Psychobiological Responses to Social Self Threat: Functional or Detrimental?

Examining the causal effects of social exclusion on shame and dissociative detachment

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Dissociative detachment experiences (e.g., derealization, absorption) underpin much psychopathology and are often researched in relation to co-occurring affective states such as shame, the latter being known to occur in situations involving actual or perceived negative social evaluation. The association between shame and dissociative detachment may also be moderated by individual differences in people's need to belong. The goal of the present study was to experimentally investigate the effects of social exclusion on shame and dissociative detachment depending on perceivers' need to belong.

METHODS

After measuring individual differences in need to belong and shame proneness, the Cyberball paradigm was utilized to communicate either social inclusion or exclusion. Following Cyberball, a sample of 281 participants completed measures of state shame and state dissociation.

RESULTS

Social exclusion increased dissociative detachment, and these effects were mediated by increases in state shame. These effects were particularly evident among people with a high need to belong.

LIMITATIONS

Other individual differences such as rejection sensitivity may also moderate the relationship between exclusion and shame. While Cyberball can be used to investigate shame, it can only induce shame via social exclusion, whereas shame can also be elicited in other ways such as performance failure.

CONCLUSIONS

Social exclusion can elicit shame, which is most acutely felt by those with a strong need to belong, and this aversive experience appears to be managed by dissociative detachment.

Momentary stress-induced food craving: An ecological momentary assessment study comparing perceived interpersonal and non-interpersonal stressors

Daily-life stressors and food cravings are dynamic and vary within and across persons. Some evidence suggests interpersonal stressors increase appetite. However, little is known about the association of food craving with different types of stressors at the momentary level in the general population. We aimed to explore the momentary relationships between daily-life stressful events and food craving in a non-clinical community sample, and to compare the associations with food craving when the most stressful event was perceived as interpersonal versus non-interpersonal. We used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to collect reports on the most stressful event, perceived stressor type, stressor appraisal, and food craving from 123 adults three times a day scheduled at fixed intervals over 10 days. Mixed effects random intercepts and slopes models examined the within- and between-person associations. Experiencing a stressor was significantly positively associated with within-person food craving at the same measurement. No differences in momentary food craving were found when the most stressful event was perceived as interpersonal or non-interpersonal (within-person level). However, frequently reporting the most stressful event as interpersonal (vs. non-interpersonal) was positively associated with food craving across the study (between-person level), particularly when the stressor was appraised as more unpleasant. Daily-life stressors were associated with momentary food craving. Individuals who generally perceived interpersonal stressors as their most stressful event tended to experience food cravings. Future research could further investigate the role of interpersonal stressors as a factor for overeating in daily life and the potential benefits of stress management in interventions.

The social status adversity and health in daily life moments study: ecological momentary assessment and ambulatory health assessments to examine meaning and mechanisms

BACKGROUND

African Americans and those of lower socioeconomic status (SES) are at disproportionate risk for hypertension- and cardiovascular-disease-related mortality relative to their counterparts. Progress in reducing these disparities is slowed by the facts that these disparities are difficult to mitigate in older adults and early origins of these disparities are poorly understood. The Social Status Adversity and Health in Daily Life Moments Study aims to precisely understand the proximal cognitive-emotional mechanisms by which unique social exposures disproportionately impacting these populations influence blood pressure (BP) parameters early in the lifespan and determine which individuals are more at risk.

METHODS

The study uses ecological momentary assessment (EMA) and ambulatory blood pressure (ABP) monitoring to assess race- and SES-based factors as they manifest in daily life moments alongside simultaneously manifesting cognitive-emotional states and ABP. A sample of 270 healthy African Americans between the ages of 18 and 30 is being recruited to complete two periods of 2-day, 2-night hourly ABP monitoring alongside hourly EMA assessments of socioeconomic strain, unfair treatment, and neighborhood strain during the waking hours. ABP data will be used to calculate ecologically valid measures of BP reactivity, variability, and nocturnal dipping. Other measures include actigraphy equipment worn during the monitoring period and comprehensive assessment of behavioral and psychosocial risk and resilience factors. Multilevel and multiple linear regression analyses will examine which momentary social adversity exposures and cognitive-emotional reactions to these exposures are associated with worse BP parameters and for whom.

