contained α-D-galactopyranose and β-D-mannopyranose structures. Activity tests showed that all six fractions possessed antioxidant, hypoglycemic and DNA-protective activities. Among them, the DFP-0 fraction showed the highest activity. Overall, different isolation and purification methods lead to changes in the properties and bioactivities of FP, which provides a theoretical basis for the development and application of FP in functional foods and drugs.

Fenugreek extract improves diabetes-induced endothelial dysfunction via the arginase 1 pathway

Endothelial dysfunction (ED) is an initiating trigger and key factor in vascular complications, leading to disability and mortality in individuals with diabetes. The research concerning therapeutic interventions for ED has gained considerable interest. Fenugreek, a commonly used edible plant in dietary consumption, has attracted significant attention due to its management of diabetes and its associated complications. The research presented in this study examines the potential therapeutic benefits of fenugreek in treating ED and investigates the underlying mechanism associated with its effects. The analysis on fenugreek was performed using 70% ethanol extract, and its chemical composition was analyzed using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS). In total, we identified 49 compounds present in the fenugreek extract. These compounds encompass flavonoids, saponins, and phospholipids. Then, the models of ED in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice and high glucose-induced isolated rat aortas were established for research. Through vascular function testing, it was observed that fenugreek extract effectively improved ED induced by diabetes or high glucose. By analyzing the protein expression of arginase 1 (Arg1), Arg activity, Arg1 immunohistochemistry, nitric oxide (NO) level, and the protein expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), and p-p38 MAPK in aortas, this study revealed that the potential mechanism of fenugreek extract in anti-ED involves the downregulation of Arg1, leading to enhanced NO production. Furthermore, analysis of serum exosomes carrying Arg activity indicates that fenugreek may decrease the activity of Arg transported by serum exosomes, potentially preventing the increase in Arg levels triggered by the uptake of serum exosomes by vascular endothelial cells. In general, this investigation offers valuable observations regarding the curative impact of fenugreek extract on anti-ED in diabetes, revealing the involvement of the Arg1 pathway in its mechanism.

Current perspectives on fenugreek bioactive compounds and their potential impact on human health: A review of recent insights into functional foods and other high value applications

Despite long-standing uses in several food and medicine traditions, the full potential of the leguminous crop fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) remains to be realized in the modern diet. Not only its seeds, which are highly prized for their culinary and medicinal properties, but also its leaves and stems abound in phytochemicals with high nutritional and health promoting attributes. Fenugreek dual food-medicine applications and reported metabolic activities include hypoglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antiatherogenic, antihypertensive, anticarcinogenic, immunomodulatory, and antinociceptive effects, with potential organ-protective effects at the cardiovascular, digestive, hepatic, endocrine, and central nervous system levels. Effectiveness in alleviating certain inflammatory skin conditions and dysfunctions of the reproductive system was also suggested. As a food ingredient, fenugreek can enhance the sensory, nutritional, and nutraceutical qualities of a wide variety of foods. Its high nutritive density can assist with the design of dietary items that meet the demand for novelty, variety, and healthier foods. Its seeds provide essential protective nutrients and other bioactive compounds, notably galactomannans, flavonoids, coumarins, saponins, alkaloids, and essential oils, whose health benefits, alone or in conjunction with other bioactives, are only beginning to be tapped into in the food industries. This review summarizes the current state of evidence on fenugreek potential for functional food development, focusing on the nutrients and non-nutrient bioactive components of interest from a dietary perspective, and their applications for enhancing the functional and nutraceutical value of foods and beverages. New developments, safety, clinical evidence, presumed mechanisms of action, and future perspectives are discussed. HIGHLIGHTS: Fenugreek seeds and leaves have long-standing uses in the food-medicine continuum. Fenugreek phytochemicals exert broad-spectrum biological and pharmacological activities. They show high preventive and nutraceutical potential against common chronic diseases. Current evidence supports multiple mechanisms of action mediated by distinct bioactives. Opportunities for fenugreek-based functional foods and nutraceuticals are expanding.

The multifaceted potential of fenugreek seeds: From health benefits to food and nanotechnology applications

The present lifestyle, dietary patterns, psychological pressure, environmental factors, and the widespread exploitation of processed substances in food production and farming have collectively contributed to a substantial expediting in the development of various health problems. Globally, researchers have been seeking natural pharmaceutical substances with the potential to be employed in treating lifestyle-related diseases or delaying their onset. Fenugreek seeds have gained significant attention in various fields, including health, nutrition, and cutting-edge nanotechnology applications, due to their versatile qualities. The current investigation offers a comprehensive discussion of the nutritional composition and therapeutic potential of fenugreek seeds, with an emphasis on their plentiful reservoir of bioactive compounds. This seed demonstrates promising medicinal potential in addressing a wide range of health issues. Significantly, these findings indicate noteworthy properties, such as antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-obesity, hypocholesterolemic, anticancer, and cardioprotective effects. Moreover, the components of fenugreek seeds are important in the development of a multitude of foods, which is the reason why they are used extensively in the area of food research. In addition to their nutritional value, their exploration of nanotechnology reveals a promising domain, utilizing the distinctive characteristics of seeds for many purposes, such as nanoparticle synthesis and oil for edible films and nanoemulsions. This review article focuses on a comprehensive analysis of fenugreek seeds, examining their wide-ranging applications in the fields of health, nutrition, food, and nanotechnology.

