1
|
Parent MC, Johnson NL. Anabolic Steroid Use and Intimate Partner Violence Among Sexual Minority Men. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2023; 38:6676-6694. [PMID: 36401518 DOI: 10.1177/08862605221137704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the relationship between intimate partner violence (IPV) and use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), in a relationship context, among men who have sex with men (MSM). The sample was collected online via Prolific.co and consisted of 491 MSM. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. While accounting for the influence of factors known to be linked to IPV (adverse childhood experiences and alcohol use), the use of AAS in a relationship context was uniquely linked to greater perpetration of IPV. AAS use was not uniquely linked to IPV victimization. Findings from this study contribute to literature on IPV among MSM by including a group-specific risk factor (AAS use) in modeling risk for IPV. Limitations, implications, and future directions for research are discussed.
Collapse
|
2
|
Anabolic-androgenic steroid use is associated with psychopathy, risk-taking, anger, and physical problems. Sci Rep 2022; 12:9133. [PMID: 35650220 PMCID: PMC9160254 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-13048-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research has uncovered medical and psychological effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use, but the specific relationship between AAS use and risk-taking behaviors as well as between AAS use and psychopathic tendencies remains understudied. To explore these potential relationships, we anonymously recruited 492 biologically male, self-identified bodybuilders (median age 22; range 18-47 years) from online bodybuilding fora to complete an online survey on Appearance and Performance Enhancing Drug (APED) use, psychological traits, lifestyle choices, and health behaviors. We computed odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals using logistic regression, adjusting for age, race, education, exercise frequency, caloric intake, and lean BMI. Bodybuilders with a prior history of AAS use exhibited heightened odds of psychopathic traits, sexual and substance use risk-taking behaviors, anger problems, and physical problems compared to those with no prior history of AAS use. This study is among the first to directly assess psychopathy within AAS users. Our results on risk-taking, anger problems, and physical problems are consistent with prior AAS research as well as with existing frameworks of AAS use as a risk behavior. Future research should focus on ascertaining causality, specifically whether psychopathy is a risk associated with or a result of AAS use.
Collapse
|
3
|
Brusseau TA, Burns RD. Associations of Physical Activity, School Safety, and Non-Prescription Steroid Use in Adolescents: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 19:87. [PMID: 35010346 PMCID: PMC8751058 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19010087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Non-prescription steroid use can negatively impact adolescent physical and mental health and wellbeing. Determining correlates of this risk behavior is needed to help mitigate its prevalence. Two potential correlates are physical activity and school safety. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations of physical activity, school safety, and non-prescription steroid use within a sample of adolescents from the 2015-2019 US National Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). A multi-stage cluster sampling procedure yielded a representative sample of US adolescents from the 2015-2019 YRBS (n = 44,066; 49.6% female). Two latent variables indicating physical activity and unsafe schools were the independent variables. The dependent variable was a self-report of non-prescription steroid use. A weighted structural equation model examined the associations between physical activity and unsafe schools with non-prescription steroid use, controlling for age, sex, BMI %tile, race/ethnicity, and sexual minority status. The latent physical activity variable did not associate with non-prescription steroid use (β = 0.007, 95%CI: -0.01-0.02, p = 0.436); however, the unsafe schools latent variable did associate with non-prescription steroid use (β = 0.64, 95%CI: 0.59-0.69, p < 0.001). An unsafe school environment may be a determinant of non-prescription steroid use in adolescents. Physical activity behaviors did not associate with steroid use.
