Functions of social support and self-verification in association with loneliness, depression, and stress

Can I count on you? Social support, depression and suicide risk

OBJECTIVES

Interpersonal factors play an important role in the etiology and treatment of depression. Social support derives from compassionate words and helpful actions provided by family, friends or a significant other. The present study was designed to examine various sources of social support as they relate to the severity of depressive symptoms, hopelessness and suicide risk in adult psychiatric outpatients.

METHOD

Participants were recruited through mental health clinics at a veteran's affairs medical centre. A total of 96 depressed patients were assessed using a diagnostic interview and self-report measures of depression severity, hopelessness and social support. Among these depressed adults, 45.8% had attempted suicide at least once. Social support variables were compared between suicide attempters and non-attempters to better understand the relationship between social support and suicidal behaviour.

RESULTS

Depression severity and hopelessness were both significantly associated with lower levels of social support in multiple areas. Individuals with a history of suicide attempt reported lower levels of available support as compared to those who have never attempted suicide.

CONCLUSION

Deficient social relationships increase the risk of suicide in depressed patients, exceeding the impact of depression alone on suicide risk. The lack of social support may play a vital role in feelings of hopelessness and isolation that contribute to a suicidal crisis. Psychosocial treatment should be considered to reduce the risk of suicide and severity of depression by strengthening social support and bolstering interpersonal relationships.

"Could Be Even Worse in College": Social Factors, Anxiety, and Depressive Symptoms Among Black Men on a College Campus

Understanding mental health risks among Black men is a step forward in reducing health and educational disparities that are persistent in today's society. Semi-structured focus groups were conducted with 20 Black male undergraduate students from a college campus in the Southeast. The aim was to identify and understand the social and contextual factors impacting their risk of experiencing anxiety and depressive symptoms. A thematic analysis, theoretically grounded in the social-ecological model (SEM), was conducted, revealing three overarching themes: 1) what is known or felt about mental health 2) causes of stressors and 3) signs as symptoms. Discussions with men offered insight into their perspectives and personal experiences related to mental health issues and perceived risk factors. Themes suggest that the college transition, academic workload, perceived financial distress, and their desire and need to conform to ideals of masculinity were significant risk factors and stressors. Men offered descriptions of specific symptoms and health behaviors associated with such stress, including social isolation, anger, irritability, and changes in their own personal behaviors. Key findings paint a picture of college mental health experiences for some Black male college students. Moving forward, more research is needed to expand on this study's findings and improve mental health risk among this underserved population. Future directions are discussed alongside the results presented in this paper.

Exploring the pathway from seeking to sharing social support in e-learning: an investigation based on the norm of reciprocity and expectation confirmation theory

E-learning is increasingly evidenced as a conduit for social support exchange among students and protects them against mental health issues, however, the cognitive process of how social support is exchanged remains unclear. This study uses a cognitive theory approach to achieve a more nuanced explanation of students sharing or giving social support in e-learning. Specifically, we adopted the Norm of Reciprocity and Expectation Confirmation Theory to reveal the interconnection between students' perceived social support and giving social support in learning. The model is empirically validated based on survey data of 512 respondents from college students across China regarding their e-learning experience during the first wave of Covid-19. Our findings suggest that the relationship between perceived social support and giving social support is significant and positive, and this relationship is partially mediated by confirmation of social support. These findings imply that e-learning can foster a self-reliant environment for social support exchange among college students. Under such an environment, students' cognitive process in their seeking and sharing social support is majorly following the norm of reciprocity and secondary expectation confirmation theory.