The multifaceted potential of fenugreek seeds: From health benefits to food and nanotechnology applications

The present lifestyle, dietary patterns, psychological pressure, environmental factors, and the widespread exploitation of processed substances in food production and farming have collectively contributed to a substantial expediting in the development of various health problems. Globally, researchers have been seeking natural pharmaceutical substances with the potential to be employed in treating lifestyle‐related diseases or delaying their onset. Fenugreek seeds have gained significant attention in various fields, including health, nutrition, and cutting‐edge nanotechnology applications, due to their versatile qualities. The current investigation offers a comprehensive discussion of the nutritional composition and therapeutic potential of fenugreek seeds, with an emphasis on their plentiful reservoir of bioactive compounds. This seed demonstrates promising medicinal potential in addressing a wide range of health issues. Significantly, these findings indicate noteworthy properties, such as antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti‐obesity, hypocholesterolemic, anticancer, and cardioprotective effects. Moreover, the components of fenugreek seeds are important in the development of a multitude of foods, which is the reason why they are used extensively in the area of food research. In addition to their nutritional value, their exploration of nanotechnology reveals a promising domain, utilizing the distinctive characteristics of seeds for many purposes, such as nanoparticle synthesis and oil for edible films and nanoemulsions. This review article focuses on a comprehensive analysis of fenugreek seeds, examining their wide‐ranging applications in the fields of health, nutrition, food, and nanotechnology.

Deciphering the metabolic signatures of Trigonella microgreens as a function of photoperiod and temperature using targeted compound analysis and non-targeted UHPLC-QTOF-IMS based approach

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (Fenugreek) is an annual herb that belongs to Fabaceae family. The compositional make-up of microgreens depends on prevailing environmental conditions. So, Trigonella microgreens were cultivated under different photoperiod and temperature conditions and evaluated for plant height, total chlorophyll content (TCC), targeted compound analysis and non-targeted UHPLC-QTOF-IMS based metabolomic profile. The plant height and TCC of Trigonella microgreens increased by approximately 22 % and 20 %, respectively under T1 conditions (longer photoperiod of 22 h with 22 °C in light and 17 °C in dark). The targeted phenolic profile analysis revealed the dominant presence of gallic acid, p-coumaric acid and apigenin in Trigonella microgreens. Also, the concentration of p-coumaric acid concentration raised from 3.51 mg/g to 5.83 mg/g as a response of T1 conditions. The sugar profile revealed augmented concentration of myo-inositol, glucose, fructose, xylose, maltose, and sucrose in longer photoperiod with T1 conditions. The microgreens were also rich in amino acids like aspartic acid, glutamic acid, leucine, isoleucine, and phenylalanine. Notably, the concentration of proline increased from 10.40 mg/g to 16.92 mg/g as a response to T1 growth conditions. The concentration of these metabolites varied significantly under different photoperiod and temperature conditions. The comprehensive non-targeted UHPLC-QTOF-IMS analysis of microgreens revealed different class of metabolites like organic compounds, alkaloids, coumarin-derivatives, phenolic and flavonoid derivatives, terpenoids, sugars, amino acids and few nucleic acid derivatives. The multivariate PLS-DA explained different expression level of metabolites under different growing conditions. The T1 growing condition resulted in the increased biosynthesis of phenolic compounds and various metabolites. The expression level of terpenoid derivatives specifically of Trigonelloside C and Trigoneoside XIIa/b increased under T1 conditions. The substantial alteration in the metabolites due to growing conditions may alter the microgreen's dietary benefits. So, additional research may be warranted.

A Comprehensive Review on Trigonella foenum-graecum L. with Special Reference to Unani Medicine

Trigonella foenum-graecum L., commonly known as Ḥulba or Methi in Unani medicine, is an annual self-pollinating plant belonging to the Leguminosae family. It has been utilized for centuries to treat a wide range of diseases, and modern research has supported its traditional medicinal claims. In this study, the authors have conducted manual and online searches to gather and summarize the scientific literature on Ḥulba. This article seeks to underscore the potential of Ḥulba in addressing a variety of health conditions as identified by esteemed classical Unani scholars, as well as to investigate its phytochemistry and pharmacological properties in contemporary medicine. The authors have utilized electronic databases, such as PubMed, Science Direct, DOAJ, Google Scholar, and Ayush Research Portal to filter published material. According to the gathered literature, Unani physicians have consistently recommended Ḥulba seeds for a variety of ailments, such as indigestion, flatulence, colitis, arthritis, backache, paralysis, headaches, common cold, cough, bronchial asthma, diabetes mellitus, vitiligo, and pityriasis. Additionally, the seeds and green leaves of Ḥulba contain several chemical constituents, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, and amino acids. Furthermore, several pharmacological studies have demonstrated that Ḥulba possesses various properties, including antidiabetic, antispasmodic, hypolipidemic, immunological, antibacterial, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant activities. Based on the available evidence, it can be concluded that Ḥulba has been effectively used in Unani medicine for treating a wide range of diseases. Unani scholars have extensively documented its pharmacological properties, which have been supported by modern research studies. However, further research is necessary to validate some of the claims made in traditional medicine using scientific parameters.