DISCUSSION

This is the first time that this research question is approached in this manner. The Social Status Adversity and Health in Daily Life Moments Study will identify the cognitive-emotional mechanisms by which the most impactful race- and SES-based exposures influence multiple BP parameters in African American emerging adults. Further, it will identify those most at risk for the health impacts of these exposures. Achievement of these aims will shape the field's ability to develop novel interventions targeting reduction of these exposures and modification of reactions to these exposures as well as attend to those subpopulations most needing intervention within the African American emerging adult population.

Breathing life into social emotional learning programs: A Bio-Psycho-Social approach to risk reduction and positive youth development

INTRODUCTION

Over one-third of US adolescents engage in health risk and problem behaviors. Additionally, significant percentages of problem-free youth aren't flourishing. Left unaddressed, the lifetime mental/physical health and financial burdens may be substantial. Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) and Positive Youth Development (PYD) programs have proliferated to address the drivers of adaptive versus risk behaviors. Research suggests SEL/PYD program outcomes can be improved by adding techniques that physiologically induce calmness, yet few studies exist.

METHODS

This randomized controlled trial of 79 urban eighth-graders examined a standardized bio-psycho-social program, SKY Schools, which incorporates a physiologically calming component: controlled yogic breathing.

RESULTS

Repeated-measures ANOVAs demonstrated that compared to controls, SKY graduates exhibited significant improvements in emotion regulation, planning and concentration, and distractibility. After 3 months, significant improvements were evidenced in emotion regulation, planning and concentration, identity formation, and aggressive normative beliefs.

CONCLUSION

SEL/PYD programs may benefit by incorporating biologically-calming techniques to enhance well-being and prevent risk/problem behaviors.

An Ego-Involving Motivational Climate Can Trigger Inflammation, a Threat Appraisal, and Basic Psychological Need Frustration in an Achievement Context

In this experimental investigation, male college students (N = 56; Mage = 19.95 years) who did not yet know how to juggle were randomly assigned to a 30-min instructional juggling session with either a caring, task-involving climate or an ego-involving climate. An inflammatory response to psychosocial stress was assessed via salivary interleukin-6 prior to (t = 0) and following (t = +30, +45, +60 min) the session. Surveys were utilized to examine positive and negative affect prior to the session and affect, psychological needs, challenge and threat appraisals, and perceived ability to juggle following the session. This is the first investigation to show that ego-involving climates can trigger inflammation, along with maladaptive psychological responses. Participants in the caring, task-involving climate responded with greater psychological need satisfaction, resource evaluations, positive affect, and perceived juggling ability. This research suggests there may be important physiological consequences to ego-involving climates, in addition to concerning cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses.

Neighborhood racial composition and experiences of racial discrimination: Associations with cytokines during pregnancy among African American women

Background

Preterm birth rates are consistently higher in African American (AA) pregnancies compared to White pregnancies in the United States. Neighborhood racial composition, experiences of racial discrimination, and systemic inflammation are factors that have been associated with preterm birth and other adverse pregnancy outcomes that may account for these disparities. Here, we investigated whether perceived neighborhood racial composition and experiences of discrimination were predictive of cytokine levels during pregnancy among AA individuals.

Methods

545 AA individuals completed surveys and had blood samples collected at prenatal clinics in the Midwest at three timepoints (8-18,19-29, and 30-36 weeks gestation) throughout pregnancy. Pro-inflammatory [interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF)] and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10) were quantified. Multivariate and multilevel models were used to examine associations of perceived neighborhood racial composition and experiences of racial discrimination with cytokine levels, controlling for relevant covariates.

Results

Perceived neighborhood racial composition was significantly associated with MIF at 30-36 weeks gestation in multivariate regression (p < 0.001). Living in neighborhoods with more compared to fewer White people was predictive of higher levels of MIF (b = 0.599, SE = 0.12, p < 0.001). Experiences of discrimination were also associated with higher levels of MIF (β = 0.141, SE = 0.07, p = 0.036). Neither predictor was associated with other cytokines. Follow-up analyses revealed that neighborhood racial composition was also predictive of higher MIF levels at 8-18 weeks gestation (p = 0.02) and at 19-29 weeks gestation (p = 0.04).