Neighborhood Disadvantage and Mental Health: Test of a Parallel Mediation Model through Social Support and Negative Emotionality

According to the life stress model, stressful circumstances occur in the context of social, psychological, and environmental features that can function as either resources or aggravating factors, each of which are associated with well-being. This research was designed to test indirect effects of living in disadvantaged neighborhoods on mental health, through reduced social support and increased negative emotionality. This model was tested with data from a national sample of 1050 adults residing in the United States. Participants completed measures of social support, negative emotionality, depression, loneliness, stress, and alcohol consumption. These scores were merged with data from the 2015 American Community Survey to assess indicators of neighborhood disadvantage at the zip code level. The test of a parallel mediation model with structural equation modeling indicated that neighborhood disadvantage did not have direct effects on either psychological distress or alcohol consumption. However, neighborhood disadvantage was associated with greater negative emotionality, and through negative emotionality, exhibited indirect effects on psychological distress and alcohol consumption. These results are consistent with elements of the life stress model that specify various psychosocial traits as maladaptive in the context of stressful environments.

Mental health outcomes and associated factors among vaccinated and unvaccinated teachers against COVID-19 infection in Bangladesh

Background

Vaccination of teachers is recommended during the COVID-19 pandemic to reduce the risk of infection for themselves and their students, as well as to encourage their parents to get immunized. The present study investigated the mental health outcomes and associated factors among vaccinated and unvaccinated teachers against COVID-19 infection in Bangladesh.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Bangladesh from March 4 to September 9, 2021. The frequency of symptoms of psychological distress, depression, anxiety, stress, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), insomnia, and fear was assessed using the Bangla versions of the GHQ-12, PHQ-2, GAD-2, PSS-4, PC-PTSD-5, ISI, and FCV-19S scales, respectively.

Results

A total of 1,527 Bangladeshi teachers completed the questionnaire, with 678 (44.4%) being vaccinated and 849 (55.6%) being unvaccinated. Compared with unvaccinated teachers, vaccinated teachers had a statistically significant lower prevalence of psychological distress (35.8 vs. 42.9%), depression (37.6 vs. 46.4%), anxiety (31.9 vs. 45.1%), stress (18.3 vs. 32.0%), PTSD (33.0 vs. 43.8%), insomnia (25.2 vs. 36.9%), and fear symptoms (23.3 vs. 29.6%). Among vaccinated teachers, participants with master's or lower degree levels had significantly higher symptoms of depression, stress, and fear than other education levels. Respondents with children had a significantly higher risk of depression, anxiety, stress, and fear symptoms than those who did not have children. Participants who lost family members, friends, or colleagues due to the COVID-19 pandemic had a significantly higher chance of experiencing symptoms of anxiety, PTSD, and fear than those who did not. On the other hand, unvaccinated male teachers were significantly associated with a higher risk of all mental health outcomes except psychological distress and PTSD symptoms compared to female teachers. Participants who were smokers had a significantly higher chance of anxiety, stress, and fear symptoms than non-smokers. Compared to participants with strong social support, those with poor social support had a higher risk of all mental health outcomes except PTSD symptoms.

Conclusion

This study suggests emphasizing the vaccinated to unvaccinated teachers as soon as possible to control the infection and improve mental health outcomes. Vulnerable teachers also required special attention, health-related education, and psychological support.

Loneliness and Depression in College Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic: the Role of Boredom and Repetitive Negative Thinking

The COVID-19 pandemic triggered increased rates of depression, especially among college students. Due to social distancing guidelines, loneliness has been suspected as a prominent factor in depression during the pandemic. Research is needed to identify possible mechanisms through which loneliness conveys risk for pandemic-era depression. Two potential mechanisms are boredom and repetitive negative thinking (RNT). This study examined cross-sectional associations between depression, loneliness, boredom, and RNT in a sample of college students (N = 199) in April 2020 immediately following campus closure. Results showed a serial indirect effect of loneliness on depression through boredom then RNT. Moreover, specific indirect effects of loneliness on depression were found through boredom and RNT, individually. Though limited by the cross-sectional design, these data align with cognitive-behavioral theory and identify boredom and RNT as possible mechanisms of the association between loneliness and depression in college students during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Political affiliation dissimilarity: Exploring lone affiliate employees' work attitudes and experiences