Fenugreek bioactive compounds: A review of applications and extraction based on emerging technologies

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is a pharmaceutically significant aromatic crop with health benefits linked to its phytochemicals. This article aims to overview progress in using emerging technologies to extract its bioactive compounds and extraction mechanisms. Also, the trends in the applications of this herb in the food industry and its therapeutical effects were explained. Fenugreek's flavor is the primary reason for its applications in the food industry. At the same time, it has antimicrobial, antibacterial, hepatoprotection, anticancer, lactation, and antidiabetic effects. Phytochemicals responsible for these effects include galactomannans, saponins, alkaloids, and polyphenols. Besides, data showed that emerging technologies boost fenugreek extracts' yield and biological activity. Among these, ultrasound (55.6%) is the most studied technology, followed by microwave (37.0%), cold plasma (3.7%), and combined approaches (3.7%). Processing conditions (e.g., treatment time and intensity) and solvent (type, ratio, and concentration) are significant parameters that affect the performance of these novel extraction technologies. Extracts obtained by sustainable energy-saving emerging technologies can be used to develop value-added health-promoting products.

Dietary phytoestrogen diosgenin interrupts metabolism, physiology, and reproduction of Swiss albino mice: Possible mode of action as an emerging environmental contaminant, endocrine disruptor and reproductive toxicant

Dietary phytoestrogens are the main source of environmental contamination due to their estrogen-mimicking and endocrine-disrupting effects, posing a threat to microbial, soil, plant, and animal health. Diosgenin, a phytosteroid saponin, is used in many traditional medicines, nutraceuticals, dietary supplements, contraceptives, and hormone replacement therapies against numerous diseases and disorders. It is important to be aware of the potential risks associated with diosgenin, as well as its potential to cause reproductive and endocrine toxicity. Due to the lack of research on the safety and probable adverse side effects of diosgenin, this work evaluated the endocrine-disrupting and reproductive toxicity of diosgenin in albino mice by following acute toxicity (OECD-423), repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity (OECD-468), and F₁ extended one-generation reproductive toxicity (OECD-443) studies. Diosgenin was found to be slightly toxic, with LD₅₀ for male and female mice being 546.26 and 538.72 mg/kg, respectively. Chronic exposure of diosgenin (10, 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) generated oxidative stress, depleted antioxidant enzymes, disturbed homeostasis of the reproductive hormones, and interrupted steroidogenesis, germ cell apoptosis, gametogenesis, sperm quality, estrous cycle, and reproductive performance in the F₀ and F₁ offspring. Long-term oral exposure of diosgenin to the mice disturbed the endocrine and reproductive functions and generated transgenerational reproductive toxic effects in F₀ and F₁ offspring. These results suggest that diosgenin should be used carefully in food products and medical applications due to its potential endocrine-disrupting and reproductive toxic effects. The findings of this study provide a better understanding of the potential adverse effects of diosgenin and the need for appropriate risk assessment and management of its use.

Quality-controlled LC-ESI-MS food metabolomics of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) sprouts: Insights into changes in primary and specialized metabolites

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is an important food and spice with bioactive compounds against diabetes. In this study, fenugreek seeds germinating in darkness for 72 h were studied using quantification of trigonelline and 4-hydroxyisoleucine and an LC-ESI-MS/MS-based metabolomic approach capable of accurately estimating 237 features from various primary and specialized compound classes. During germination, the concentrations of trigonelline and 4-hydroxyisoleucine rose by 33.5% and 33.3%, respectively. At the same time, untargeted metabolomics revealed 9 putative flavonoids increasing 1.19- to 2.77-fold compared to the dormant seeds. A set of 19 steroid saponins rose by 1.08- to 31.86-fold. Primary metabolites however showed much more variability: abundance changes in amino acid derivatives, peptides and saccharides fell in the 0.09- to 22.25-fold, 0.93- to 478.79-fold and 0.36- to 941.58-fold ranges, respectively. To increase biosynthesis of specialized metabolites during germination, sprouts were exposed to 1-100 mM methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and methyl salicylate (MeSA). The hormone treatments affected normal metabolism: 67.1-83.1 % and 64.1-83.5 % of compounds showed a reduction compared to the controls in 100 mM MeJA and MeSA treatments at different sampling time points. Contrary to expectations, the abundance of flavonoids decreased, compared to the control sprouts (0.75- and 0.68-fold change medians, respectively). The same was observed for most, but not all steroid saponins. The quality-controlled untargeted metabolomics approach proved to yield excellent insight into the metabolic changes during germination of fenugreek. The results suggest that although fenugreek germination causes major shifts in plant metabolism, there are no major qualitative changes in bioactive specialized metabolites during the first three days. This stability likely translates into good bioactivity that is similar to that of the seeds. Because the large changes in the primary metabolites likely alter the nutritive value of the seed, further studies are warranted.

