Scavenging of reactive oxygen species by chlorophyllin: an ESR study

The Structure, Functions and Potential Medicinal Effects of Chlorophylls Derived from Microalgae

Microalgae are considered to be natural producers of bioactive pigments, with the production of pigments from microalgae being a sustainable and economical strategy that promises to alleviate growing demand. Chlorophyll, as the main pigment of photosynthesis, has been widely studied, but its medicinal applications as an antioxidant, antibacterial, and antitumor reagent are still poorly understood. Chlorophyll is the most important pigment in plants and algae, which not only provides food for organisms throughout the biosphere, but also plays an important role in a variety of human and man-made applications. The biological activity of chlorophyll is closely related to its chemical structure; its specific structure offers the possibility for its medicinal applications. This paper reviews the structural and functional roles of microalgal chlorophylls, commonly used extraction methods, and recent advances in medicine, to provide a theoretical basis for the standardization and commercial production and application of chlorophylls.

Physiological functions, pharmacological aspects and nutritional importance of green tomato- a future food

Green tomatoes contain significant levels of steroidal glycoalkoids (SGA) such as α-tomatine and green pigment chlorophyll. Tomatine is an admixture of two glycoalkoids; alpha tomatine and dehydrotomatine reported various health beneficial biological activities. Moreover, a hydrolyzed product of tomatine also contributes to age-related atrophy, and muscle weakness and helps the elderly recover from illness and injuries related to age. However, there is a lack of evidence regarding the absorption of tomatine in the human body concerning proposed biological activity, which should be an area of interest in the future. Once, the absorption study is established compounds concentrated in green tomatoes are potentially involved as protective compounds for several diseases and also used for functional food. To facilitate the use of green tomatoes in food processing, this comprehensive review provides data on the nutritional value of green tomatoes, with emphasis on the evolution of the physiological chemistry, analytical, medicinal, and pharmacological effects of the α-tomatine and chlorophyll in an experimental model. The broad aim of this review is to evaluate the health benefits of green tomatoes in addition to their nutritional value and to study the several features of the role of α-tomatine and chlorophyll in human health.

Self-assembled porphyrin-based photosensitizer nanomicelles for enhanced photodynamic therapy

Preparation of a supermacromolecular photosensitizer that can stay in the tumor site and exhibits high photoconversion efficiency is useful for improving the efficacy of tumor photodynamic therapy (PDT). In this paper, we prepared tetratroxaminobenzene porphyrin (TAPP) loaded biodegradable silk nanospheres (NSs) and characterized their morphology, optical properties and the singlet oxygen-generating capacity. On this basis, the effect of in vitro photodynamic killing efficacy by as-prepared nanometer micelles was evaluated and the tumor retention ability and tumor killing effect of the nanometer micelles were verified by the co-culture of photosensitizer micelle and tumor cells. The results show that tumor cells were killed well under 660 nm laser irradiation even at a lower concentration of as-prepared TAPP NSs. In addition, due to the excellent safety of as-prepared nanomicelle, they exhibit great potential applications in improved tumor PDT.

Could chlorophyllins improve the safety profile of beta-d-N4-hydroxycytidine versus N-hydroxycytidine, the active ingredient of the SARS-CoV-2 antiviral molnupiravir?

Could natural plant pigment (chlorophyll) derivatives (chlorophyllins) improve the safety of the antiviral Molnupiravir, used to treat COVID-19 disease?

Molnupiravir, a specific SARS-CoV-2 antiviral, may cause adverse genetic changes and thereby create potential host cell damage (through genotoxicity and DNA stressors). In our opinion, this side effect of treatment could be reduced if the antiviral was taken as a combined therapy with chlorophyllins. Specifically, we hypothesise that chlorophyllins might improve the overall effectiveness of molnupiravir, typically used to treat patients suffering from COVID-19. Chlorophyllins, antioxidants derived from natural plant chlorophyll, are safe, effective and non-toxic antioxidants that could combat possible genotoxic flow-on effects of molnupiravir. In addition, as they possess antiviral properties, treatment with chlorophyllins may enhance the overall antiviral effect via a mechanism different to molnupiravir.