Political affiliation is an important demographic variable that has been relatively neglected in the organizational literature. At present, it is unclear how political dissimilarity between employees and their coworkers affects employees' attitudes and experiences, and whether traditional theories are applicable to this unique form of diversity. Based on time-lagged data from a sample of working Americans (N = 360), we found that lone affiliates (employees who work with coworkers who do not share the same political affiliation) experienced lower levels of positive attitudes than majority affiliates (employees who work with coworkers who do share the same political affiliation). Specifically, in Republican majority organizations, Democrats had lower job satisfaction and affective commitment compared to Republicans. This difference was not found in Democrat majority organizations. Interestingly, these trends were not found for negative experiences, such as incivility from coworkers and depletion. Unaffiliated employees had a unique set of attitudes and experiences in that they suffered the most in organizations with no clear affiliation. Theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and future directions are also discussed.

Comparing multidimensional facets of stress with social, emotional, and physical well-being using ecological momentary assessment among a Hispanic sample

Stress is multidimensional, including exposure, subjective appraisals, perceived coping, rumination, and worry. Although research has shown each dimension can predict poor social, emotional, and subjective well-being, rarely have these dimensions of stress been compared as one is experiencing stress. This paper used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to repeatedly measure stress dimensions and self-reported health to test whether each stress dimension has a unique relationship with well-being over time at the between-person and within-person levels. Participants (n = 165, 79.6% female) were Hispanic undergraduates, who completed EMAs twice a day for 14 consecutive days, resulting in 3,436 EMAs and 1,987 morning sleep observations. At each EMA, participants reported on the dimensions of stress, feelings of loneliness and belongingness (social well-being), levels of sadness, happiness, and anxiety (emotional well-being), and how healthy they felt (subjective well-being). Sleep quality and duration (subjective well-being) were assessed each morning. Multilevel models revealed few relationships at the between-person level. At the within-person level, appraisals, coping, rumination, and worry consistently predicted social, emotional, and subjective well-being. Lagged analyses suggested some relationships for appraisal, coping, and worry. Results suggest the importance of measuring stress in a multidimensional capacity and examining associations with well-being across multiple health facets.

The Mental Health and Grade Point Average among College Students from Lower Socioeconomic Status Based on Healthcare Data Analysis

This study evaluated the mediating role of social support in the relationships between mental health and academic achievement and used a sample of 640 college students from lower socioeconomic status (LSES) compared to 501 from higher socioeconomic status (HSES) in China. Self-report measures of depression, anxiety, Internet addiction, self-esteem, perceived social support, and grade point average (GPA) were measured online. Group differences were examined with Chi-square analyses. Results. (1) There were significant differences in mental health, academic achievement, and social support between LSES and HSES. (2) Anxiety, depression, and Internet addiction were significantly negatively correlated with academic achievement; self-esteem and social support were significantly positively correlated with academic achievement. (3) Social support has a mediating role between mental health and academic achievement. These results proved that it is necessary to pay more attention to their mental health and develop social support to improve their academic achievement for LSES students. Previous studies have paid little attention to the LSES students, but these students are more prone to psychological problems. Therefore, this study focuses on the LSES students.

The Patterns and Predictors of Loneliness for the Chinese Medical Students Since Post-Lockdown to New Normal With COVID-19

Background: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-related quarantine has had unique psychological challenges for medical students, particularly loneliness. In this study, we demonstrated the patterns and predictors of loneliness in medical students since post-lockdown to new normal with COVID-19.

Methods: A convenience sampling method was used in this study. Face-to-face online questionnaires of UCLA Loneliness Scale and psychological characteristics scales were completed by 1,478 participants. Latent profile analysis and multinominal logistic regressions were performed.

