Strategies for the improvement of HCV testing and diagnosis

Prevalence of hepatitis B and C viruses among migrant workers in Qatar

Limited data exist on viral hepatitis among migrant populations. This study investigated the prevalence of current hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and lifetime hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among Qatar's migrant craft and manual workers (CMWs), constituting 60% of the country's population. Sera collected during a nationwide COVID-19 population-based cross-sectional survey on CMWs between July 26 and September 9, 2020, underwent testing for HBsAg and HCV antibodies. Reactive samples underwent confirmatory testing, and logistic regression analyses were employed to explore associations with HBV and HCV infections. Among 2528 specimens tested for HBV infection, 15 were reactive, with 8 subsequently confirmed positive. Three samples lacked sufficient sera for confirmatory testing but were included in the analysis through multiple imputations. Prevalence of current HBV infection was 0.4% (95% CI 0.2-0.7%). Educational attainment and occupation were significantly associated with current HBV infection. For HCV infection, out of 2607 specimens tested, 46 were reactive, and 23 were subsequently confirmed positive. Prevalence of lifetime HCV infection was 0.8% (95% CI 0.5-1.2%). Egyptians exhibited the highest prevalence at 6.5% (95% CI 3.1-13.1%), followed by Pakistanis at 3.1% (95% CI 1.1-8.0%). Nationality, geographic location, and occupation were significantly associated with lifetime HCV infection. HBV infection is relatively low among CMWs, while HCV infection falls within the intermediate range, both compared to global and regional levels.

We have reached single-visit testing, diagnosis, and treatment for hepatitis C infection, now what?

INTRODUCTION

Progress toward hepatitis C virus (HCV) elimination is impeded by low testing and treatment due to the current diagnostic pathway requiring multiple visits leading to loss to follow-up. Point-of-care testing technologies capable of detecting current HCV infection in one hour are a 'game-changer.' These tests enable diagnosis and treatment in a single visit, overcoming the barrier of multiple visits that frequently leads to loss to follow-up. Combining point-of-care HCV antibody and RNA tests should improve cost-effectiveness, patient/provider acceptability, and testing efficiency. However, implementing HCV point-of-care testing programs at scale requires multiple considerations.

AREAS COVERED

This commentary explores the need for point-of-care HCV tests, diagnostic strategies to improve HCV testing, key considerations for implementing point-of-care HCV testing programs, and remaining challenges for point-of-care testing (including operator training, quality management, connectivity and reporting systems, regulatory approval processes, and the need for more efficient tests).

EXPERT OPINION

It is exciting that single-visit testing, diagnosis, and treatment for HCV infection have been achieved. Innovations afforded through COVID-19 should facilitate the accelerated development of low-cost, rapid, and accurate tests to improve HCV testing. The next challenge will be to address barriers and facilitators for implementing point-of-care testing to deliver them at scale.

A semi-quantitative visual lateral flow immunoassay for SARS-CoV-2 antibody detection for the follow-up of immune response to vaccination or recovery

The lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) technique is largely employed for the point-of-care detection of antibodies especially for revealing the immune response in serum. Visual LFIAs usually provide the qualitative yes/no detection of antibodies, while quantification requires some equipment, making the assay more expensive and complicated. To achieve visual semi-quantification, the alignment of several lines (made of the same antigen) along a LFIA strip has been proposed. The numbering of the reacting lines has been used to correlate with the quantity of some biomarkers in serum. Here, we designed the first semiquantitative LFIA for detecting antibodies and applied it to classify the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 raised by vaccination or natural infection. We used a recombinant spike receptor-binding domain (RBD) as the specific capture reagent to draw two test lines. The detection reagent was selected among three possible ligands that are able to bind to anti-spike human antibodies: the same RBD, staphylococcal protein A, and anti-human immunoglobulin G antibodies. The most convenient detector, adsorbed on gold nanoparticles, was chosen based on the highest correlation with an antibody titre of 171 human sera, measured by a reference serological method, and was the RBD (Spearman's rho = 0.84). Incorporated into the semiquantitative LFIA, it confirmed the ability to discriminate high- and low-titre samples and to classify them into two classes (Dunn's test, P < 0.05). The proposed approach enabled the semiquantification of the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 by the unaided eye observation, thus overcoming the requirement of costly and complicated equipment, and represents a general strategy for the development of semiquantitative serological LFIAs.

Comparison of effectiveness and cost of different HCV testing strategies in high-risk populations in China

High-risk populations are the predominant populations affected by hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, and there is an urgent need for efficient and cost-effective HCV testing strategies for high-risk populations to identify potential undiagnosed HCV-infected individuals. This study compared several commonly used testing strategies and conducted effectiveness and cost analysis to select the appropriate testing strategy for diagnosing HCV infection in high-risk populations. Among the 2093 samples from high-risk populations in this study, 1716 were HCV negative, 237 were current HCV infection, 137 were past HCV infection, and three were acute early HCV infection. It was found that out of 237 patients with HCV current infection, Strategy A could detect 225 cases, with a missed detection rate of 5.06%, and the total cost was 33 299 RMB. In addition, Strategy B could detect 237 cases of current HCV infection, and the HCV missed detection rate was 0.00%, and the total cost was 147 221 RMB. While 137 cases of past HCV infection could be distinguished by strategy C, but 14 cases with current HCV infection were missed, with an HCV-positive missed detection rate of 5.91%, and the total cost for Strategy C was 43 059 RMB. In conclusion, in high-risk populations, the HCV positivity rate is typically higher. If feasible, the preferred approach is to directly conduct HCV RNA testing, which effectively minimizes the risk of missing cases. However, in situations with limited resources, it is advisable to initially choose a highly sensitive method for anti-HCV screening, followed by HCV RNA testing on reactive samples.

Policy and Strategy for Hepatitis C Virus Elimination at the National Level: Experience in Taiwan

The estimated prevalence of anti-HCV was 3.1% in Taiwan. Studies have shown iatrogenic behavior was the major transmission route. It is highest in specific populations including patients with end stage renal disease (ESRD), human immunodeficiency virus infection, who inject drug (PWID), and under opioid substitution treatment. Approximately 405,160 patients were seropositive for HCV RNA and in need of treatment. Taiwan government claims to reach WHO's 2030 goal of HCV elimination by 2025 and works hard to resolve several barriers of HCV elimination including political commitment, sustainable financing, minimize reimbursement restrictions, instituted monitoring, and perform micro-elimination of specific populations. The last stage of HCV elimination is to accelerate the universal HCV screening program of populations aged 45-79 years and resolve the unawareness issue of HCV infection. Hopefully, we can achieve the targets of HCV elimination set by WHO and reach the goal earlier in 2025.