Collapse
|
4
|
Zaami S, Minutillo A, Sirignano A, Marinelli E. Effects of Appearance- and Performance-Enhancing Drugs on Personality Traits. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:730167. [PMID: 34630182 PMCID: PMC8497711 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.730167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs (APEDs) are commonly used by adolescents and young adults in an effort to improve not only athletic performance but also physical and mental efficiency and sexual appearance. The rationale for using these drugs is grounded in the perceived importance of external appearance, the quest for health and youth, and the urge to boost one's sexual performances. Although APED users tend to be quite moderate overall, some specific subpopulations can display pathological use associated with high-risk behaviors. A wide and diverse range of APEDs is now easily accessible to almost anyone through backdoor online avenues. Common APEDs include anabolic-androgenic steroids, non-steroidal anabolics, anorectics, diuretics and ergo/thermogenics, nootropics or "cognition enhancers," licit and illicit psychostimulants, and finally, sexual enhancers. The use of APEDs appears linked to several psychopathological disorders of unclear prevalence, e.g., body image disorders and eating disorders, perfectionism, but also depression and loneliness. The role of personality traits related to APED use has been investigated in adolescents and young adults, in elite and amateur athletes, and in chemsexers and associated with the above-reported personality traits. The studies herein analyzed show that APED consumption in the general population is quickly growing into a public health concern. It is therefore essential to launch prevention and intervention projects aimed at promoting safe instrumental use of the body, not only in sports disciplines but also among the general population, and to promote psychological aid procedures for people with substance use issues, depression and anxiety, and body image disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simona Zaami
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Adele Minutillo
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Ascanio Sirignano
- School of Law, Medico-Legal Section, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Enrico Marinelli
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Chegeni R, Notelaers G, Pallesen S, Sagoe D. Aggression and Psychological Distress in Male and Female Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Users: A Multigroup Latent Class Analysis. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:629428. [PMID: 34149470 PMCID: PMC8211877 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.629428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The relationship between anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use and aggression and psychological distress requires further elucidation. No previous study has examined whether the latent patterns of aggression and psychological distress are the same in male and female AAS users. Multigroup latent class analysis (MLCA) can be used to classify individuals into groups based on their responses on a set of variables, and to investigate measurement invariance across subgroups. We therefore conducted a MLCA to identify discrete subgroups of aggression and psychological distress in AAS users, and used measurement invariance to examine whether the identified subgroups can be applied to both sexes. We also examined the relationship between sex and subgroup belongingness. The sample comprised 206 AAS users (females = 58.30%) aged 14-56 (mean = 26.86, SD = 7.12) years. They completed questionnaires assessing demographics, AAS use, aggression, and psychological distress. Based on the MLCA, five subgroups were identified: high aggression moderate distress users (HAMoD: 07.63%), moderate aggression distress users (18.64%), moderate direct aggression-mild indirect aggression moderate distress users (22.95%), mild direct aggression-moderate indirect aggression-distress users (11.71%), and low aggression mild distress users (LAMiD: 39.06%). Although a homogenous five-class solution was the best model for both sexes, sex was significantly associated with the probability of subgroup membership. In particular, members of the HAMoD subgroup were more likely to be male whereas members of the LAMiD subgroup were more likely to be female. Our study provides novel empirical evidence of the idiosyncratic patterns of aggression and psychological distress among male and female AAS users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Razieh Chegeni
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Guy Notelaers
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Ståle Pallesen
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,Optentia, The Vaal Triangle Campus of the North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa
| | - Dominic Sagoe
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Börjesson A, Möller C, Hagelin A, Vicente V, Rane A, Lehtihet M, Dahl ML, Gårevik N, Ekström L. Male Anabolic Androgenic Steroid Users with Personality Disorders Report More Aggressive Feelings, Suicidal Thoughts, and Criminality. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 56:medicina56060265. [PMID: 32481676 PMCID: PMC7353874 DOI: 10.3390/medicina56060265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background and objectives: Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are mainly used for aesthetic and performance-enhancing reasons. Their use is a growing public health problem and concern for society because of their adverse effects. The primary aim of this study was to identify psychiatric and personality disorders and to measure anxiety and depression in AAS users. Materials and Methods: Fifty-six males who actively contacted the Anti-Doping Hot-Line and wished to stop using AAS were included. Structured Clinical Interviews Diagnosis-I and -II were used to diagnose psychiatric and personality disorders. The Brief Scale for Anxiety and Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale (subscales from the Comprehensive Psychopathological Rating Scale) were used to measure changes in anxiety and depression. Structured Clinical Interviews Diagnosis-I and -II were performed at one time point. Anxiety and depression were measured at inclusion and after six months. Urine samples were collected for an analysis of AAS and drugs of abuse. Results: All participants reported some adverse effects that they associated with AAS use. In total, 56% and 52% of the cohort fulfilled the criteria for Structured Clinical Interviews Diagnosis-I and -II diagnoses, respectively. A significantly increased risk of reporting aggressive feelings/behaviors (Odds Ratio (OR) = 4.9; Confidence Interval (CI) 0.99-25, p = 0.04), suicidal thoughts/attempts (OR = 4.6, CI 95; 0.99-21, p = 0.04) and criminality (OR = 6.5, CI 1-39, p = 0.03) was found among individuals with AAS use fulfilling the criteria for personality disorders compared with those without such AAS use. The Brief Scale for Anxiety score decreased from the median of 15 at inclusion to 10 at the follow-up visit six months later (p = 0.01, n = 19). Conclusions: Our findings indicate that among individuals with AAS use, those with a personality disorder report more aggressive behaviors, suicidal thoughts/suicidal attempts, and criminality than those without a personality disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Annica Börjesson
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden; (A.H.); (A.R.); (M.-L.D.); (N.G.); (L.E.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +46-8-585-811-92
| | - Christian Möller
- Centre for Ethics, Law and Mental Health, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden;
- Psychiatric Clinic, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, 413 45 Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Forensic Psychiatry, National Board of Forensic Medicine, 422 49 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anders Hagelin
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden; (A.H.); (A.R.); (M.-L.D.); (N.G.); (L.E.)
| | - Veronica Vicente
- The Ambulance Medical Service in Stockholm (AISAB), Academic EMS, 121 63 Stockholm, Sweden;
- Department of Clinical Science and Education, Södersjukhuset, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anders Rane
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden; (A.H.); (A.R.); (M.-L.D.); (N.G.); (L.E.)
| | - Mikael Lehtihet
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, S:t Görans Hospital, 122 19 Stockholm, Sweden;
| | - Marja-Liisa Dahl
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden; (A.H.); (A.R.); (M.-L.D.); (N.G.); (L.E.)
| | - Nina Gårevik
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden; (A.H.); (A.R.); (M.-L.D.); (N.G.); (L.E.)
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lena Ekström
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden; (A.H.); (A.R.); (M.-L.D.); (N.G.); (L.E.)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Ganson KT, Cadet TJ. Exploring Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use and Teen Dating Violence Among Adolescent Males. Subst Use Misuse 2019; 54:779-786. [PMID: 30572768 DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2018.1536723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reports indicate that 4% of the adolescent males in 2015 had taken steroids without a doctor's prescription. Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are illicit drugs that have commonly been used to help build muscle mass. AAS use is associated with negative biological, psychological, and social side effects including substance use, suicidal behavior, and violent behavior. OBJECTIVES This exploratory study, guided by an integrated theoretical framework that included the General Aggression Model and the Biopsychosocial Model, examined the relationship between adolescent male AAS use and teen dating violence. METHODS This cross-sectional, secondary data analysis was conducted using the 2013 and 2015 Massachusetts Youth Health Survey (MYHS). Participants were high school-aged males with a total sample of 2,080. Primary data analysis was conducted using hierarchical logistic regression. RESULTS Findings suggested that adolescent males who used steroids at least once in their lifetime, compared to those who did not, had greater odds of engaging in teen dating violence. Further, males who identified as a sexual minority had greater odds of using anabolic-androgenic steroids, as were those who had at least one suicide attempt in the previous 12 months. CONCLUSIONS Adolescent male AAS use is associated with multiple psychosocial factors that practitioners, school personnel, and parents must be aware of.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyle T Ganson
- a School of Social Work , Simmons University , Boston , MA
| | - Tamara J Cadet
- a School of Social Work , Simmons University , Boston , MA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Chegeni R, Sagoe D, Mentzoni RA, Pallesen S. Aggression and Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use Intent in Adolescents: A Longitudinal Study. Subst Use Misuse 2019; 54:1509-1518. [PMID: 30931688 DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2019.1589522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Background: There is a dearth of longitudinal studies on risk factors for anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use and intent. Objectives: We conducted a longitudinal investigation of factors associated with AAS use intent from age 18 to 19, examining particularly the role of physical and verbal aggression. A sample of Norwegians completed questionnaires containing demographic, AAS use and intent, other addictions, aggression, and health measures at ages 18 (N = 1333, females = 58.9%) and 19 (N = 1277, females = 61.7%). The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlations, and hierarchical multiple regression. Results: Results show that AAS use prevalence increased from 1 person at age 18 to 4 persons at age 19. Intent to use AAS, being male, living alone, and AAS use (all at 18 years) were associated with higher AAS use intent at 19 years. We found no associations between physical or verbal aggression and AAS use intent from ages 18 to 19. Conclusions: Our findings indicate temporal stability in AAS use intent, as well as the influence of demographic and health factors on AAS use intent from ages 18 to 19. Implications of findings for practice and future research are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Razieh Chegeni
- a Department of Psychosocial Science , University of Bergen , Bergen , Norway
| | - Dominic Sagoe
- a Department of Psychosocial Science , University of Bergen , Bergen , Norway
| | - Rune A Mentzoni
- a Department of Psychosocial Science , University of Bergen , Bergen , Norway
| | - Ståle Pallesen
- a Department of Psychosocial Science , University of Bergen , Bergen , Norway
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Theoretically, legal supplement use precedes and increases the risk for illicit appearance and performance enhancing drug (APED) use-also referred to as the gateway hypothesis. Little is known about associations between the speed of progression, or gap time, from legal to illicit APED use, and psychological risk factors, such as sociocultural influence, eating disorders, body image disturbance, and impulsivity. METHOD The sample taken from two studies included 172 active steroid users (n = 143) and intense-exercising healthy controls (n = 29) between the ages of 18 and 60 (M = 34.16, SD = 10.43), the majority of whom were male (91.9%). Participants, retrospectively, reported APED use and completed measures assessing psychological and behavioral factors, including eating concern, muscle dysmorphia, and impulsivity. Participants had a gap time from initial APED use to anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use that ranged from 0 to 38 years. RESULTS Continuous survival analysis indicated that interactions between self- versus other sociocultural influence on APED onset and both higher eating concern and impulsivity are associated with a shorter gap time from initial legal to illicit APED use. DISCUSSION The results indicate the potential value in developing different strategies for individuals with other sociocultural versus self-influence on illicit APED use, and among more impulsive and eating-concerned APED users. Future research is needed to assess different trajectories of APED use, such that eating-concerned and impulsive individuals who perceive less other sociocultural influence may be at greatest risk for a speedier progression to AAS use.