Results: Three latent profile models were identified in this study: low loneliness (52.3%), interpersonal sensitivity loneliness (3.5%), and high loneliness (44.1%). Sophomore (Est = 1.937; p < 0.05) and junior students (Est = 2.939; p < 0.05), neuroticism (Est = 2.475; p < 0.05), high arousal symptoms (Est = 2.618; p < 0.01), and the quality of support from friends (Est = 2.264; p < 0.05) were the risk factors for high loneliness profile. In addition, sophomore (Est = 2.065; p < 0.05) and junior students (Est = 2.702; p < 0.01), openness (Est = 2.303; p < 0.05), and conscientiousness personality (Est = −2.348; p < 0.05) were the predictors of an interpersonal sensitive loneliness profile. Good peer relationship (Est = −2.266; p < 0.05) and other support (Est = −2.247; p < 0.05) were protective factors for low loneliness profile.

Limitations: Participants were selected from one medical university; the generalizability is limited.

Conclusions: Timely loneliness-focused interventions should be targeted on the different profiles and predictors of loneliness in medical students.

Loneliness, love attitudes and satisfaction with love life among university students in palestine: Gender differences

The association between loneliness, love styles and satisfaction with love life among Palestinian university students was examined in this study. Gender differences in loneliness, love styles and satisfaction with love life was examined as well as the relationship among these variables. The study included 500 students (63.6% females and 36.4% males), aged between 18 and 26 years. Data were collected using the Loneliness Scale (UCLA), Love Attitudes Scale (LAS), Satisfaction with Love Life Scale (SWLLS) and a Demographic Information Form. Analyses showed that there were no gender differences in loneliness. Significant gender differences were found on ludic, males were more in their love styles than were females. Loneliness was negatively associated with Eros, Storge and Pragma love styles, and with satisfaction with love life. Multiple regression analysis indicated that all the variables accounted for 18% of the variance in loneliness scores. Satisfaction with love life appears to be the best predictor of university student’s loneliness.

Mediating Role of Affective Experiences in the Relationship between Perceived Social Support and Life Satisfaction among Breast Cancer Patients

Aim:

The role of social support network in managing psychological symptoms in cancer patients is widely acknowledged. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential mediating role of Affective experiences in the relationship between perceived social support (PSS) and life satisfaction (LS) among breast cancer patients in India.

Methods:

A total of 100 breast cancer patients from S. S. Hospital, Banaras Hindu University participated in the study. They were tested using the PGI Social Support questionnaire, Satisfaction with Life Scale and Scale of Positive and Negative Experiences.

Results:

Co-relational results indicated that PSS was positively associated with positive affect and LS, while inversely related to negative affect. Affect was also associated with LS. Results showed that the mediation of affective experiences in the relationship between PSS and LS was significant (P <.01 level).

Conclusion:

Both PSS played a big role in LS among breast cancer patients. Besides focusing on improvement of the social support network, the psychologists and counsellors should adopt an integrated approach for evidence-based intervention strategies to enhance their ability to effectively balance their positive and negative emotions to promote LS among cancer patients.

Loneliness in online students with disabilities: qualitative investigation for experience, understanding and solutions

Online learning has given access to education for diverse populations including students with disabilities. In our university, the ratio of students with disabilities is substantially higher in the online programmes than face-to-face. Online learning provides high accessibility though it can result in a lonely experience. Accordingly, this study aimed to appraise the first-hand experience and understanding of loneliness in online students with disabilities (OSWD), and to discuss possible solutions. Thematic analysis on semi-structured interviews attended by nine OSWD identified: 'Self-paced study can reduce stigma but cause loneliness (Theme 1)', 'Loneliness and social difficulties relate to misunderstanding of disability (Theme 2)', and 'Activities, events and staff for informal socialisation are needed (Theme 3)'. As the demand for online learning is further expanded due to the current global pandemic, our findings will be helpful for online learning institutions worldwide to establish effective strategies to reduce loneliness in OSWD.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s41239-021-00301-x.