Assessing the potential cost-effectiveness of centralised versus point-of-care testing for hepatitis C virus in Pakistan: a model-based comparison

OBJECTIVES

Pakistan has a hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection prevalence of 6%-9% and aims to achieve World Health Organisation (WHO) targets for elimination of HCV by the year 2030. We aim to evaluate the potential cost-effectiveness of a reference laboratory-based (centralised laboratory testing; CEN) confirmatory testing approach versus a molecular near-patient point-of-care (POC) confirmatory approach to screen the general population for HCV in Pakistan.

STUDY DESIGN

We used a decision tree-analytic model from a governmental (formal healthcare sector) perspective.

STUDY SETTING

Individuals were assumed to be initially screened with an anti-HCV test at home, followed by POC nucleic acid test (NAT) at nearby district hospitals or followed by NAT at centralised laboratories.

PARTICIPANTS

We included the general testing population for chronic HCV in Pakistan.

INTERVENTION

Screening with an anti-HCV antibody test (Anti-HCV) followed by either POC NAT (Anti-HCV-POC), or reference laboratory NAT (Anti-HCV-CEN), was compared, using data from published literature and the Pakistan Ministry of Health.

MEASURES

Outcome measures included: number of HCV infections identified per year, percentage of individuals correctly classified, total costs, average costs per individual tested, and cost-effectiveness (assessed as cost per additional HCV infection identified). Sensitivity analysis was also performed.

RESULTS

At a national level (25 million annual screening tests), the Anti-HCV-CEN strategy would identify 142 406 more HCV infections in 1 year and increase correct classification of individuals by 0.57% compared with the Anti-HCV-POC strategy. The total annual cost of HCV testing was reduced using the Anti-HCV-CEN strategy by US$7.68 million (US$0.31/person). Thus, incrementally, the Anti-HCV-CEN strategy costs less and identifies more HCV infections than Anti-HCV-POC. The incremental difference in HCV infections identified was most sensitive to the probability of loss to follow-up (for POC confirmatory NAT).

CONCLUSIONS

Anti-HCV-CEN would provide the best value for money when scaling up HCV testing in Pakistan.

Towards hepatitis C elimination in France: Scanvir, an effective model to test and treat drug users on dedicated days

According to the French recommendations, the elimination of the hepatitis C virus by 2025 could be a realistic public health goal. Screening policies are being intensified, and access to treatment is promoted for patients who escape the usual care pathway. The 'Scanvir' program is an original strategy based on dedicated screening days, as part of the 'test, treat and cure HCV' event in addiction care centers in a French region, during which innovative screening technologies (RDTs, FibroScan® and point-of-care HCV RNA testing) are brought on site and access to a multidisciplinary team is offered. A total of 392 patients attended the 67 regional Scanvir sessions: 31.6% were HCV Ab-positive and 66% of them were HCV RNA-positive. Treatment was initiated in 79.3% of the patients. RDTs were accepted by 62% of the PWIDs (including those who already knew their status) and FibroScan® by 99.5% of the patients. 80% of the viremic patients started their treatment on site and are now cured or still under treatment. Advanced fibrosis evaluated by FibroScan® (LSM > 8 KPa) was suspected in 13.4% and 14.1% of the global and the HCV population, respectively. Scanvir is an efficient strategy for HCV elimination based on dedicated days aimed at increasing cost-effectiveness and offering a multidisciplinary service while saving human care resources. It is an exportable strategy that also offers comprehensive screening of associated chronic liver diseases via the elastometry device and interviews.

Diagnostic performance of hepatitis C core antigen assay to identify active infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) core antigen (HCVcAg) assay is an alternative for diagnosing HCV infection in a single step. This meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the Abbott ARCHITECT HCV Ag assay's diagnostic performance (validity and utility) for diagnosing active hepatitis C. PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library were searched until 10 January 2023. The protocol was registered at the prospective international register of systematic reviews (PROSPERO: CRD42022337191). Abbott ARCHITECT HCV Ag assay was the test for evaluation, and nucleic acid amplification tests with a cut-off ≤50 IU/mL were the gold standard. Statistical analysis was performed using STATA with the MIDAS module and random-effects models. The bivariate analysis was conducted on 46 studies (18,116 samples). The pooled sensitivity was 0.96 (95% CI = 0.94-0.97), specificity 0.99 (95% CI = 0.99-1.00), positive likelihood ratio 141.81 (95% CI = 72.39-277.79), and negative likelihood ratio 0.04 (95% CI = 0.03-0.06). The area under the summary receiver operating characteristic curve was 1.00 (95% CI = 0.34-1.00). For active hepatitis C prevalence values of 0.1%-15%, the probability that a positive test was a true positive was 12%-96%, respectively, indicating that a confirmatory test should be necessary, particularly with a prevalence ≤5%. However, the probability that a negative test was a false negative was close to zero, indicating the absence of HCV infection. The validity (accuracy) of the Abbott ARCHITECT HCV Ag assay for screening active HCV infection in serum/plasma samples was excellent. Although the HCVcAg assay showed limited diagnostic utility in low prevalence settings (≤1%), it might help diagnose hepatitis C in high prevalence scenarios (≥5%).

Usefulness of dried blood spot samples for monitoring hepatitis C treatment outcome and reinfection among people who inject drugs in a test-and-treat program

Dried blood spots (DBS) are a reliable tool to diagnose viremic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. We evaluated the clinical performance of a DBS-based molecular assay for the assessment of cure and reinfection after on-site treatment at a harm reduction center (HRC). Genotyping from DBS samples was also assessed to discriminate reinfection from treatment failure. People who inject drugs (PWID) from an ongoing test-and-treat pilot at the largest HRC in Barcelona were included in the study. HCV-RNA detection from DBS collected after treatment (with follow-up at 12, 36, and 60 weeks) was compared with a molecular point-of-care test using finger-stick blood (GeneXpert). Baseline and follow-up DBS samples were genotyped by NS5B sequencing or commercial real-time PCR. Among treated patients, 193 follow-up DBS samples were tested. The DBS-based assay showed 100% specificity (129/129), and sensitivity ranged from 84.4% to 96.1% according to different viral load cut-offs (from detectable to 3000 IU/mL). Sensitivity as test of cure (follow-up 12) ranged from 85.1% to 97.4%. Among the 64 patients with recurrent viremia, 10.9% had low viral loads (≤1000 IU/mL); HCV genotyping allowed us to classify 73.5% of viremic cases either as reinfection or as treatment failure. DBS samples are useful to assess cure and differentiate reinfection from relapse after HCV antiviral treatment in the real world, facilitating decentralization of treatment and posttreatment follow-up in PWID. However, a fraction of patients presented with low viral loads, limiting viremia detection and genotyping in DBS and, therefore, repeat testing is recommended.