Enhancement of nutraceutical and anti-diabetic potential of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum). Sprouts with natural elicitors

Trigonella foenum-graecum has been extensively used for centuries in traditional medicine systems for the cure of health ailments including diabetes. Improving the medicinal attributes of plants through the elicitation strategy is gaining great interest in the recent past. In the current study, an attempt is made to reveal the role and possible mechanism of action of vitamin C elicit phytochemical-rich aqueous extract of 4th day germinated IM6 genotype fenugreek sprouts in the form of lyophilized powder (IM6E) under both in vitro and in vivo conditions. The IM6E demonstrated strong α-glucosidase activity (95.24 %) and moderate α-amylase and invertase inhibition activities under in vitro conditions. The High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) based analysis demonstrated that IM6E possess significantly higher concentration of phenolic phytochemical quercetin (0.148 %) as compared to diosgenin and trigonelline bioactive anti-diabetic nutraceuticals. In normal rats after loading with glucose and sucrose, the IM6E administration in a dose-dependent manner significantly reduced the post-prandial hyperglycemia, in a similar fashion as the anti-diabetic drug voglibose as evident from the area under curves (AUC) of oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and oral sucrose tolerance test (OSTT) tests. The administration of IM6E in streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic rats drastically improved the antioxidant activity of plasma in them as determined by Ferric Reducing Ability of Plasma (FRAP) and the effect was found to be dose-dependent. The oral administration of IM6E in diabetic rats normalized almost all the deregulated biochemical markers like liver enzymes, lipids and significantly decreased higher blood glucose levels with increasing insulin levels as compared to diabetic control. The best concentration of IM6E was found to be 300 mg/kg b.w after 21 days of experimentation. The intra-peritoneal glucose tolerance test (IPGTT) in diabetic rats responded very well to IM6E treatment and 100 mg/kg.b.w. behaved almost like the administration of 0.5U insulin/kg bw, and thus indicating the insulinotropic nature of IM6E. Our findings clearly reveal the use of IM6E for diabetes management and at the same it possesses great potential when combined with voglibose to ameliorate diabetes and its associated complications to a greater extent due to synergistic effects as compared to monotherapy. However, more clinical trials need to be performed before recommending IM6E as an anti-diabetic alternative medicine.

Effects of fenugreek supplementation on the components of metabolic syndrome: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of metabolic disorders with a heavy disease burden. Fenugreek was reported to be effective in some components of MetS. Therefore, a comprehensive review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials was conducted to study the effects of fenugreek on MetS indices. From the beginning until August 2022, PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of science were searched. Data were analyzed using the random-effect model, and presented as weighted mean difference (WMD) and associated 95 % confidence interval (CI). This meta-analysis comprised from a total of 29 eligible RCTs with 31 arms measuring fasting plasma glucose (FPG), Triglyceride (TG), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), waist circumference (WC), systolic blood pressure (SBP), and diastolic blood pressure (DBP). The results indicated significant improving effects of fenugreek on FPG (WMD: -16.75 mg/dL; 95 % CI: -23.36, -10.15; P < 0.001), TG (-20.12 mg/dL; 95 % CI: -34.238, -5.994; P < 0.001), HDL (WMD: 3.55 mg/dL; 95 % CI: 1.98, 5.12; P < 0.001), WC (WMD: -2.51; 95 % CI: -3.78, -1.24; P < 0.001) and SBP (WMD: -3.45 mmHg; 95 % CI: -6.38, -0.52; P = 0.021); However the effect on DBP (WMD: 3.17; 95 % CI: -5.40, 11.73; P = 0.469) and BMI (WMD: -0.40 kg/m2; 95 % CI: -1.114, 0.324; P = 0.281) was not significant. Administration of fenugreek can meaningfully reduce FPG, TG, WC, and SBP and increase HDL. The overall results support possible protective and therapeutic effects of fenugreek on MetS parameters.

Glycemic indices and effect of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) flavored non-alcoholic wheat beer (NAWB) on key carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes in high fat diet fed (HFD)/STZ-induced diabetic Wistar rats