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To systematically review current epidemiological literature on androgen abuse. Estimates from 32 empirical epidemiological articles were reviewed. RECENT FINDINGS Generally, androgen abuse epidemiology and prevalence is higher in Europe, the Middle East, North America (the USA), Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), and South America (Brazil) and lower in Africa and Asia. In contrast to the general population, androgen abuse epidemiology and prevalence is higher among athletes, injection drug users, recreational sportspeople, and sexual and gender minorities. SUMMARY From the 1970s, androgen abuse spread from athletes into the general population. Consistent with previous evidence, reviewed studies suggest that androgen abuse epidemiology and prevalence is higher in Western cultural contexts, the Middle East, and South America (Brazil) and lower in Africa and Asia. Evidence also corroborates indications that androgen abuse is less prevalent among women (vs. men), and in the general population in contrast to particular subpopulations consisting of athletes, injection drug users, recreational sportspeople, and sexual and gender minorities. Adolescents' androgen abuse should be of special concern. Androgen abuse in some nonsports occupations (e.g. security workers) requires further exploration. Polypharmacy and the Internet proliferation of androgens and other PIEDs require surveillance for prevention and harm reduction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dominic Sagoe
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To summarize recent findings regarding the public health impact of androgen abuse. RECENT FINDINGS Abuse of androgens (also called 'anabolic-androgenic steroids') has grown into a major worldwide substance abuse problem involving tens of millions of individuals, of whom about 98% are men. Most androgen abusers are still under age 50 today, and thus, the long-term effects of these drugs are only beginning to be understood. Recent studies confirm that long-term supraphysiologic androgen exposure produces cardiovascular toxicity, characterized especially by cardiomyopathy and atherosclerotic disease. Withdrawal from androgens after long-term use may produce prolonged and sometimes irreversible hypogonadism in men. Supraphysiologic androgen levels may sometimes cause irritability, aggressiveness, and violence, whereas androgen withdrawal may cause depression. However, these psychiatric effects are idiosyncratic, affecting only a minority of users. Emerging evidence now also suggests that long-term androgen exposure may cause neurotoxicity, raising the possibility that aging androgen abusers may be at increased risk for dementia. Several recent studies have also described androgen-induced hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and adverse musculoskeletal effects. SUMMARY Recent studies have demonstrated marked adverse effects of long-term androgen abuse. As increasing numbers of androgen abusers reach middle age, these effects will likely represent an emerging public health problem.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gen Kanayama
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, McLean Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
|
13
|
Nicholls AR, Cope E, Bailey R, Koenen K, Dumon D, Theodorou NC, Chanal B, Saint Laurent D, Müller D, Andrés MP, Kristensen AH, Thompson MA, Baumann W, Laurent JF. Children's First Experience of Taking Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids can Occur before Their 10th Birthday: A Systematic Review Identifying 9 Factors That Predicted Doping among Young People. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1015. [PMID: 28676778 PMCID: PMC5476735 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Taking performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) can cause serious and irreversible health consequences, which can ultimately lead to premature death. Some young people may take PEDs without fully understanding the ramifications of their actions or based on the advice from others. The purpose of this systematic review was to identify the main factors that predicted doping among young people. The literature was systematically reviewed using search engines, manually searching specialist journals, and pearl growing. Fifty-two studies, which included 187,288 young people aged between 10 and 21 years of age, 883 parents of adolescent athletes, and 11 adult coaches, who were interviewed regarding young athletes, were included in this review. Nine factors predicted doping among young people: gender; age; sports participation; sport type; psychological variables; entourage; ethnicity; nutritional supplements; and health harming behaviors. In regards to psychological variables, 22 different constructs were associated with doping among young people. Some psychological constructs were negatively associated with doping (e.g., self-esteem, resisting social pressure, and perfectionist strivings), whereas other were positively associated with doping (e.g., suicide risk, anticipated regret, and aggression). Policy makers and National Anti-Doping Organizations could use these findings to help identify athletes who are more at risk of doping and then expose these individuals to anti-doping education. Based on the current findings, it also appears that education programs should commence at the onset of adolescence or even late childhood, due to the young age in which some individuals start doping.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ed Cope
- School of Life Sciences, University of HullHull, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Bailey
- International Council of Sport Science and Physical EducationBerlin, Germany
| | - Katrin Koenen
- International Council of Sport Science and Physical EducationBerlin, Germany
| | - Detlef Dumon
- International Council of Sport Science and Physical EducationBerlin, Germany
| | | | - Benoit Chanal
- Agence Française de Lutte Contre le DopageParis, France
| | | | - David Müller
- Nationale Anti-Doping Agentur Austria GmbHWien, Austria
| | - Mar P. Andrés
- Agencia Española de Protección de la Salud en el DeporteMadrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Wolfgang Baumann
- The Association for International Sport for AllFrankfurt, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|