Conclusions

Living in neighborhoods with more White individuals and having more lifetime experiences of racial discrimination were positively related to levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine, MIF, among pregnant AA individuals. MIF's known positive relationships with chronic stress and preterm birth suggest that these elevations in MIF may have negative health consequences. Future studies should explore whether MIF serves as a pathway between neighborhood racial composition or experiences of racial discrimination and preterm birth risk among AA individuals.

The influence of stress on the neural underpinnings of disinhibited eating: a systematic review and future directions for research

Disinhibited eating involves overconsumption and loss of control over food intake, and underpins many health conditions, including obesity and binge-eating related disorders. Stress has been implicated in the development and maintenance of disinhibited eating behaviours, but the mechanisms underlying this relationship are unclear. In this systematic review, we examined how the impact of stress on the neurobiological substrates of food-related reward sensitivity, interoception and cognitive control explains its role in disinhibited eating behaviours. We synthesised the findings of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies including acute and/or chronic stress exposures in participants with disinhibited eating. A systematic search of existing literature conducted in alignment with the PRISMA guidelines identified seven studies investigating neural impacts of stress in people with disinhibited eating. Five studies used food-cue reactivity tasks, one study used a social evaluation task, and one used an instrumental learning task to probe reward, interoception and control circuitry. Acute stress was associated with deactivation of regions in the prefrontal cortex implicated in cognitive control and the hippocampus. However, there were mixed findings regarding differences in reward-related circuitry. In the study using a social task, acute stress associated with deactivation of prefrontal cognitive control regions in response to negative social evaluation. In contrast, chronic stress was associated with both deactivation of reward and prefrontal regions when viewing palatable food-cues. Given the small number of identified publications and notable heterogeneity in study designs, we propose several recommendations to strengthen future research in this emerging field.

A systematic review of associations between emotion regulation characteristics and inflammation

Elevated inflammation is a risk factor for many psychiatric (e.g., depression) and somatic conditions (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis). Inflammation is influenced by psychosocial processes such as emotion regulation. Characterization of which emotion regulation characteristics impact inflammation could help refine psychosocial interventions aimed at normalizing health-harming inflammatory activity for individuals with psychiatric and somatic illnesses. To investigate this issue, we systematically reviewed the literature on associations between a variety of emotion regulation traits and inflammation. Out of 2816 articles identified, 38 were included in the final review. 28 (74%) found that (a) poor emotion regulation is associated with higher inflammation and/or (b) strong emotion regulation skills are associated with lower inflammation. Consistency of results differed as a function of the emotion regulation construct investigated and methodological characteristics. Results were most consistent for studies testing positive coping/social support seeking or broadly defined emotion regulation/dysregulation. Methodologically, studies testing reactivity to a stressor, adopting a vulnerability-stress framework, or using longitudinal data were most consistent. Implications for integrated, transdiagnostic psychoimmunological theories are discussed, as well as recommendations for clinical research.

Disclosure of Sexual Victimization: Effects of Invalidation and Shame on Re-Disclosure

Research on disclosure of sexual victimization has consistently demonstrated that the act of disclosure and the disclosure recipient have a synergistic effect in facilitating either positive or negative post-assault outcomes. While negative judgments such as victim blame have been argued to serve a silencing function, experimental investigations of this claim are lacking. The current study investigated whether invalidating feedback in response to self-disclosure of a personally distressing event produced feelings of shame, and whether shame influenced subsequent decisions around re-disclosure. Feedback type (validating, invalidating, no feedback) was manipulated in a sample of 142 college students. Results partially supported the hypothesis that shame resulted from invalidation, however shame was better predicted by individual perceptions of invalidation than the experimental manipulation. Although few participants opted to make changes to the content of their narrative for re-disclosure, those who did had higher levels of state shame. Results suggest that shame may be the affective mechanism by which invalidating judgments silence victims of sexual violence. The present study also supports the distinction previously made between Restore and Protect motivations in managing this shame. This study provides experimental support for the notion that an aversion to being shamed, communicated via an individual's perception of emotional invalidation, features in judgments of re-disclosure. Perceptions of invalidation, however, vary individually. Professionals working with victims of sexual violence should be mindful of the importance of shame attenuation in facilitating and encouraging disclosure.