Integrated care model and point of care diagnostics facilitate Hepatitis C treatment among patients receiving opioid agonist therapy: a retrospective review of medical records

Background

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is common among individuals in opioid agonist therapy (OAT). HCV treatment has previously been unavailable for most HCV positive OAT patients in Finland. The removal of treatment restrictions and attempts to reach HCV elimination goals have increased the number of OAT patients needing HCV treatment. The objectives of this study were 1) to characterize Finnish HCV positive OAT patients and evaluate their eligibility for HCV treatment at addiction service units, and 2) to retrospectively review the outcomes of treated patients.

Methods

The study focused on HCV positive OAT patients (n = 235). Demographics and clinical parameters were retrospectively reviewed using the patients’ medical records. The eligibility of providing HCV treatment to patients at addiction service units were evaluated based on patients’ clinical characteristics, such as liver function and patterns of substance use. The outcomes of patients receiving HCV treatment were reviewed.

Results

Of HCV antibody positive OAT patients, 75% had chronic HCV. Of 103 HCV patients screened for liver fibrosis either with Fibroscan or APRI (aspartate aminotransferase to platelet ratio index), 83 patients (81%) had no indication of severe liver damage. Point of care (POC) HCV tests were used for 46 patients to lower the threshold of attending laboratory testing. All patients preferred POC testing to conventional blood testing.

Twenty patients had received HCV treatment, 19 completed the treatment and achieved sustained virologic response (SVR) at the end of the treatment. Of the 18 patients available for evaluation of SVR at 12 weeks after the treatment (SVR12), 17 achieved SVR12.

Conclusions

The integrated model consisting of HCV diagnostics and treatment at the addiction service unit was successfully implemented within normal OAT practice.

Meta-analysis: diagnostic accuracy of hepatitis C core antigen detection during therapy with direct-acting antivirals

BACKGROUND

Treatment of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection with direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) is monitored by assessing plasma HCV-RNA load. However, detection of HCV core antigen (HCVcAg) may be an alternative.

AIM

To evaluate the diagnostic performance of the HCVcAg assay to monitor the efficacy of DAAs in HCV-infected patients METHODS: We performed searches in multiple electronic databases until 6 July 2022, of studies evaluating the HCVcAg detection in plasma or serum compared with the HCV-RNA test (gold standard). We calculated pooled measurement at 2 and 4 weeks of treatment, and at end-of-treatment (EOT), as well as sustained virological response (SVR; 12 weeks after EOT).

RESULTS

We selected 16 studies from 2016 to 2022, with 3237 patients and 8958 samples. Overall, the diagnostic performance and clinical utility of the HCVcAg assay were poor at week 2 (sensitivity = 0.40, specificity = 0.96, positive likelihood ratio (PLR) = 9.16, negative likelihood ratio (NLR) = 0.63, and area under the summary receiver operating curve (SROC) = 0.57), fair at week 4 (sensitivity = 0.30, specificity = 0.90, PLR = 3.18, NLR = 0.77, and AUC = 0.79), acceptable at EOT (sensitivity = 0.40, specificity =0.98, PLR = 16.54, NLR = 0.62, and AUC = 0.97) and excellent for SVR (sensitivity = 0.94, specificity = 0.99, PLR = 107.54, NLR = 0.06, and AUC = 0.99).

CONCLUSIONS

The HCVcAg assay may be helpful for monitoring the efficacy of HCV treatment with DAAs in HCV-infected patients at EOT and for documenting SVR, but not at weeks 2 and 4 of treatment due to poor diagnostic performance.

Tandem Cas13a/crRNA-Mediated CRISPR-FET Biosensor: A One-for-All Check Station for Virus without Amplification

The path toward field-effect transistor (FET) application from laboratory to clinic has delivered a compelling push in the biomedical domain, yet ultrasensitive and timely pathogen identification without PCR remains a long-lasting challenge. Herein, we create a generic check station termed "CRISPR-FET", first incorporating the CRISPR/Cas13a system within the FET modality, for accelerated and unamplified detection of viral RNA. Unlike conventional FETs bearing target-specific receptors, this sensor holds three unique advancements: (i) an ingenious sensing mechanism is used, which converts the signal of a large-sized analyte into an on-chip cleavage response of an immobilized CRISPR reporter, enabling signal generation events to occur all within the Debye length; (ii) the multipurpose inspection of the CoV ORF1ab, CoV N gene, and HCV RNA unveils the potential for "one-for-all" scalable FET-based molecular diagnostics; and (iii) it is shown that Cas13a-crRNAs targeting different sites of the viral genome can be deployed in tandem to amplify the FET response, empowering the detection limit down to 1.56 aM, which is a world-record level of sensitivity in the FET for direct viral gene sensing. Notably, a brilliant clinical applicability was made in distinguishing HCV-infected patients from normal controls. Overall, this study sheds new insights into FET-based nucleic acid sensing technology and invokes a vision for its possible future roles in diagnosis of various viral diseases.

Personality dysfunction in opiate addicts on opioid substitution treatment and the risk of HCV infection

Background

Impulsivity, affective instability, and neglect of oneself and other people's safety as symptoms of personality dysfunction are associated with risky behaviors regarding the transmission of infectious diseases either sexually or by intravenous drug abuse.

Objective

The aim of this study was to analyze the association between hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and personality dysfunction in opiate addicts on opioid substitution treatment.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional, observational investigation of patients over 18 years of age who were actively participating in opioid substitution treatment at five centers in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The occurrence of HCV infection was the primary study outcome, and personality functioning, the main independent variable, was assessed using the Severity Indices of Personality Problems (SIPP-118) questionnaire. The association between scores of personality functioning domains items and HCV infection status was determined by binary logistic regression analysis.