In a bid to make the use of functional food easier in the management and prevention of diseases, product development and fortification from/with functional foods have become the recent focus of research. This study, therefore, sought to exploit the recent trend in the brewing industry on the production of non-alcoholic beers by investigating the possibility of having a non-alcoholic beer flavored with bitter leaf, a known plant widely reported to have a strong hypoglycemic effect, as against the traditional use of hops, and the effect of the produced beer on the glycemic indices and various diabetic biochemical parameters that serve as biomarkers for type-2 diabetes (T2D). The glycemic indices, as well as the inhibitory potentials of bitter leaf-flavored Non-alcoholic wheat beer (NAWB) in ratios of 100%HP, 100%BL, 75:25BL, 50:50BL, and 25:75BL, on enzymes linked to a high-fat diet/streptozocin (HFD/STZ)-induced T2D albino Wistar rats were investigated. There were no significant difference (p > .05) between the starch (1.72-1.77 mg/100 mL), amylose (0.22-0.24 mg/100 mL), and amylopectin (1.49-1.53 mg/100 mL) contents of the various samples. The Glycemic Index (GI) of the samples ranged from 36 to 73 with 75:25Bl and 50:50BL have the lowest (36) values. The samples reduced blood glucose levels and inhibited pancreatic α-amylase, lipase, and intestinal α-glucosidase activity. The inhibitory potentials of these beer samples on α-amylase and α-glucosidase as well as their ability to reduce blood glucose levels in diabetic rats thus making the bitter leaf flavored NAWB a suitable healthy beverage for better glycemic control in diabetics. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study revealed the potential of producing non-alcoholic wheat beer flavored with bitter leaves as a possible substitute for hops. The potential inherent in bitter leaf in the management of type 2 diabetes can thus be made available through a far-reaching beverage medium such as non-alcoholic beer to help in the treatment/management of T2D. The results of this research could be an eye-opener to the possible utilization of bitter leaf and by extension other plants that have been reported in the management of T2D. The use of the bitter leaf as a substitute for hops in the production of non-alcoholic beer in the brewing industry could help in a health-oriented campaign for safe drinks that could be helpful in the control of blood glucose levels of diabetic patients.

Inflammatory and proapoptotic effects of inhaling gasoline fumes on the lung and ameliorative effects of fenugreek seeds

Impacts of inhaling gasoline fumes on the lungs of adult male rats and the alleviating role of fenugreek seeds were evaluated. Twenty-four rats were divided into four groups, unexposed control and fenugreek groups, gasoline exposed groups for 6 h/6 day/week for 10 weeks with and without supplementation of fenugreek seed powder in food (5% w/w). Rats exposed to gasoline fumes showed significant elevation in lung tumor necrosis factor-α, as an inflammatory marker, and the proapoptotic marker Bax with a reduction in the antiapoptotic marker Bcl2. Moreover, remarkable elevations in transforming growth factor-β1, collagen and hydroxyproline were observed as fibrotic markers. Lung oxidative stress markers (hydrogen peroxides, malondialdehyde, and protein carbonyl) increased significantly along with marked decrease in total antioxidant capacity, superoxide dismutase, and catalase levels. Additionally, marked decreases in white and red blood cell counts, hemoglobin content, platelet count, accompanied by elevated red cell distribution width percentage were observed, supporting the inflammatory status. Histopathological changes represented by hematoxylin&eosin, immunohistochemistry staining for Bax&Bcl2, and transmission electron microscopy supported the negative impacts of gasoline fumes compared to the control group. Fenugreek seeds supplementation with gasoline exposure showed pronounced alleviation of lung biochemical and histopathological changes compared to the gasoline-exposed group.

Exploring the medicinally important secondary metabolites landscape through the lens of transcriptome data in fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum L.)

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is a self-pollinated leguminous crop belonging to the Fabaceae family. It is a multipurpose crop used as herb, spice, vegetable and forage. It is a traditional medicinal plant in India attributed with several nutritional and medicinal properties including antidiabetic and anticancer. We have performed a combined transcriptome assembly from RNA sequencing data derived from leaf, stem and root tissues. Around 209,831 transcripts were deciphered from the assembly of 92% completeness and an N50 of 1382 bases. Whilst secondary metabolites of medicinal value, such as trigonelline, diosgenin, 4-hydroxyisoleucine and quercetin, are distributed in several tissues, we report transcripts that bear sequence signatures of enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of such metabolites and are highly expressed in leaves, stem and roots. One of the antidiabetic alkaloid, trigonelline and its biosynthesising enzyme, is highly abundant in leaves. These findings are of value to nutritional and the pharmaceutical industry.

A Comparative Study on the Effects of “Honey and Fenugreek” with “Fenugreek” on the Breastfeeding Success: A Randomized Trial

Objective. Herbal galactagogues are usually recommended to be sweetened with honey. Despite the high nutritious value of honey for lactating women and extensive studies on the effects of herbal galactagogues, no investigation was made to compare galactagogue effects of using herbal galactagogues with and without honey so far. The present study aimed to compare the effect of a combination of “honey and fenugreek” with “fenugreek” on breastfeeding success (BFS). Methods. This study is a triple-blind randomized clinical trial on 75 breastfeeding mothers referred to a Tehran-Iran health center. The participants were randomly divided into two intervention (fenugreek and honey users) and control (fenugreek users) groups. These women had infants of 1–5 months and had exclusive breastfeeding practice. Tools for data collection were (1) the personal and maternal-infant information, (2) the breastfeeding success, and (3) the complications questionnaires. Participants received 30 liquid drops, three times daily for four weeks. The BFS questionnaire was completed twice, before and 4 weeks after the intervention. The CONSORT checklist was followed. Results. Before and after comparison showed no significant difference in the BFS score in the “fenugreek” group, while there was a significant increase in the BFS score in the “honey and fenugreek” group ( $P=0.035$ ). Between groups, comparison demonstrated a significantly higher score of BFS in the intervention group than in the control group ( $P=0.023$ ). There were no significant differences between the two groups regarding the possible complications. Conclusion. The combination of honey with fenugreek showed a significant effect on BFS, while there was no improvement in BFS after fenugreek only uses. Trial registration: the study was approved in the Iranian registry of clinical trials with IRCT ID: IRCT20120122008801N23 on 2019-12-30 (https://www.irct.ir/).