No Compelling Evidence that Self-Reported Personality Traits Explain Basal Testosterone and Cortisol’s Associations with Status-Relevant Behavior

Objective

A goal of behavioral neuroendocrinology is to understand how basal hormone levels relate to behavior. Studies of human participants sometimes measure self-reported personality traits, in addition to or instead of direct behavioral observation. Although personality traits often predict their respective behaviors, whether personality explains hormone-behavior relationships remains unclear.

Methods

We obtained data from eight previous studies (total N = 985) that examined baseline testosterone and cortisol as predictors of status-relevant behavior (competitiveness, dominance, risk-taking, aggression, affiliation, and social status). We tested whether the previously reported hormone-behavior relationships are mediated by self-reported personality traits (e.g., trait dominance, prestige, extraversion). As a secondary research question, we also tested whether trait dominance moderated the testosterone-behavior relationships.

Results

As expected, self-reported personality traits often predicted status-relevant behaviors, but there was little evidence that traits also correlated with basal testosterone or the testosterone × cortisol interaction. Across all eight studies, personality traits did not significantly mediate hormone-behavior relationships. Indeed, the effect sizes of the hormone-behavior relationships were robust to the inclusion of personality traits as covariates. Further, we did not find strong or consistent evidence that trait dominance moderates the testosterone-behavior association.

Conclusion

Results suggest that basal testosterone and cortisol predict status-related behavior independent of self-reported personality. We discuss how these results may have broader implications for the physiological mechanisms by which testosterone and cortisol influence behavior, a process that could be unconscious and automatic. We also discuss alternative explanations, limitations, and future directions.

Gender Dysphoria in Young People: A Model of Chronic Stress

BACKGROUND

Gender dysphoria (GD) refers to the distress that may accompany gender incongruence, often heightened at the onset of puberty, with the development of secondary sex characteristics. Children and adolescents may be especially vulnerable to severe stressors, including GD, with potentially irreversible effects if these exposures occur during critical periods of development and brain maturation.

SUMMARY

We describe the evidence for GD as a chronic stressor, drawing parallels to other established models of stress, activating both innate psychological and biological stress responses. As well as being an inherently distressing experience, a person who experiences GD may also experience minority stress. Minority stress has been demonstrated in young people who experience GD with higher rates of social rejection and internalized stigma and shame. The biological stress response in young people with GD is illustrated through the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, autonomic nervous system, and pro-inflammatory response. The number of young people who report experiencing GD has increased exponentially worldwide in the past decade, demanding a change in the clinic infrastructure. Paediatric endocrinologists and specialists in mental health work together to both support psychosocial well-being and offer individualized treatment to align the phenotype with gender identity with the aim of alleviating the distress of GD. Medical interventions may include puberty suppression and gender-affirming hormones. Ongoing monitoring is required prior to initiation and during treatment to ensure that the goals of treatment are being achieved.

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and sympathetic nervous system responses to social evaluative stress in chronic cannabis users and non-users

BACKGROUND

To advance our understanding of the health-related consequences of chronic cannabis use, this study examined hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) reactivity and regulation in response to a well-characterized, acute, social evaluative stress task among cannabis users and non-users. We also explored differences in HPA-SNS coordination across the stress task in cannabis users and non-users.

METHOD

Participants were 75 adults (53% female) who reported no use of tobacco/nicotine products. Cannabis use was measured using self-report and salivary/urinary THC levels. Participants were classified as cannabis users (n = 33) if they reported using cannabis at least twice per week in the prior year and had a positive salivary/urinary THC test or as non-users (n = 42) if they reported no use in the prior year and had a negative THC test. During a laboratory visit, participants completed the standard Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and provided saliva samples before, and 5, 20, and 40 min after the task. Samples were assayed for salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase (sAA) as indices of HPA axis and SNS activity, respectively.