Results

Patients on opioid substitution therapy with HCV infection more frequently had personality disorders (OR 2.168, 95% CI 1.161-4.05) and were treated longer than patients without HCV infection (OR 1.076, 95% CI 1.015-1.14). HCV infection was associated with lower self-respect (OR 0.946, 95% CI 0.906-0.988), decreased capacity to have enduring relationships with other people (OR 0.878, 95% CI 0.797-0.966), and lower capability to cooperate with others (OR 0.933, 95%CI 0.888-0.98). On the other hand, except for self-respect, other elements of the Identity Integration domain (enjoyment, purposefulness, stable self-image, and self-reflexive functioning), when more functional, increased the risk of HCV infection.

Conclusions

Our study demonstrates that opiate addicts on opioid substitution treatment have a higher risk of HCV infection if their personality is dysfunctional, especially in the aspects of self-respect, enduring relationships, and cooperativity. The risk is even higher in addicts who have an established diagnosis of any kind of personality disorder.

Interventions to enhance testing, linkage to care, and treatment initiation for hepatitis C virus infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Despite the goal set by WHO to eliminate hepatitis C virus (HCV) as a public health threat, uptake of HCV testing and treatment remains low. To achieve this target, evidence-based interventions are needed to address the barriers to care for people with, or at risk of, HCV infection. We aimed to assess the efficacy of interventions to improve HCV antibody testing, HCV RNA testing, linkage to HCV care, and treatment initiation.

METHODS

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched MEDLINE (PubMed), Scopus, Web of Science, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and PsycINFO without language restrictions for reports published between database inception and July 21, 2020, assessing the following primary outcomes: HCV antibody testing; HCV RNA testing; linkage to HCV care; and direct-acting antiviral treatment initiation. We also searched key conference abstracts. We included randomised and non-randomised studies assessing non-pharmaceutical interventions that included a comparator or control group. Studies were excluded if they enrolled only paediatric populations (aged <18 years) or if they conducted the intervention in a different health-care setting to that of the control or comparator. Authors were contacted to clarify study details and to obtain additional population-level data. Data were extracted from the records identified into a pre-piloted and standardised data extraction form and a random-effects meta-analysis was used to pool the effects of the interventions on study outcomes. This study is registered in PROSPERO, CRD42020178035.

FINDINGS

Of 15 342 unique records identified, 142 were included, which reported on 148 unique studies (47 randomised controlled trials and 101 non-randomised studies). Medical chart reminders, provider education, and point-of-care antibody testing significantly improved at least three study outcomes compared with a comparator or control. Interventions that simplified HCV testing, including dried blood spot testing, point-of-care antibody testing, reflex RNA testing, and opt-out screening, significantly improved testing outcomes compared with a comparator or control. Enhanced patient and provider support through patient education, provider care coordination, and provider education also significantly improved testing outcomes compared with a comparator or control. Integrated care and patient navigation or care coordination significantly improved linkage to care and the uptake of direct-acting antiviral treatment compared with a comparator or control.

INTERPRETATION

Several interventions to improve HCV care that address several key barriers to HCV care were identified. New models of HCV care must be designed and implemented to address the barriers faced by the population of interest. Further high-quality research, including rigorously designed randomised studies, is still needed in key populations.

FUNDING

None.

Evaluation of hepatitis C virus antibody assay using dried blood spot samples

Early diagnosis of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is essential for prompt initiation of treatment and prevention of transmission, yet several logistical barriers continue to limit access to HCV testing. Dried blood spot (DBS) technology involves a simple fingerstick that eliminates the need for trained personnel, and DBS can be stored and transported at room temperature. We evaluated the use of DBS whole blood samples in the modified Abbott ARCHITECT anti-HCV assay, comparing assay performance against the standard assay run using DBS and venous plasma samples. 144 HCV positive and 104 HCV negative matched venous plasma and whole blood specimens were selected from a retrospective study with convenience sampling in Cameroon. Results obtained using a modified volume DBS assay were highly correlated to the results of the standard assay run with plasma on clinical samples and dilution series (R² = 0.71 and 0.99 respectively). The ARCHITECT Anti-HCV assay with input volume modification more accurately detects HCV antibodies in DBS whole blood samples with 100% sensitivity and specificity, while the standard assay had 90.97% sensitivity. The use of DBS has the potential to expand access to HCV testing to underserved or marginalized populations with limited access to direct HCV care.

Rapid Visual Detection of Hepatitis C Virus Using Reverse Transcription Recombinase-Aided Amplification–Lateral Flow Dipstick

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a global public health threat. Reaching the World Health Organization’s objective for eliminating viral hepatitis by 2030 will require a precise disease diagnosis. While immunoassays and qPCR play a significant role in detecting HCV, rapid and accurate point-of-care testing is important for pathogen identification. This study establishes a reverse transcription recombinase-aided amplification–lateral flow dipstick (RT-RAA-LFD) assay to detect HCV. The intact workflow was completed within 30 min, and the detection limit for synthesized C/E1 plasmid gene-containing plasmid was 10 copies/μl. In addition, the test showed good specificity, with no cross-reactivity observed for hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus, HIV, syphilis, and human papillomavirus virus. Using extracted RNAs from 46 anti-HCV antibody-positive samples, RT-RAA-LFD showed 100% positive and negative concordance rates with qPCR. In summary, the RT-RAA-LFD assay established in this study is suitable for the rapid clinical detection of HCV at the community level and in remote areas.

Micro-Elimination: Updated Pathway to Global Elimination of Hepatitis C in Small Communities and Industrial Settings during the COVID 19 Pandemic

BACKGROUND

In response to the goal of the World Health Organisation to eliminate hepatitis C virus infections by 2030, Romania is striving for national elimination. An already successful micro-elimination project was expanded to test-and-treat specific populations and at-risk groups. The aim of this project was to identify the individuals with HCV infection in disadvantaged regions who do not have proper medical care access.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Our two-arm interventional cross-sectional study used rapid anti-HCV antibody testing on two population groups from the Romanian southwestern region of Oltenia, approached between September 2020 and May 2021. The first group consisted of predominantly over 40 years old individuals, recruited through five family doctors from two medium-sized towns (community lot-CL). We approached a second group, aged 18-65, through 11 medical offices of five large factories in the same region (industry lot, IL). A 12-items questionnaire was given to each participant, to determine risk factors and record demographic data. Eligible patients initiated antiviral therapy using direct-acting antivirals (DAAs).