A Comparative Study on the Effects of “Honey and Fenugreek” with “Fenugreek” on the Breastfeeding Success: A Randomized Trial

Objective. Herbal galactagogues are usually recommended to be sweetened with honey. Despite the high nutritious value of honey for lactating women and extensive studies on the effects of herbal galactagogues, no investigation was made to compare galactagogue effects of using herbal galactagogues with and without honey so far. The present study aimed to compare the effect of a combination of “honey and fenugreek” with “fenugreek” on breastfeeding success (BFS). Methods. This study is a triple-blind randomized clinical trial on 75 breastfeeding mothers referred to a Tehran-Iran health center. The participants were randomly divided into two intervention (fenugreek and honey users) and control (fenugreek users) groups. These women had infants of 1–5 months and had exclusive breastfeeding practice. Tools for data collection were (1) the personal and maternal-infant information, (2) the breastfeeding success, and (3) the complications questionnaires. Participants received 30 liquid drops, three times daily for four weeks. The BFS questionnaire was completed twice, before and 4 weeks after the intervention. The CONSORT checklist was followed. Results. Before and after comparison showed no significant difference in the BFS score in the “fenugreek” group, while there was a significant increase in the BFS score in the “honey and fenugreek” group ( $P=0.035$ ). Between groups, comparison demonstrated a significantly higher score of BFS in the intervention group than in the control group ( $P=0.023$ ). There were no significant differences between the two groups regarding the possible complications. Conclusion. The combination of honey with fenugreek showed a significant effect on BFS, while there was no improvement in BFS after fenugreek only uses. Trial registration: the study was approved in the Iranian registry of clinical trials with IRCT ID: IRCT20120122008801N23 on 2019-12-30 (https://www.irct.ir/).

A Comparative Study on the Effects of “Honey and Fenugreek” with “Fenugreek” on the Breastfeeding Success: A Randomized Trial

Objective

Herbal galactagogues are usually recommended to be sweetened with honey. Despite the high nutritious value of honey for lactating women and extensive studies on the effects of herbal galactagogues, no investigation was made to compare galactagogue effects of using herbal galactagogues with and without honey so far. The present study aimed to compare the effect of a combination of “honey and fenugreek” with “fenugreek” on breastfeeding success (BFS).

Methods

This study is a triple-blind randomized clinical trial on 75 breastfeeding mothers referred to a Tehran-Iran health center. The participants were randomly divided into two intervention (fenugreek and honey users) and control (fenugreek users) groups. These women had infants of 1–5 months and had exclusive breastfeeding practice. Tools for data collection were (1) the personal and maternal-infant information, (2) the breastfeeding success, and (3) the complications questionnaires. Participants received 30 liquid drops, three times daily for four weeks. The BFS questionnaire was completed twice, before and 4 weeks after the intervention. The CONSORT checklist was followed.

Results

Before and after comparison showed no significant difference in the BFS score in the “fenugreek” group, while there was a significant increase in the BFS score in the “honey and fenugreek” group (P=0.035). Between groups, comparison demonstrated a significantly higher score of BFS in the intervention group than in the control group (P=0.023). There were no significant differences between the two groups regarding the possible complications.

Conclusion

The combination of honey with fenugreek showed a significant effect on BFS, while there was no improvement in BFS after fenugreek only uses. Trial registration: the study was approved in the Iranian registry of clinical trials with IRCT ID: IRCT20120122008801N23 on 2019-12-30 (https://www.irct.ir/).

Effectiveness of Nutritional Ingredients on Upper Gastrointestinal Conditions and Symptoms: A Narrative Review