Relationship between lifespan and somatic mutation in D. melanogaster after treatment with chlorophyllin

Sodium copper chlorophyllin (SCC) has a genetic damage inhibitory capacity due to its antioxidant action. For this reason, it was considered to investigate its role in the life span of Drosophila melanogaster and its relationship with the frequency of somatic mutation induced by gamma rays. Results indicated that SCC alone prolonged the lifespan only in females, but in combination with 20 Gy of gamma rays, the aging delay in both sexes was significant. In addition to confirming that the porphyrin reduces the frequency of mutation, the individuals with the highest mutation load are the individuals who die more quickly, and once they are eliminated, the survivor individuals treated with 20 Gy or with SCC + 20 Gy, died at the same rate. The results together indicate that SCC not only inhibits induced genetic damage, but it also has beneficial effects that probably cause an aging delay of the treated population that need to be investigated.

Hepatoprotective effect of Spirulina platensis against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury in male rats

OBJECTIVES

Spirulina platensis (SP) is an edible Cyanobacterium with ethnomedicinal significance. This study aims at evaluating the beneficial effect of SP against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver toxicity in male rats.

METHODS

Rats received intraperitoneal injections of CCl4 (2 ml/kg body weight [b.w.] per every other day) for 40 days, alone or in combination with oral treatments of SP (400 mg/kg b.w. per day).

KEY FINDINGS

SP attenuated haematological disturbances, serum liver markers, hepatic necrosis and inflammation, and dyslipidemia in CCl4-intoxicated rats. SP also reduced CCl4-induced oxidative stress by increasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes, such as glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and catalase and glutathione content, and inhibiting lipid peroxidation products and nitric oxide levels in the rat liver. Further investigations revealed that SP counteracted CCl4-induced increased hepatic levels of Ki-67 (a parameter of cell proliferation), interleukin-6, and tumour necrosis factor-alpha and cyclooxygenase-2 messenger RNA expression. Noticeably, the supplementation of SP restored the decrease of proapoptotic p53 protein levels in the liver of rats treated with CCl4.

CONCLUSIONS

SP prevented liver damage in CCl4-treated rats via augmentation of antioxidant defense mechanisms and inhibition of inflammatory cytokines/mediators and antiproliferative effects.

Titanium carbide nanosheets with defect structure for photothermal-enhanced sonodynamic therapy

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) has attracted widespread interest in biomedicine, owing to its novel and noninvasive therapeutic method triggered by ultrasound (US). Herein, the Ti₃C₂ MXene nanosheets (Ti₃C₂ NSs) are developed as good sonosensitizers via a two-step method of chemical exfoliation and high-temperature treatment. With the high-temperature treatment, the oxygen defect of Ti₃C₂ MXene nanosheets (H-Ti₃C₂ NSs) is greatly increased. Therefore, the electron (e^-) and hole (h⁺) generated by US can be separated faster due to the improved degree of oxidation, and then the recombination of e^--h⁺ can be prevented with the abundant oxygen defect under US irradiation, which induced the sonodynamic efficiency greatly to improve around 3.7-fold compared with Ti₃C₂ NSs without high-temperature treatment. After PEGylation, the H-Ti₃C₂-PEG NSs show good stability and biocompatibility. In vitro studies exhibit that the inherent property of mild photothermal effect can promote the endocytosis of H-Ti₃C₂-PEG NSs, which can improve the SDT efficacy. In vivo studies further display that the increased blood supply by the mild photothermal effect can significantly relieve hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment, showing photothermal therapy (PTT) enhanced SDT. Most importantly, the H-Ti₃C₂-PEG NSs can be biodegraded and excreted out of the body, showing no significant long-term toxicity. Our work develops the defective H-Ti₃C₂ NSs as high-efficiency and safe sonosensitizers for photothermal-enhanced SDT of cancer, extending the biomedical application of MXene-based nanoplatforms.

Light-Activated Biomedical Applications of Chlorophyll Derivatives

Tetrapyrroles are the basis of essential physiological functions in most living organisms. These compounds represent the basic scaffold of porphyrins, chlorophylls, and bacteriochlorophylls, among others. Chlorophyll derivatives, obtained by the natural or artificial degradation of chlorophylls, present unique properties, holding great potential in the scientific and medical fields. Indeed, they can act as cancer-preventing agents, antimutagens, apoptosis inducers, efficient antioxidants, as well as antimicrobial and immunomodulatory molecules. Moreover, thanks to their peculiar optical properties, they can be exploited as photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy and as vision enhancers. Most of these molecules, however, are highly hydrophobic and poorly soluble in biological fluids, and may display undesired toxicity due to accumulation in healthy tissues. The advent of nanomedicine has prompted the development of nanoparticles acting as carriers for chlorophyll derivatives, facilitating their targeted administration with demonstrated applicability in diagnosis and therapy. In this review, the chemical and physical properties of chlorophyll derivatives that justify their usage in the biomedical field, with particular regard to light-activated dynamics are described. Their role as antioxidants and photoactive agents are discussed, introducing the most recent nanomedical applications and focusing on inorganic and organic nanocarriers exploited in vitro and in vivo.