RESULTS

We enrolled 15,383 individuals between all 16 locations. The overall prevalence by antibody testing was 0.77% (119 cases). Of these, 57 subsequently received treatment with DAAs. We identified blood transfusions as a risk factor within the CL. Participants in the IL reported a relatively high risk for the following situations: sharing of personal hygiene belongings with another person, performing previous blood transfusions, dental interventions and previous surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

In this global context, the use of micro-elimination allows interventions to be faster and more efficient. This is possible by targeting smaller and specific HCV risk groups.

Eliminating hepatitis C on the Balearic Islands, Spain: a protocol for an intervention study to test and link people who use drugs to treatment and care

INTRODUCTION

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a highly infectious and deadly disease, affecting some 58 million people worldwide. Of the 1.13 million people living in the Balearic Islands, Spain, about 1350 individuals have untreated HCV. Of these, about 1120 (83%) are estimated to be people who use drugs (PWUD), who are one of the key at-risk groups for HCV infection globally. Carrying out micro-elimination approaches focused on this population is crucial to achieve the WHO goal of eliminating HCV by 2030. Thus, the primary objective of this study is to validate a model of care that simplifies the screening and linkage to HCV care pathways for PWUD on the Balearic Islands.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This intervention study will be implemented across 17 sites, in 4 different settings: addiction service centres (n=12), non-governmental organisation centres (n=3), a mobile methadone unit and a prison, with an estimated 3725 participants. Together with the healthcare staff at each centre, the intervention protocols will be adapted, focusing on four phases: recruitment and testing; linkage to care; treatment for those who test positive; and monitoring of sustained virological response 12 weeks after treatment and reinfection. The primary outcomes will be the number of tested and treated individuals and the secondary outcomes will include individuals lost at each step in the cascade of care. Descriptive analysis and multivariable logistic regression of the data will be undertaken.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The Hospital Clínic Barcelona, Spain, Ethics Committee approved this study on 18 February 2021 (HCB/2020/2018). Findings will be disseminated through peer-reviewed publications, conference presentations and social media. The results of this study could provide a model for targeting PWUD for HCV testing and treatment in the rest of Spain and in other settings, helping to achieve the WHO HCV elimination goal.

Rapid Diagnostics for Hepatitis B and C Viruses in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

The global health challenge posed by hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) persists, especially in low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs), where underdiagnosis of these viral infections remains a barrier to the elimination target of 2030. HBV and HCV infections are responsible for most liver-related mortality worldwide. Infected individuals are often unaware of their condition and as a result, continue to transmit these viruses. Although conventional diagnostic tests exist, in LMIC they are largely inaccessible due to high costs or a lack of trained personnel, resulting in poor linkage to care and increased infections. Timely and accurate diagnosis is needed to achieve elimination of hepatitis B and C by the year 2030 as set out by the World Health Organization Global Health Sector Strategy. In this review rapid diagnostic tests allowing for quick and cost-effective screening and diagnosis of HBV and HCV, are discussed, as are their features, including suitability, reliability, and applicability in LMIC, particularly those within Africa.

Role of Heat Shock Proteins (HSP70 and HSP90) in Viral Infection

Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are a large group of chaperones found in most eukaryotes and bacteria. They are responsible for the correct protein folding, protection of the cell against stressors, presenting immune and inflammatory cytokines; furthermore, they are important factors in regulating cell differentiation, survival and death. Although the biological function of HSPs is to maintain cell homeostasis, some of them can be used by viruses both to fold their proteins and increase the chances of survival in unfavorable host conditions. Folding viral proteins as well as replicating many different viruses are carried out by, among others, proteins from the HSP70 and HSP90 families. In some cases, the HSP70 family proteins directly interact with viral polymerase to enhance viral replication or they can facilitate the formation of a viral replication complex and/or maintain the stability of complex proteins. It is known that HSP90 is important for the expression of viral genes at both the transcriptional and the translational levels. Both of these HSPs can form a complex with HSP90 and, consequently, facilitate the entry of the virus into the cell. Current studies have shown the biological significance of HSPs in the course of infection SARS-CoV-2. A comprehensive understanding of chaperone use during viral infection will provide new insight into viral replication mechanisms and therapeutic potential. The aim of this study is to describe the molecular basis of HSP70 and HSP90 participation in some viral infections and the potential use of these proteins in antiviral therapy.

Detection of active hepatitis C in a single visit and linkage to care among marginalized people using a mobile unit in Madrid, Spain

BACKGROUND

The burden of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among marginalized people in Spain is high, despite the fact that HCV prevalence has decreased in recent years. We aimed to assess the effectiveness of a simplified point-of-care (PoC) model for screening for active HCV infection via a mobile unit and subsequent linkage to care with the assistance of navigators.

METHODS

We carried out a prospective study on 2001 participants from Madrid, Spain. A nurse and a navigator/educator screened for hepatitis C in a mobile unit, using the OraQuick HCV Rapid Antibody Test and Xpert HCV VL Fingerstick assay. Participants with active HCV were referred to the hospital the same day with a navigator for evaluation and treatment of HCV.

RESULTS

Overall, 1621 (81%) participants had not been exposed to HCV, 380 (18.9%) were positive for HCV antibodies, and 136 (6.8%) had active hepatitis C. Among the latter, 134 (98.5%) received the HCV screening results, 133 (97.8%) had an appointment at the hospital, 126 (92.8%) were seen by a physician once they were at the hospital, and 105 (77.2%) started HCV treatment. Being over 50 years old and a person who uses drugs, particularly people who inject drugs (PWID), was directly associated with active hepatitis C (p<0.05). PWID were the only patients with HCV reinfection (4.3% in people without recent injecting drug use and 5.9% in people with recent injecting drug use). Among PWID, no income and daily alcohol intake were also directly associated with active hepatitis C. People with recent injecting drug use showed the lowest rates of attendance at the hospital (91.8%) and starting HCV treatment (70.4%).

CONCLUSION

HCV screening using a two-step PoC-based strategy and its linkage to care was extremely efficient for identifying and treating marginalized people with active hepatitis C, thanks to the use of a mobile unit with personnel and technical equipment, an interdisciplinary team, and collaboration between institutions.

HIV screening and retention in care in people who use drugs in Madrid, Spain: a prospective study

Background

The burden of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in people who use drugs (PWUD) is significant. We aimed to screen HIV infection among PWUD and describe their retention in HIV care. Besides, we also screen for hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among HIV-seropositive PWUD and describe their linkage to care.