RESULTS

Multilevel piecewise growth models revealed that, relative to non-users, cannabis users showed (a) blunted cortisol reactivity and recovery to the TSST, and (b) greater reductions in sAA concentrations following the TSST. Chronic cannabis users may exhibit blunted HPA axis responses and greater SNS recovery to acute psychosocial stress. Implications of individual differences in stress reactivity and regulation for the biobehavioral health of chronic cannabis users are discussed.

Within- and between-person relationships between spontaneous self-affirmations, coping style, and wellbeing

Self-affirmations-responding to self-threatening information by reflecting on positive values or strengths-help to realign working self-concept and may support adaptive coping and wellbeing. Little research has been undertaken on spontaneous self-affirmations in response to everyday threats, and less has been undertaken on the relationships between spontaneous self-affirmations, coping, and wellbeing. This study aimed to test both within- and between-person relationships between spontaneous self-affirmations, coping, and wellbeing, controlling for threat intensity and other outcomes. A repeated survey assessment design was adopted to achieve these aims. Outcome measures included approach coping, avoidance coping, positive affect, negative affect, and eudaimonic wellbeing. It was found that spontaneous self-affirmations positively predicted approach coping and positive affect at both within- and between-person levels, and eudaimonic wellbeing at the between-person level. Overall, spontaneous self-affirmations were positively associated with approach coping and aspects of wellbeing.

Effects of Two Mindfulness Based Interventions on the Distinct Phases of the Stress Response Across Different Physiological Systems

When evaluating the effects of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) on the stress response, several aspects should be considered, such as 1) effects on various response systems, 2) temporal dynamics of the stress response, and 3) differences between programs. This study assesses the stress-attenuating effects of a standard mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and a second-generation MBI: MBSR with elements of other Buddhist practices (MBSR-B). Ninety-nine healthy volunteers were randomly assigned to the MBSR, MBSR-B, or waitlist control groups and their stress response was evaluated with the Trier Social Stress Test. Changes in the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, sympathoadrenomedullary system, the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and affect were measured during distinct phases of the task. Compared to waitlist control, the stress-attenuated effects of MBIs were detected across almost all systems and both negative and positive affect. In the parasympathetic branch of the ANS, the effect of MBIs was present in all stress phases (however, in the recovery phase, only MBSR-B has shown a statistically significant effect in comparison with the waitlist control). The stress-attenuating effects of MBIs were observed already in the anticipatory phase for cortisol, ANS, and negative affect (for negative affect, only the modified MBSR-B program has shown statistically significant effect in comparison with the waitlist control).

Stressed in afterthought: Neuroendocrine effects of social self-threat during physical effort are counteracted by performance feedback after stress exposure

Social self-threat during physical stress, such as exposure to the cold pressor test and isometric handgrip test, has been shown to induce activation of the HPA axis, in addition to autonomic responses. However, previous research has suggested that dysfunctional post-event processing may play a major role in neuroendocrine reactivity at initial as well as subsequent social stress exposure. In the present study, we investigated how the interplay of context (i.e. performance feedback) with state (i.e., self-esteem) as well as trait-like factors (i.e., ruminative tendencies) affects stress responses to repeated, short bouts of physical activity. On two sessions, 1 week apart, 53 participants (27 women) performed an isometric handgrip task for 3 min, during which they were exposed to social-evaluative threat. In addition, participants received fake feedback on their performance immediately after the task, labeling it as either 'above' (positive) or 'below average' (negative). In addition to neuroendocrine (cortisol), cardiovascular (heart rate, blood pressure) and subjective stress reactivity, performance-related and social dimensions of state self-esteem were assessed before and after stress induction. Substantial increases in cardiovascular parameters were found on both days, regardless of feedback condition. However, positive feedback led to significantly diminished neuroendocrine responses on day 1, whereas baseline cortisol on session 2 was significantly higher in the negative feedback group. Conversely, social self-esteem decreased after stress induction on both days only for participants who had received negative feedback. Changes in self-esteem reported on day 1 were associated with increased baseline cortisol at the second session, while interindividual differences in self-reported (trait) rumination were associated with cortisol reactivity at session 1. Taken together, the results suggest that effects of social evaluation during short periods of physical stress rely on post-event processing and might be counteracted by positive appraisal directly after stress exposure. Post-hoc framing (in terms of success vs. failure) may predict subsequent stress-related hormonal effects better than task demands per se, which should be considered as a potential moderator in future acute stress research, but might also be relevant to many practical applications in fields ranging from sports/performance to health psychology.