Chlorophyllin supplementation modulates hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in liver of streptozotocin-administered mice

Chlorophyllin is a water-soluble mixture of sodium-copper salts of chlorophyll with antioxidant and antimutagen properties. In this study, an attempt has been made to evaluate the effect of chlorophyllin on hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in liver of streptozotocin (STZ)-administered mice. In STZ-induced diabetes, two causative factors for pancreatic β-cell deaths are DNA alkylation and profound reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. In this study, chlorophyllin treatment was found to be able to modulate oxidative stress and apoptosis in liver of diabetic mice. Diabetic mice exhibited a significant reduction of ROS, malondialdehyde (MDA), and protein carbonyl levels upon treatment with the chlorophyllin. However, antioxidant enzymes, such as copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD), manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), and catalase (CAT) showed enhanced activity as well as expression in chlorophyllin-administered diabetic mice. The hepatoprotective effect of chlorophyllin was confirmed from the decreased activity of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). The histological and ultrastructural studies revealed the ability of chlorophyllin to restore morphological and cellular alterations as observed in STZ-induced diabetic mice. The effect of chlorophyllin on apoptosis showed the downregulation of cysteine-dependent aspartate-specific protease (caspase) 3 and caspase 9, whereas upregulation of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) protein, and the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay demonstrated a few apoptotic cells. In conclusion, it can be stated that chlorophyllin treatment can exert hepatoprotective effect via modulating hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in STZ-administered diabetic mice. © 2018 BioFactors, 44(5):418-430, 2018.

Clarifying busulfan metabolism and drug interactions to support new therapeutic drug monitoring strategies: a comprehensive review

INTRODUCTION

Busulfan (Bu) is an alkylating agent with a limited therapeutic margin and exhibits inter-patient variability in pharmacokinetics (PK). Despite decades of use, mechanisms of Bu PK-based drug-drug interactions (DDIs), as well as the negative downstream effects of these DDIs, have not been fully characterized. Areas covered: This article provides an overview of Bu PK, with a primary focus on how known and potentially unknown drug metabolism pathways influence Bu-associated DDIs. In addition, pharmacogenomics of Bu chemotherapy and Bu-related DDIs observed in the stem cell transplant clinic (SCT) are summarized. Finally the increasing importance of Bu therapeutic drug monitoring is highlighted. Expert opinion: Mechanistic studies of Bu metabolism have shown that in addition to GST isoenzymes, other oxidative enzymes (CYP, FMO) and ABC/MDR drug transporters likely contribute to the overall clearance of Bu. Despite many insights, results from clinical studies, especially in polypharmacy settings and between pediatric and adult patients, remain conflicting. Further basic science and clinical investigative efforts are required to fully understand the key factors determining Bu PK characteristics and its effects on complications after SCT. Improved TDM strategies are promising components to further investigate, for instance DDI mechanisms and patient outcomes, in the highly complex SCT treatment setting.

A new trick (hydroxyl radical generation) of an old vitamin (B2) for near-infrared-triggered photodynamic therapy

A new NIR-light-triggered PDT method has been developed using an old vitamin (vitamin B₂) integrated with the upconversion nanotechnology.