Methods

We conducted a prospective study in 529 PWUD who visited the “Cañada Real Galiana” (Madrid, Spain). The study period was from June 1, 2017, to May 31, 2018. HIV diagnosis was performed with a rapid antibody screening test at the point-of-care (POC) and HCV diagnosis with immunoassay and PCR tests on dried blood spot (DBS) in a central laboratory. Positive PWUD were referred to the hospital. We used the Chi-square or Fisher’s exact tests, as appropriate, to compare rates between groups.

Results

Thirty-five (6.6%) participants were positive HIV antibodies, but 34 reported previous HIV diagnoses, and 27 (76%) had prior antiretroviral therapy. Among patients with a positive HIV antibody test, we also found a higher prevalence of homeless (P < 0.001) and injection drug use (PWID) (P < 0.001), and more decades of drug use (P = 0.002). All participants received HIV test results at the POC. Of the 35 HIV positives, 28 (80%) were retained in HIV medical care at the end of the HIV screening study (2018), and only 22 (62.9%) at the end of 2020. Moreover, 12/35 (34.3%) were positive for the HCV RNA test. Of the latter, 10/12 (83.3%) were contacted to deliver the HCV results test (delivery time of 19 days), 5/12 (41.7%) had an appointment and were attended at the hospital and started HCV therapy, and only 4/12 (33.3%) cleared HCV.

Conclusions

We found almost no new HIV-infected PWUD, but their cascade of HIV care was low and remains a challenge in this population at risk. The high frequency of active hepatitis C in HIV-infected PWUD reflects the need for HCV screening and reinforcing the link to care.

Hepatitis C Diagnosis: Simplified Solutions, Predictive Barriers, and Future Promises

The simplification of current hepatitis C diagnostic algorithms and the emergence of digital diagnostic devices will be very crucial to achieving the WHO's set goals of hepatitis C diagnosis (i.e., 90%) by 2030. From the last decade, hepatitis C diagnosis has been revolutionized by the advent and approval of state-of-the-art HCV diagnostic platforms which have been efficiently implemented in high-risk HCV populations in developed nations as well as in some low-to-middle income countries (LMICs) to identify millions of undiagnosed hepatitis C-infected individuals. Point-of-care (POC) rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs; POC-RDTs), RNA reflex testing, hepatitis C self-test assays, and dried blood spot (DBS) sample analysis have been proven their diagnostic worth in real-world clinical experiences both at centralized and decentralized diagnostic settings, in mass hepatitis C screening campaigns, and hard-to-reach aboriginal hepatitis C populations in remote areas. The present review article overviews the significance of current and emerging hepatitis C diagnostic packages to subvert the public health care burden of this 'silent epidemic' worldwide. We also highlight the challenges that remain to be met about the affordability, accessibility, and health system-related barriers to overcome while modulating the hepatitis C care cascade to adopt a 'test and treat' strategy for every hepatitis C-affected individual. We also elaborate some key measures and strategies in terms of policy and progress to be part of hepatitis C care plans to effectively link diagnosis to care cascade for rapid treatment uptake and, consequently, hepatitis C cure.

Influence of chronic hepatitis C infection on the monocyte-to-platelet ratio: data analysis from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2009-2016)

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) causes life-threatening chronic infections. Implementation of novel, economical or widely available screening tools can help detect unidentified cases and facilitate their linkage to care. We investigated the relationship between chronic HCV infection and a potential complete blood count biomarker (the monocyte-to-platelet ratio) in the United States.

METHODS

The analytic dataset was selected from cycle years 2009-2016 of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Complete case data- with no missingness- was available for n = 5281 observations, one-hundred and twenty-two (n = 122) of which were exposed to chronic HCV. The primary analysis used survey-weighted logistic regression to model the effect of chronic HCV on the monocyte-to-platelet ratio adjusting for demographic and biological confounders in a causal inference framework. Missing data and propensity score methods were respectively performed as a secondary and sensitivity analysis.

RESULTS

In the analytic dataset, outcome data was available for n = 5281 (n = 64,245,530 in the weighted sample) observations of which n = 122 (n = 1,067,882 in the weighted sample) tested nucleic acid positive for HCV. Those exposed to chronic HCV infection in the United States have 3.10 times the odds of a high monocyte-to-platelet ratio than those not exposed (OR = 3.10, [95% CI: 1.55-6.18]).

CONCLUSION

A relationship exists between chronic HCV infection and the monocyte-to-platelet ratio in the general population of the United States. Reversing the direction of this association to predict chronic HCV infection from complete blood counts, could provide an economically feasible and universal screening tool, which would help link patients with care.

Performance of rapid diagnostic tests for HCV infection in serum or plasma

Aim: HCV diagnosis will become the bottleneck in eliminating hepatitis C. Simple, accurate and cost-effective testing strategies are urgently needed to improve hepatitis C screening and diagnosis. Materials & methods: Performance of seven rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) have been assessed in a large series (n = 498) of serum or plasma specimens collected in France and in Cameroon. Results: Specificity varied from 96.1 to 100%. The clinical sensitivity, compared with immunoassays as the reference, was high for all seven RDT (97.2-100%). The Multisure HCV antibody assay and OraQuick HCV rapid antibody test reached sensitivity ≥99%. Conclusion: A number of RDT may be suitable for WHO prequalification and may be implemented in the framework of large-scale low-cost treatment programs to achieve the WHO viral hepatitis objectives by 2030.

Adolescent Hepatitis C: Prevalence, Impact, and Management Challenges

The prevalence of Hepatitis C virus infection (HCV), a leading cause of chronic liver disease worldwide, is rising in the United States (US) and other high-income countries, especially among youth and young adults. This surge in cases is closely associated with the opioid crisis and intravenous drug use (IVDU). However, its prevalence and impact on the adolescent population have not been thoroughly studied and therefore is poorly understood. The pediatric population tends to have milder liver disease and progression when compared to adults; however, there is a risk of developing liver cirrhosis, in addition to facing decreased quality of life and stigmatization from the disease. The recent approval of direct-acting antiviral (DAA) regimens for all HCV genotypes and age greater than 3 years has revolutionized its management. Therapy has shifted from the prolonged interferon-based regimens, to shorter duration, once daily oral pills that are highly effective, curative and with fewer side effects. Therapy is now indicated for all adolescents with hepatitis C virus infection, regardless of stage of liver disease, recent IVDU, or coinfection with HIV, therefore eliminating a lifetime risk of chronic liver disease, cirrhosis and hepatocarcinoma. Nonetheless, adolescents are rarely tested or treated for hepatitis C infection, and very few adolescents complete therapy. Implementation of point of care (POC) testing of high-risk youth at drug treatment centers or other juvenile facilities may be a good strategy to increase testing, diagnosis and therapy. This review article aims to educate pediatricians and other primary care providers to help decrease the existing knowledge gap on the subject.