Nutritional ingredients, including various fibers, herbs, and botanicals, have been historically used for various ailments. Their enduring appeal is predicated on the desire both for more natural approaches to health and to mitigate potential side effects of more mainstream treatments. Their use in individuals experiencing upper gastrointestinal (GI) complaints is of particular interest in the scientific space as well as the consumer market but requires review to better understand their potential effectiveness. The aim of this paper is to review the published scientific literature on nutritional ingredients for the management of upper GI complaints. We selected nutritional ingredients on the basis of mentions within the published literature and familiarity with recurrent components of consumer products currently marketed. A predefined literature search was conducted in Embase, Medline, Derwent drug file, ToXfile, and PubMed databases with specific nutritional ingredients and search terms related to upper GI health along with a manual search for each ingredient. Of our literature search, 16 human clinical studies including nine ingredients met our inclusion criteria and were assessed in this review. Products of interest within these studies subsumed the categories of botanicals, including fiber and combinations, and non-botanical extracts. Although there are a few ingredients with robust scientific evidence, such as ginger and a combination of peppermint and caraway oil, there are others, such as melatonin and marine alginate, with moderate evidence, and still others with limited scientific substantiation, such as galactomannan, fenugreek, and zinc-l-carnosine. Importantly, the paucity of high-quality data for the majority of the ingredients analyzed herein suggests ample opportunity for further study. In particular, trials with appropriate controls examining dose-response using standardized extracts and testing for specific benefits would yield precise and effective data to aid those with upper GI symptoms and conditions.

Cytotoxic activity of standardized extracts, a fraction, and individual secondary metabolites from fenugreek seeds against SKOV-3, HeLa and MOLT-4 cell lines

CONTEXT

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (Fabaceae) has many therapeutic properties and anticancer potential.

OBJECTIVE

The cytotoxic activities of standardized extracts and a fraction from fenugreek seeds and their compounds (sapogenins, flavone C-glycosides, alkaloid trigonelline) against human cancer SKOV-3, HeLa and MOLT-4 cells were evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fenugreek seeds were extracted with 70% methanol (A) or water (B). Furthermore, the seeds were purified with petroleum ether and chloroform and next extracted with methanol to obtain fraction (C). The quantitative analysis of saponins and flavonoids in the extracts was done with HPLC methods. The extracts (5-120 µg/mL) and compounds (1-50 µg/mL) were tested on the cells by MTT assay and RTCA system. The effect of a fraction on ROS production, mitochondrial membrane potential and caspase-3/7 activity in HeLa and SKOV-3 cells was also evaluated by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The strongest cytotoxic activity on cancer cells showed the fraction C (IC₅₀ was 3.91 ± 0.03 for HeLa, 3.97 ± 0.07 for SKOV-3, and 7.75 ± 0.37 for MOLT-4) with the highest content of steroidal saponins (163.18 ± 11.03 μg/mg) and flavone C-glycosides (820.18 ± 0.05 μg/mg). The fraction significantly increased ROS production (up to four times higher than in keratinocytes as control) and caspases activity in the cells. The examined flavonoids did not exhibit the cytotoxic activity in contrast to yamogenin, tigogenin, and diosgenin.

CONCLUSIONS

The obtained results complement the data on the cytotoxic activity of Foenugraeci Semen and synergistic effect of flavonoids and saponins complex contained in the plant.

West meets east: open up a dialogue on phytomedicine

The desire to extend the wisdom of traditional health systems has motivated the trade of many phytomedicine on a global scale for centuries, especially some dietary herbs, making a great overlap exits between western and eastern phytomedicine. Despite the communication since ancient times, a key disconnect still exists in the dialog among western and eastern herbal researchers. There is very little systematic effort to tap into the friction and fusion of eastern and western wisdom in utilizing phytomedicine. In this review, we analyzed the similarities and differences of three representative phytomedicine, namely Rhodiola, seabuckthorn, and fenugreek, aiming to open up new horizons in developing novel health products by integrating the wisdom of the east and the west.

Fenugreek Cultivation with Emphasis on Historical Aspects and its uses in Traditional Medicine and Modern Pharmaceutical Science

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is a native plant found in the parts of Iran to the North of India, and is presently planted also in other regions of the world. Fenugreek is considered a notable multipurpose medicinal and traditional herb in Iran, India, and China for several centuries. The most important components of fenugreek seeds are protein, neutral detergent fiber, gum, lipids, moisture, ash and starch. Fenugreek seeds and leaves are anti-cholesterolemic, anti-tumor, antiinflammatory, carminative, demulcent, deobstruent, emollient, expectorant, galactogogue, febrifuge, laxative, hypoglycaemic, restorative, parasiticide and uterine tonic and useful in burning sensation. Traditionally, fenugreek seeds being used worldwide are beneficial for bone and muscles, respiratory system, gastro-intestinal system, female reproductive system, cardio-vascular system, endocrinology and hepatic. Fenugreek helps reduce cholesterol, reduce cardiovascular risk, control diabetes, a good consolation for sore throats, a remedy for acid reflux, constipation, colon cancer prevention, appropriate for kidney trouble, skin infection, increase milk production, reduce menstrual discomfort, and reduce menopause symptoms. It is also an appetite suppressant that helps in weight loss. Both modern science and traditional medicine integration with novel technologies and discoveries will secure the cultivation of medicinal herbs and promote sustainability in the long-term and a wide-range.