Amelioration of radiation-induced hematopoietic syndrome by an antioxidant chlorophyllin through increased stem cell activity and modulation of hematopoiesis

Hematopoietic stem cells and progenitor cells (HSPC) are low in abundance and exhibit high radiosensitivity and their ability to divide dramatically decreases following exposure to ionizing radiation. Our earlier studies have shown antiapoptotic, immune-stimulatory, and antioxidant effects of chlorophyllin, a constituent of the over the counter drug derifil. Here we describe the beneficial effects of chlorophyllin against radiation-induced hematopoietic syndrome. Chlorophyllin administration significantly enhanced the abundance of HSPC in vivo. It induced a transient cell cycle arrest in lineage-negative cells in the bone marrow. However, the chlorophyllin-treated mice exposed to whole body irradiation (WBI) had a significantly higher proportion of actively dividing HSPC in the bone marrow as compared to only WBI-exposed mice. It significantly increased the number of colony forming units (CFUs) by bone marrow cells in vitro and spleen CFUs in irradiated mice in vivo. Pharmacokinetic study showed that chlorophyllin had a serum half-life of 141.8 min in mice. Chlorophyllin upregulated antiapoptotic genes and antioxidant machinery via activation of prosurvival transcription factors Nrf-2 and NF-κB and increased the survival and recovery of bone marrow cells in mice exposed to WBI. Chlorophyllin stimulated granulocyte production in bone marrow and increased the abundance of peripheral blood neutrophils by enhancing serum levels of granulocyte-colony stimulation factor (GCSF). Most importantly, prophylactic treatment of mice with chlorophyllin significantly abrogated radiation-induced mortality. Chlorophyllin mitigates radiation-induced hematopoietic syndrome by increasing the abundance of hematopoietic stem cells, enhancing granulopoiesis, and stimulating prosurvival pathways in bone marrow cells and lymphocytes.

Chemopreventive potential of chlorophyllin: a review of the mechanisms of action and molecular targets

Chlorophyllin (CHL), a water soluble semisynthetic derivative of the ubiquitous plant pigment chlorophyll used as a food additive, is recognized to confer a wide range of health benefits. CHL has been shown to exhibit potent antigenotoxic, anti-oxidant, and anticancer effects. Numerous experimental and epidemiological studies have demonstrated that dietary supple-mentation of CHL lowers the risk of cancer. CHL inhibits cancer initiation and progression by targeting multiple molecules and pathways involved in the metabolism of carcinogens, cell cycle progression, apoptosis evasion, invasion, and angiogenesis. The modulatory effects of CHL on the hallmark capabilities of cancer appear to be mediated via abrogation of key oncogenic signal transduction pathways such as nuclear factor kappa B, Wnt/β-catenin, and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/Akt signaling. This review provides insights into the molecular mechanisms of the anticancer effects of dietary CHL.

In vitro Antioxidant Activities of Sodium Zinc and Sodium Iron Chlorophyllins from Pine Needles

Chlorophyll was extracted from pine needles, and then sodium zinc chlorophyllin (SZC) and sodium iron chlorophyllin (SIC) were synthesised by saponification, purification and substitution reaction, using sodium copper chlorophyllin (SCC) as a control. Their crystalline structures were verified by atomic absorbance spectroscopy, UV-VIS spectroscopy and HPLC. Moreover, their antioxidant activities were evaluated and compared with that of ascorbic acid through four biochemical assays: DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity, reducing power, inhibition of β-carotene bleaching and O ^₂- scavenging activity. SZC had better antioxidant properties at a lower dosage than SIC and SCC in all assays. In the β-carotene bleaching assay, EC _⁵⁰ of SZC, SIC and SCC was 0.04, 0.38 and 0.90 mg/mL, respectively, much lower than that of ascorbic acid (4.0 mg/mL). SZC showed a better result (p<0.05) than ascorbic acid in the O ^₂- scavenging activity assay. The results obtained from reducing power determination were also excellent: the absorbance values were all about 1.0 at 0.5 mg/mL, about half of that of ascorbic acid. In the investigation of DPPH radical scavenging activity, all chlorophyllins had lower activities than ascorbic acid. These results demonstrated the potential bioactivities of chlorophyll derivatives and supported their possible role in human health protection and disease prevention.

An update on pharmacological interventions for diabetic foot ulcers

Diabetic foot ulcers are the most common lower extremity complications of diabetes. Peripheral neuropathy and peripheral vascular disease are the underlying risk factors for diabetic foot ulcers, subsequently leading to infections and requiring antimicrobial therapy for the management of the disease. Each risk factor is a target for clinical intervention, with the intent to delay or prevent disease progression to amputation. The effective therapy includes interdisciplinary care, which involves optimized pharmacological interventions in concert with other treatments such as debridement strategies and specialized wound dressings. The pharmacological therapy alone cannot lead to successful therapy, and therefore, these supplementary techniques/modalities should not be overlooked. It is therefore the aim of this report to review various pharmacological interventions, specific to the diabetic foot and wound healing, along with incorporation of advanced therapies required to achieve a multifaceted treatment of diabetic foot ulcers and provide basis for superior drugs as well as drug delivery systems.