HCV screening based on dried blood samples and linkage to care in people who use drugs: A prospective study

BACKGROUND

The burden of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among people who use drugs (PWUDs) is considerable. We aimed to screen for HCV infection using the fingerstick dried blood spot (DBS) test and to describe the cascade of hepatitis C care among PWUDs in Madrid, Spain. We also evaluated the prevalence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis D virus (HDV) in this population.

METHODS

We carried out a prospective study and collected samples and epidemiological data using a mobile unit. Viral infections were tested by immunoassay and RT-PCR assay. PWUDs with a positive result were contacted and referred to a specialized health center to confirm and treat the HCV infection.

RESULTS

We studied 529 PWUD samples; 49.7% were from persons who had previously used injection drugs (IDUs). Of these, 152 (28.7%) were positive for HCV antibodies, 122 (23.1%) for HCV RNA, 23 (4.3%) for HBsAg, and two (0.4%) for HDV antibodies (8.7% of those with hepatitis B). People who inject drugs (PWID) more frequently had positive HCV antibody titers (52% vs. 7.3%; p<0.001) and a positive HCV RNA test result (40.2% vs. 7.3%; p<0.001) than non-PWID. The time from sample collection to test results was 19 days. The next 104 individuals (85.2%) with active HCV infection were contacted to report their HCV test results. Of these, 63 (51.6%) had an appointment, 62 (50.8%) were evaluated in the hospital, and 56 (45.9%) started HCV therapy.

CONCLUSION

HCV screening using fingerstick DBS was an excellent tool for determining HCV prevalence and other chronic hepatitis viruses (HBV and HDV) in PWUDs. However, linkage to care was limited, mainly with respect to the initiation of HCV therapy.

Scaling up the in-hospital hepatitis C virus care cascade in Taiwan

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Obstacles exist in facilitating hepatitis C virus (HCV) care cascade. To increase timely and accurate diagnosis, disease awareness and accessibility, in-hospital HCV reflex testing followed by automatic appointments and a late call-back strategy (R.N.A. model) was applied. We aimed to compare the HCV treatment rate of patients treated with this strategy compared to those without.

METHODS

One hundred and twenty-five anti-HCV seropositive patients who adopted the R.N.A. model in 2020 and another 1,396 controls treated in 2019 were enrolled to compare the gaps in accurate HCV RNA diagnosis to final treatment allocation.

RESULTS

The HCV RNA testing rate was significantly higher in patients who received reflex testing than in those without reflex testing (100% vs. 84.8%, P<0.001). When patients were stratified according to the referring outpatient department, a significant improvement in the HCV RNA testing rate was particularly noted in patients from non-hepatology departments (100% vs. 23.3%, P<0.001). The treatment rate in HCV RNA seropositive patients was 83% (83/100) after the adoption of the R.N.A. model, among whom 96.1% and 73.9% of patients were from the hepatology and non-hepatology departments, respectively. Compared to subjects without R.N.A. model application, a significant improvement in the treatment rate was observed for patients from non-hepatology departments (73.9% vs. 27.8%, P=0.001). The application of the R.N.A. model significantly increased the in-hospital HCV treatment uptake from 6.4% to 73.9% for patients from non-hepatology departments (P<0.001).

CONCLUSION

The care cascade increased the treatment uptake and set up a model for enhancing in-hospital HCV elimination.

Multicenter clinical evaluation of alinity m HCV assay performance

BACKGROUND

Nucleic acid testing is essential for the detection and quantification of HCV RNA in the diagnosis of HCV infection and treatment monitoring. The Alinity m HCV assay was recently developed by Abbott Molecular for rapid detection and quantification of HCV RNA on the fully automated, continuous, random-access Alinity m analyzer.

OBJECTIVES

Our study assessed the performance of the new Alinity m HCV assay for detection and quantification of HCV RNA in a large series of patient samples of various genotypes. This international, multicentric study evaluated the linearity, precision, and reproducibility of the Alinity m HCV assay and its performance in comparison to three other HCV assays currently used in clinical practice.

RESULTS

The Alinity m HCV assay demonstrated high linearity (correlation coefficient r = 1.00), precision (coefficients of variation [CV] 6.6-13.5 %) and reproducibility (CV 1.7-4.3 % across three control lots). At a concentration near the lower limit of detection, the Alinity m HCV assay exhibited >98 % detectability. The Alinity m HCV assay showed excellent correlation with comparator HCV assays in serum (n = 406) and plasma (n = 1401) samples (correlation coefficients ≥0.96, bias 0.01 to 0.14 Log₁₀ IU/mL). More than 95 % of the quantified results with the Alinity m HCV assay were less than mean bias ± 1.96 SD different from those of the comparator assays.

CONCLUSIONS

The newly developed Alinity m HCV assay is sensitive, reproducible, and accurately quantifies HCV RNA levels in serum and plasma samples from patients with chronic HCV infection, with no impact of HCV genotype on assay performance.

Evaluation of the Xpert HCV VL Fingerstick point-of-care assay and dried blood spot HCV-RNA testing as simplified diagnostic strategies among people who inject drugs in Catalonia, Spain

BACKGROUND

Catalonia requires decentralized and simplified strategies for the diagnosis of viremic HCV infection among people who inject drugs (PWID). We aimed to perform a direct comparison of the diagnostic performance between two, single-step strategies for the screening and diagnosis of viremic HCV infection in PWID attending a drug consumption room (DCR) in Barcelona: i) on-site HCV-RNA testing using the point-of-care test (PoCT) Xpert HCV VL Fingerstick; and ii) on-site dried blood spots (DBS) collection for HCV-RNA testing at the laboratory (in-house assay). Additionally, we aimed to assess participants' preferences in receiving HCV-RNA testing results and feasibility of same-day delivery of PoCT results.