Pinning Despair and Distress - Suicide-Related Content on Visual Social Media Platform Pinterest

Background: The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that an individual dies by suicide every 40 s. Aim: Our aim was to analyze how suicide is portrayed on the visual social media platform Pinterest. Method: This study used a quantitative content analysis of 500 suicide-related Pinterest posts. Content codes included the presence of factors related to the WHO media reporting guidelines. Results: The majority of posts were published by individual Pinterest users, with public and mental health entities rarely present. Suicidal ideation content was more prevalent in visuals than in accompanying text on Pinterest. Considering the WHO media suicide-reporting guidelines, posts featured more helpful than harmful content, but explicit details of suicides and suicide attempts were still prevalent. Finally, comments were more likely to identify with suicidal ideation or post negative content than post supportive content. Limitations: Content analysis cannot discern motivations behind posts; future studies should include other methods. Conclusion: This study suggests there is a critical need for further research into Pinterest and suicide-related topics.

The relationship between perceived stress and problematic social networking site use among Chinese college students

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Perceived stress has been regarded as a risk factor for problematic social networking site (SNS) use, yet little is known about the underlying processes whereby confounding variables may mediate or moderate this relationship. To answer this question, this study examined whether depression and anxiety mediated the relationship between perceived stress and problematic SNS use, and whether these mediating processes were moderated by psychological resilience and social support.

METHODS

Participants were 641 Chinese college students who completed anonymous questionnaires measuring perceived stress, depression/anxiety, psychological resilience, social support, and problematic SNS use.

RESULTS

The results showed that (a) depression/anxiety mediated the relationship between perceived stress and problematic SNS use; (b) the mediating effects of depression/anxiety on the association between perceived stress and problematic SNS use were moderated by psychological resilience. Specifically, the mediating effects of depression/anxiety were stronger for individuals with lower levels of psychological resilience, compared with those with higher levels of psychological resilience; and (c) the mediating effects of depression/anxiety were not moderated by social support, although social support was negatively related to depression/anxiety.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study can contribute to a better understanding of how and when perceived stress increases the risk of problematic SNS use, and implies the importance of enhancing psychological resilience in preventing problematic SNS use.

The effect of loneliness on depression: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Negative emotions, which have a common, chronic and recurrent structure, play a vital role in the development and maintenance of psychopathology. In this study, loneliness as a negative emotion was considered to be a predisposing factor in depression.

AIM

The aim of this meta-analysis is to determine the effect of loneliness on depression.

METHOD

Initially, a literature scan was performed and all related literature was pooled together ( n = 531). Based on scales determined by the researchers, it was decided to include 88 studies in the analysis. This study obtained a sampling group of 40,068 individuals.

RESULTS

The results of using a random effects model for analysis showed that loneliness had a moderately significant effect on depression. None of the variables of study sampling group, type of publication and publication year were found to be moderator variables.

CONCLUSION

According to the results of the research, loneliness may be said to be a significant variable affecting depression. The findings obtained are discussed in light of the literature.

Poor Nutritional Status among Low-Income Older Adults: Examining the Interconnection between Self-Care Capacity, Food Insecurity, and Depression

BACKGROUND

Understanding of the mechanisms of how food insecurity and poor physical and mental health status are interrelated with nutritional status among older adults is needed due to their unique health and social needs.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the complex relationships between self-care capacity, depressive symptoms, food insecurity, and nutritional status among low-income older adults.

DESIGN

The cross-sectional study was conducted from February 2017 to May 2017.

PARTICIPANTS/SETTING

A total of 372 low-income older adults, 60 years of age and older, living in the state of Alabama participated.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Participants completed a validated survey measuring food insecurity (six-item US Food Security Survey Module), self-care capacity (Self-Care Capacity Scale), depressive symptoms (10-item Geriatric Depression Scale), and nutritional status (Mini Nutritional Assessment Short-Form).

STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED

Generalized structural equation modeling was used to include the simultaneous equations and multiple mediators in one model. The Akaike Information Criterion, Bayesian Information Criterion, and likelihood ratio tests were conducted to compare the fit of competing model specifications.