E2F4 and ribonucleotide reductase mediate S-phase arrest in colon cancer cells treated with chlorophyllin

Chlorophyllin (CHL) is a water-soluble derivative of chlorophyll that exhibits cancer chemopreventive properties, but which also has been studied for its possible cancer therapeutic effects. We report here that human colon cancer cells treated with CHL accumulate in S-phase of the cell cycle, and this is associated with reduced expression levels of p53, p21, and other G(1)/S checkpoint controls. At the same time, E2F1 and E2F4 transcription factors become elevated and exhibit increased DNA binding activity. In CHL-treated colon cancer cells, bromodeoxyuridine pulse-chase experiments provided evidence for the inhibition of DNA synthesis. Ribonucleotide reductase (RR), a pivotal enzyme for DNA synthesis and repair, was reduced at the mRNA and protein level after CHL treatment, and the enzymatic activity was inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner both in vitro and in vivo. Immunoblotting revealed that expression levels of RR subunits R1, R2, and p53R2 were reduced by CHL treatment in HCT116 (p53(+/+)) and HCT116 (p53(-/-)) cells, supporting a p53-independent mechanism. Prior studies have shown that reduced levels of RR small subunits can increase the sensitivity of colon cancer cells to clinically used DNA-damaging agents and RR inhibitors. We conclude that by inhibiting R1, R2, and p53R2, CHL has the potential to be effective in the clinical setting, when used alone or in combination with currently available cancer therapeutic agents.

Chlorophyllin significantly reduces benzo[a]pyrene-DNA adduct formation and alters cytochrome P450 1A1 and 1B1 expression and EROD activity in normal human mammary epithelial cells

We hypothesized that chlorophyllin (CHLN) would reduce benzo[a]pyrene-DNA (BP-DNA) adduct levels. Using normal human mammary epithelial cells (NHMECs) exposed to 4 microM BP for 24 hr in the presence or absence of 5 microM CHLN, we measured BP-DNA adducts by chemiluminescence immunoassay (CIA). The protocol included the following experimental groups: BP alone, BP given simultaneously with CHLN (BP+CHLN) for 24 hr, CHLN given for 24 hr followed by BP for 24 hr (preCHLN, postBP), and CHLN given for 48 hr with BP added for the last 24 hr (preCHLN, postBP+CHLN). Incubation with CHLN decreased BPdG levels in all groups, with 87% inhibition in the preCHLN, postBP+CHLN group. To examine metabolic mechanisms, we monitored expression by Affymetrix microarray (U133A), and found BP-induced up-regulation of CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 expression, as well as up-regulation of groups of interferon-inducible, inflammation and signal transduction genes. Incubation of cells with CHLN and BP in any combination decreased expression of many of these genes. Using reverse transcription real time PCR (RT-PCR) the maximal inhibition of BP-induced gene expression, >85% for CYP1A1 and >70% for CYP1B1, was observed in the preCHLN, postBP+CHLN group. To explore the relationship between transcription and enzyme activity, the ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) assay was used to measure the combined CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 activities. BP exposure caused the EROD levels to double, when compared with the unexposed controls. The CHLN-exposed groups all showed EROD levels similar to the unexposed controls. Therefore, the addition of CHLN to BP-exposed cells reduced BPdG formation and CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 expression, but EROD activity was not significantly reduced.

Comparative study of Cyperus rotundus essential oil by a modified GC/MS analysis method. Evaluation of its antioxidant, cytotoxic, and apoptotic effects

Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS), using both electron impact (EI) and chemical ionization (CI) detection modes on apolar and polar stationary phases, led to the determination of the volatile composition of the essential oil obtained from tubers of Cyperus rotundus (Cyperaceae). In this study, more than 33 compounds were identified and then compared with the results obtained in our previous work. Cyperene, alpha-cyperone, isolongifolen-5-one, rotundene, and cyperorotundene were the principal compounds comprising 62% of the oil. An in vitro cytotoxicity assay with MTT indicated that this oil was very effective against L1210 leukaemia cells line. This result correlates with significantly increased apoptotic DNA fragmentation. The oxidative effects of the essential oil were evaluated using the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), xanthine/xanthine oxidase assays, and the scavenging of superoxide radical assay generated by photo-reduction of riboflavin. The antimutagenic activity of essential oil has been examined by following the inhibition of H(2)O(2) UV photolysis which induced strand-break formation in pBS plasmid DNA scission assay. Based on all these results, it is concluded that C. rotundus essential-oil composition established by GC/MS analysis, in EI- and CI-MS modes, presents a variety of a chemical composition we were not able to detect with only GC/MS analysis in our previous work. This essential oil exhibited antioxidant, cytotoxic, and apoptotic properties.