METHODS

The real-world, clinical performance of these two strategies was established in comparison with the reference method (HCV viral load testing with the Xpert HCV Viral Load assay at the laboratory from venous plasma collected at the DCR). HCV genotypes/subtypes and HIV status were also determined by sequencing and serology, respectively. A questionnaire including preferences regarding the delivery of test results was administered.

RESULTS

The prevalence of HCV-RNA was 63.0% (of which 25.8% were co-infected with HIV). The RNA-PoCT showed a sensitivity of 98.4% for detectable viral loads (>4 IU/mL) and of 100% for quantifiable viral loads (≥10, ≥1000 and ≥3000 IU/mL). For the DBS-based assay, a sensitivity of 93.7% was obtained for detectable viral loads, 96.7% for the quantifiable ≥10 IU/mL threshold, and 98.3% for both the quantifiable ≥1000 and ≥3000 IU/mL thresholds. No significant differences were detected between the sensitivity values of these two strategies, and the specificity was 100% in both cases. Half of the participants preferred to receive the HCV-RNA result on the same day, and 80% of participants received their RNA-PoCT results on the same day.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the HCV-RNA PoCT and the DBS-based assay are highly reliable tools for the simplified diagnosis of viremic HCV infection among current PWID. These strategies allow for on-site sample collection and delivery of test results, facilitating decentralized care in harm reduction services.

Significant Improvement in Diagnosis of Hepatitis C Virus Infection by a One-Step Strategy in a Central Laboratory: an Optimal Tool for Hepatitis C Elimination?

The remarkable effectivity of current antiviral therapies has led to consider the elimination of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. However, HCV infection is highly underdiagnosed; therefore, a global strategy for eliminating it requires improving the effectiveness of HCV diagnosis to identify hidden cases. In this study, we assessed the effectiveness of a protocol for HCV diagnosis based on viral load reflex testing of anti-HCV antibody-positive patients (known as one-step diagnosis) by analyzing all diagnostic tests performed by a central laboratory covering an area of 1.5 million inhabitants in Barcelona, Spain, before (83,786 cases) and after (45,935 cases) the implementation of the reflex testing protocol. After its implementation, the percentage of anti-HCV-positive patients with omitted HCV RNA determination remarkably decreased in most settings, particularly in drug treatment centers and primary care settings, where omitted HCV RNA analyses had absolute reductions of 76.4 and 20.2%, respectively. In these two settings, the percentage of HCV RNA-positive patients identified as a result of reflex testing accounted for 55 and 61% of all anti-HCV-positive patients. HCV RNA results were provided in a mean of 2 days. The presence of HCV RNA and age of ≥65 years were significantly associated with advanced fibrosis, assessed using the serological FIB-4 index (odds ratio [OR], 5.92; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.4 to 10.4). The implementation of viral load reflex testing in a central laboratory is feasible and significantly increases the diagnostic effectiveness of HCV infections, while allowing the identification of underdiagnosed cases.

Model-based cost-effectiveness estimates of testing strategies for diagnosing hepatitis C virus infection in people who use injecting drugs in Senegal

BACKGROUND

Scaling-up the access to hepatitis C virus (HCV) diagnostics for people who use injecting drugs (PWID) is essential to reduce the HCV incidence in low and middle-income countries.

METHODS

A decision tree model was developed to compare the cost-effectiveness of 12 strategies for diagnosing HCV in Senegal with a health sector perspective. Strategies included HCV-Ab screening and confirmation of viraemia (based on HCV-RNA or HCV core antigen detection) or only the latter step. Laboratory assays and decentralized tools (point-of-care (POC) tests and dried blood spot (DBS) samples) were included. The base-case assumed a 38.9% seroprevalence, as reported in the PWID population of Dakar.

RESULTS

Compared to the cheapest strategy (POC HCV-Ab followed by POC HCV-RNA (S₅)), one strategy remained un-dominated in the base-case: POC HCV-Ab followed by venepuncture-based laboratory HCV-RNA (S₃). Above a lost to follow-up testing rate of 2.3%, combining POC HCV-Ab with HCV-RNA on DBS (S₄) became more cost-effective than S₃. Above this threshold, a single-step POC HCV-RNA (S₁₂) was also found un-dominated (ICER to S₅=€3,297.50). S₅, S₁₂ and S₄ cost €14.21, €17.03 and €36.55/screened individual. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (€/additional true positive case) were 2,164.82 (S₁₂ versus S₅) and 3,297.50 (S₄ versus S₁₂). Whenever HCV seroprevalence reached 55.5%, S₁₂ became more cost-effective than S₅. Moreover, S₄ required a budget 2 to 2.5 times higher than S₅ or S₁₂ for diagnosing 90% of HCV-infected PWID in Dakar.

CONCLUSION

A two-step POC-based strategy (S₅) would be the most cost-effective option among those proposed in this study for diagnosing HCV in PWID in Senegal. This study illustrates how the lack of secure financing and of data on PWID in LMICs, render difficult to identify the most sustainable strategy in those countries, as well as its implementation.

Missed opportunities for diagnosing viral hepatitis C in Poland. Results from routine HCV testing at the Emergency Department in the Hospital for Infectious Diseases in Warsaw

AIM OF THE STUDY

Current statistics indicate that approximately 150,000 (0.5%) people in Poland suffer from active hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, but only 20% among them are aware of their status. This project is based on the concept that screening based on the presence of HCV-related risks (a patient's individual history and behavioural risk factors) is more effective than obligatory testing of the whole population. This study investigates prevalence of serological markers for HCV among patients with a risk of exposure to HCV infection.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The prospective study concerning patients of 18 years and older was conducted at the Emergency Department (ED) of the Hospital for Infectious Diseases in Warsaw (from 15 September 2016 until 23 July 2018). The inclusion criteria were: a blood transfusion before 1992, more than three hospitalizations in the lifetime, suspected liver disease, elevated aminotransferase activity, imprisonment, patient's own initiative, history of injecting drug use. The rapid HCV test was performed on all patients who fulfilled inclusion criteria. The statistical analyses included calculating serological positivity rate and comparing risk-group characteristics.

RESULTS

Among 1502 patients consulted at the emergency department with risk factors for HCV infection during the study period, the HCV test was performed in 1487 cases. New diagnoses were confirmed in 25 cases, HCV seroprevalence was 1.68%, all patients were linked to care, 21/25 (84.0%) were HCV RNA positive.

CONCLUSIONS

The study confirms that routine rapid testing in certain risk groups constitutes an essential tool for identifying new HCV infections and might have an important role for public health.