RESULTS

Lower self-care capacity was associated with greater food insecurity (beta [b]=.11, odds ratio [OR]=1.11, P=0.03) and higher depressive symptoms (b=.08, P=0.005). Poorer self-care capacity and higher depressive symptoms were associated with poorer nutritional status (b=.24, OR=1.27, P<0.001; b=.13, OR=1.43, P=0.001, respectively). Higher food insecurity was associated with increased depressive symptoms (b=.40, P<0.001). Self-care capacity was associated with nutritional status directly and indirectly through depressive symptoms (b=.04, P=0.048). Although food insecurity was not significantly associated with nutritional status, a significant indirect association between food insecurity and nutritional status through depressive symptoms was observed (b=.02, P=0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Study results indicate functionally impaired low-income older adults encounter greater food insecurity. Inability to afford food combined with limited ability to take care of oneself contributes to an increased self-report of depressive symptoms, resulting in less favorable nutritional status.

Indirect Effects of Loneliness on Substance Use through Stress

Loneliness is associated with a range of physical health problems, and health behaviors (e.g., alcohol use) have been specified as one factor that explains the compromised health of lonely people. Accordingly, in this investigation, we sought to test direct and indirect (through stress) effects of loneliness on substance use (i.e., alcohol consumption, drinking problems, and prescription medication use) over the course of 1 year in a 2-wave longitudinal study. These effects were tested in a sample of 210 young adults who completed self-report measures of loneliness and substance use at time 1 and then completed measures of stress and substance use at time 2. The results showed that loneliness did not have prospective direct effects on substance use, but that it did have significant indirect effects, through increased stress, on all indicators of substance use. These findings highlight the important role of stress in potentially compromising the health of lonely people by increasing their propensity to engage in health risk behaviors.

Social Support, Parenting Competence, and Parenting Satisfaction Among Adolescent, African American, Mothers

This secondary analysis explored how social support changed during the first 6 months postpartum and examined the relationships among social support, parenting competence, and parenting role satisfaction. Single, low-income, adolescent, new mothers ( N = 34) completed measures of perceived parenting competence, parenting role satisfaction, and four types of received social support (emotional, informational, tangible, problematic) from the entire social network at 1 week, 6 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months postpartum. Results indicated that social support did not change over time. Emotional, informational, and tangible social support were significantly correlated, concurrently and predictively, with perceived competence and satisfaction at most data collection points. Future social support intervention studies using social support as a modifiable variable with this high-risk group of African American adolescent new mothers are advocated. Health care professionals are encouraged to examine existing social support within these mothers' identified family units.

To thine own self be true? Clarifying the effects of identity discrepancies on psychological distress and emotions

After many years of research across disciplines, it remains unclear whether people are more motivated to seek appraisals that accurately match self-views (self-verification) or are as favorable as possible (self-enhancement). Within sociology, mixed findings in identity theory have fueled the debate. A problem here is that a commonly employed statistical approach does not take into account the direction of a discrepancy between how we see ourselves and how we think others see us in terms of a given identity, yet doing so is critical for determining which self-motive is at play. We offer a test of three competing models of identity processes, including a new "mixed motivations" model where self-verification and self-enhancement operate simultaneously. We compare the models using the conventional statistical approach versus response surface analysis. The latter method allows us to determine whether identity discrepancies involving over-evaluation are as distressing as those involving under-evaluation. We use nationally representative data and compare results across four different identities and multiple outcomes. The two statistical approaches lead to the same conclusions more often than not and mostly support identity theory and its assumption that people seek self-verification. However, response surface tests reveal patterns that are mistaken as evidence of self-verification by conventional procedures, especially for the spouse identity. We also find that identity discrepancies have different effects on distress and self-conscious emotions (guilt and shame). Our findings have implications not only for research on self and identity across disciplines, but also for many other areas of research that incorporate these concepts and/or use difference scores as explanatory variables.