Effect of chlorella and its fractions on blood pressure, cerebral stroke lesions, and life-span in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats

Effects of Chlorella regularis (dried cell powder)--cultured axenically under heterotrophic conditions, and provided as a dietary supplement--and its fractions on the blood pressure, cerebral stroke lesions, and life-span of stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP/Izm) were investigated. When SHRSP were fed on diets with supplemented Chlorella to a commercial diet (Funabashi SP), elevation of blood pressure was significantly lower in the Chlorella groups than in the control group. At 21 wk of feeding, serum total cholesterol was significantly lower in the Chlorella groups than in the control group. Histopathological examination revealed cerebral vascular accidents in the brains of the control group, but those of Chlorella groups showed apparently low incidence compared to the control group. The average life-span of the Chlorella groups were significantly longer than that of the control group (p < 0.001). Chlorella powder was fractionated into three fractions, lipid-soluble, hot water-soluble, and residual fractions. The diets supplemented with lipid or residual fractions equivalent to 10% Chlorella significantly suppressed elevation of blood pressure in SHRSP, and then decreased the incidence rate of cerebral vessel lesions compared to the control group. Chemical analysis revealed that the lipid fraction contained large quantities of antioxidants, including carotenoids (especially lutein) and others, and phospholipids involved in aorta collagen and elastin metabolism; the residual fraction contained high concentrations of arginine, enhancing the function of blood vessels. The control diet contained only a little these substances. These experimental results suggest that the beneficial effect of Chlorella on SHRSP is caused by the synergistic action of several ingredients of Chlorella, which play a role in sustention of a vascular function of rats.

Antiapoptotic and immunomodulatory effects of chlorophyllin

Chlorophyllin (CHL) was earlier shown to reduce the level of intracellular ROS and apoptosis induced by ionizing radiation and 2,2'-azobis(2-propionimidinedihydrochloride) (AAPH). In the present studies, the effect of CHL on radiation-induced immunosuppression and modulation of immune responses in mice was examined. Chlorophyllin inhibited the in vitro lymphocyte proliferation induced by concanavalin A (Con A) in a dose dependent manner at doses>or=50 microM. At lower doses (10 microM) CHL significantly inhibited activation induced cell death (AICD) in Con A stimulated spleen cells. Spleen cells obtained from CHL treated mice showed an inhibition of response to Con A depending on dose of CHL and the time after its administration. Spleen cells obtained from CHL treated mice (24 h) showed lower inhibition of response to Con A following in vitro (5 Gy) as well as whole body irradiation (2 Gy). The expression of antiapoptotic genes bcl-2 and bcl-xL was up-regulated in these cells. Chlorophyllin treatment of mice led to splenomegaly and increase in the number of peritoneal exudate cells (PEC). The numbers of T cells, B cells and macrophages in the spleen were also increased. Increased phagocytic activity was seen in PEC obtained from CHL treated mice. Most importantly, CHL administration to mice immunized with sheep red blood cells (SRBC) augmented both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.

Relative Delivery Efficiency and Convenience of Spray and Ointment Formulations of Papain/Urea/Chlorophyllin Enzymatic Wound Therapies

OBJECTIVE

To determine the relative delivery efficiency and user preference for spray and ointment formulations containing papain, urea, and chlorophyllin copper complex sodium (papain/urea/chlorophyllin copper complex).

METHODS

Participants applied both a spray and 3 ointment formulations of papain/urea/chlorophyllin copper complex to identical wound models. The average amount of product used per application was determined by weighing the bottle or tube before the study and after completion of the study. Participants were also asked to fill out a questionnaire regarding their preferences for the two formulations.

RESULTS

The amount of product used per wound application was 30% less with the spray formulation; resulting in 29% more wound applications per container. Over 80% of the study participants found the spray easier and quicker to use than the ointments.