Chemical Characterization and Bioaccessibility of Bioactive Compounds from Saponin-Rich Extracts and Their Acid-Hydrolysates Obtained from Fenugreek and Quinoa

Saponin-rich extracts from edible seeds have gained increasing interest and their hydrolysis to sapogenin-rich extracts may be an effective strategy to enhance their potential bioactivity. However, it remains necessary to study the resulting chemical modifications of the extracts after hydrolysis as well as their impact on the subsequent bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds. The chemical composition of non-hydrolyzed and hydrolyzed extracts from fenugreek (FE, HFE) and quinoa (QE, HQE), and the bioaccessibility of saponins, sapogenins and other bioactive compounds after an in vitro gastrointestinal digestion was assessed. In general, FE mainly contained saponins (31%), amino acids (6%) and glycerides (5.9%), followed by carbohydrates (3.4%), fatty acids (FFA) (2.3%), phytosterols (0.8%), tocols (0.1%) and phenolics (0.05%). HFE consisted of FFA (35%), sapogenins (8%) and partial glycerides (7%), and were richer in phytosterols (1.9%) and tocols (0.3%). QE mainly contained glycerides (33%), FFA (19%), carbohydrates (16%) and saponins (7.9%), and to a lesser extent alkylresorcinols (1.8%), phytosterols (1.5%), amino acids (1.1%), tocols (0.5%) and phenolics (0.5%). HQE mainly consisted of FFA (57%), partial glycerides (23%) and sapogenins (5.4%), were richer in phytosterols (2.4%), phenolics (1.2%) and tocols (0.7%) but poorer in alkylresorcinols (1%). After in vitro digestion, saponins from FE and QE were fully bioaccessible, sapogenins from HFE displayed a good bioaccessibility (76%) and the sapogenin from HQE was moderately bioaccesible (38%). Digestion of saponin and sapogenin standards suggested that other components of the extracts were enhancing the bioaccessibility. Other minor bioactive compounds (phytosterols, alkylresorcinols, tocols and some phenolics) also displayed optimal bioaccessibility values (70–100%).

Trigonella stellata reduced the deleterious effects of diabetes mellitus through alleviation of oxidative stress, antioxidant- and drug-metabolizing enzymes activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Genus Trigonella has a history of folkloric medicinal uses in China, Japan, Egypt and India. There are a variety of therapeutic actions of Trigonella including hypocholesterolemia, hypoglycemia, antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory activities, antioxidants and appetite stimulant.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus is increasing annually. The present study aims at investigating the protective effects of Trigonella stellata against the adverse effects of diabetes mellitus through investigation of the changes in phase I & II drug-metabolizing enzyme activities, protein expression of cytochrome P₄₅₀ isoenzymes [CYP2E1 & 3A4], oxidative stress, antioxidant enzymes as well as histopathology of both liver and kidney tissues.

METHODS

GC-MS and MALDI-TOF were used to analyze the main constituents of the aqueous and the ethanolic extract of Trigonella stellata. Western immunoblotting technique used to show the protein expression of CYP₄₅₀ isozymes in different groups. Spectrophotometric- and fluorophotometric techniques were also used for assessment of different hepatic integrity enzymes. Histopathological techniques used to illustrate the changes in the tissues of both livers and kidneys after different treatments.

RESULTS

Trigonelline was found to be the main constituent of both aqueous and ethanolic extract of Trigonella stellata. Administration of the aqueous and/or the ethanolic extracts of Trigonella stellata to the diabetic rats was found to decrease the blood glucose level, the biochemical markers of both liver (transaminases activities, Lactate dehydrogenase, gamma-glutamyl transferase) and the renal functions (urea, creatinine and bilirubin) which were increased in diabetic-treated rats relative to their normal levels. Diabetes mellitus potentially induced the oxidative stress, and also activities of dimethylnitrosamine N-demethylase I, cytochrome c-reductase, ethoxyresourfin O-deethylase, and the total hepatic content of cytochrome P₄₅₀. On the other hand, the activity of catalase [CAT], superoxide dismutase [SOD], glutathione S-transferase [GST], glutathione reductase [GR], glutathione peroxidase [GPx] and levels of reduced glutathione [GSH] were potentially inhibited in diabetic rats compared to the control rats. However, treatments of diabetic rats with either aqueous and/or ethanolic extracts of Trigonella stellata restored such changes caused by diabetes almost nearly to their normal levels compared to the control group. Supporting the activity of dimethyl nitrosamine N-demethylase I activity, the protein expression of CYP2E1 was also induced in diabetic rats. However, the aqueous extract of Trigonella stellata was more effective than ethanolic extract in restoring the changes in the protein expression of CYP2E. On the other hand, the protein expression of CYP3A4 was markedly decreased in diabetic rats, and this decrease was partially restored to its normal level after treatment of diabetic rats with aqueous and/or ethanolic extracts. In addition, Trigonella stellata extracts alleviated the histopathological changes in livers and kidneys caused by diabetes mellitus.

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that diabetes mellitus induced changes in oxidative stress, phase I & II drug-metabolizing enzymes, and antioxidant enzymes activities, whereas both extracts of Trigonella stellata alleviated such changes. Alterations in cytochrome P₄₅₀ system should be considered when therapeutic drugs are administered to diabetic patients since most of xenobiotic are mainly metabolized by this system.