CONCLUSIONS

The spray formulation of papain/urea/chlorophyllin copper complex resulted in less product use per wound application than did 3 different ointment formulations. Participants expressed a favorable impression of practical benefits of the spray formulation including a reduced risk of wound contamination.

Copper- and magnesium protoporphyrin complexes inhibit oxidative modification of LDL induced by hemin, transition metal ions and tyrosyl radicals

The oxidative modification of LDL may play an important role in the early events of atherogenesis. Thus the identification of antioxidative compounds may be of therapeutic and prophylactic importance regarding cardiovascular disease. Copper-chlorophyllin (Cu-CHL), a Cu(2+)-protoporphyrin IX complex, has been reported to inhibit lipid oxidation in biological membranes and liposomes. Hemin (Fe(3+)-protoporphyrin IX) has been shown to bind to LDL thereby inducing lipid peroxidation. As Cu-CHL has a similar structure as hemin, one may assume that Cu-CHL may compete with the hemin action on LDL. Therefore, in the present study Cu-CHL and the related compound magnesium-chlorophyllin (Mg-CHL) were examined in their ability to inhibit LDL oxidation initiated by hemin and other LDL oxidizing systems. LDL oxidation by hemin in presence of H(2)O(2) was strongly inhibited by both CHLs. Both chlorophyllins were also capable of effectively inhibiting LDL oxidation initiated by transition metal ions (Cu(2+)), human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and tyrosyl radicals generated by myeloperoxidase (MPO) in presence of H(2)O(2) and tyrosine. Cu- and Mg-CHL showed radical scavenging ability as demonstrated by the diphenylpicrylhydracylradical (DPPH)-radical assay and estimation of phenoxyl radical generated diphenyl (dityrosine) formation. As assessed by ultracentrifugation the chlorophyllins were found to bind to LDL (and HDL) in serum. The present study shows that copper chlorophyllin (Cu-CHL) and its magnesium analog could act as potent antagonists of atherogenic LDL modification induced by various oxidative stimuli. As inhibitory effects of the CHLs were found at concentrations as low as 1 mumol/l, which can be achieved in humans, the results may be physiologically/therapeutically relevant.

Effect of Chlorophyllin on Normothermic Storage of Human Periodontal Ligament Cells

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate whether chlorophyllin could serve as an effective constituent of a storage medium to enhance the human periodontal ligament (PDL) cell viability. Freshly isolated PDL cells from premolars extracted from healthy people were stored at 37 degrees C for 6 h in various solutions: F-medium and Hank's balanced salt solution (HBSS), supplemented with chlorophyllin. From MTT viability assays, the highest cell viability was found in the PDL cells stored in HBSS supplemented with 500 nM chlorophyllin, and the chlorophyllin-treated cells showed a dose-dependent response to concentration. Additionally, the results from flow cytometry showed that 77 to 80% of the PDL cells were in the G0/G1 phases of the cell cycle, which suggested that most were in a stable stage. These result showed that HBSS, supplemented with chlorophyllin, may be a useful solution for preserving the viability of PDL cells.

Effect of chlorophyllin against oxidative stress in splenic lymphocytes in vitro and in vivo

Chlorophyllin (CHL) has been examined as an antioxidant/radioprotector in splenic lymphocytes from BALB/c mice. CHL inhibited lipid peroxidation induced by 2,2'-azobis(2-propionimidinedihydrochloride) (AAPH) in lymphocytes in vitro. It also partially prevented radiation-induced suppression of mitogenic stimulation of lymphocytes in vitro. Generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) by radiation or AAPH was measured as oxidation of dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H(2)DCF-DA) using flow cytometry. Addition of CHL to lymphocytes in vitro significantly inhibited the increase in intracellular ROS. Further, lymphocytes from mice treated with CHL (100-400 microg/gbw i. p.) showed varying levels of ROS depending on the dose and the time (24 to 72 h) after injection. The extent of radiation-induced apoptosis and suppression of concanavalin A (con A)-induced mitogenesis ex vivo corresponded with changes in ROS levels in CHL-administered mice. Antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) were also estimated in lymphocytes from CHL-treated mice. CHL offered protection against whole body irradiation (WBI)-induced lipid peroxidation and apoptosis in lymphocytes at all the time points studied. These results demonstrate antioxidant effect of CHL in vivo.