"You Want to Catch the Biggest Thing Going in the Ocean": A Qualitative Analysis of Intimate Partner Stalking

This study employs a qualitative phenomenological exploration of the "lived" experiences of male intimate partner stalking (IPS) perpetrators serving a custodial sentence in the United Kingdom for an offense related to intimate partner violence (IPV). The purpose of this study is to capture the nature and complexity of the experiences of the pathway to IPS from the perspective of the perpetrator. The study seeks to provide a unique understanding of how IPS perpetrators attribute meaning to their behavior, illuminating the underpinning cognitive characteristics and emotions that play a role in their behavior. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven men with a history of IPS behavior. The resultant transcripts were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). Five superordinate themes reflecting participants' experiences were identified: (a) "The quest for attention and affection creating connection,"(b) "Conflicted identity and extremes of self," (c) "My life, a film set," (d) "Gameplaying: One step ahead," and (e) "Severed connections, changing the Gameplay." The findings are presented in relation to the existing literature and theoretical frameworks which seek to explain stalking perpetration. The analysis provides a greater understanding of men who have engaged in IPS behavior, demonstrating how hearing the perspective of the perpetrator has value in informing theory and intervention. The study has provided valuable insight into the cognitive characteristics of this population and a rich understanding of the profiles of men who have engaged in IPS behavior. Implications for forensic practice, policy, and research are outlined, and recommendations for future research and overall limitations are discussed.

Preprocessing Methods for Ambulatory HRV Analysis Based on HRV Distribution, Variability and Characteristics (DVC)

Thanks to wearable devices joint with AI algorithms, it is possible to record and analyse physiological parameters such as heart rate variability (HRV) in ambulatory environments. The main downside to such setups is the bad quality of recorded data due to movement, noises, and data losses. These errors may considerably alter HRV analysis and should therefore be addressed beforehand, especially if used for medical diagnosis. One widely used method to handle such problems is interpolation, but this approach does not preserve the time dependence of the signal. In this study, we propose a new method for HRV processing including filtering and iterative data imputation using a Gaussian distribution. The particularity of the method is that many physiological aspects are taken into consideration, such as HRV distribution, RR variability, and normal boundaries, as well as time series characteristics. We study the effect of this method on classification using a random forest classifier (RF) and compare it to other data imputation methods including linear, shape-preserving piecewise cubic Hermite (pchip), and spline interpolation in a case study on stress. Features from reconstructed HRV signals of 67 healthy subjects using all four methods were analysed and separately classified by a random forest algorithm to detect stress against relaxation. The proposed method reached a stable F1 score of 61% even with a high percentage of missing data, whereas other interpolation methods reached approximately 54% F1 score for a low percentage of missing data, and the performance drops to about 44% when the percentage is increased. This suggests that our method gives better results for stress classification, especially on signals with a high percentage of missing data.

Anticipatory racism stress, smoking and disease activity: the Black women's experiences living with lupus (BeWELL) study

African American women with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) have worse disease outcomes compared to their White counterparts. Stressors associated with race may contribute to poorer health in this population through maladaptive behavioral pathways. This study investigated relationships between stress associated with anticipating racism, smoking, and SLE disease activity. Data were from 432 African American women with SLE in the Black Women's Experiences Living with Lupus (BeWELL) Study. Controlling for sociodemographic and health-related covariates, multivariable regression analyses revealed a significant association between anticipatory racism stress (ARS) and disease activity (p = 0.00, b = 1.13, 95% CI [0.43, 1.82]). A significant interaction between ARS and smoking also indicated that smoking exacerbated the effect of ARS on disease activity (p = 0.04, b = 1.95, CI = 0.04, 3.96). Test for evidence of smoking mediating the effect of ARS on disease activity were not statistically significant (z = 1.77, p = 0.08). Findings have implications for future SLE disparities research among African American women with SLE.

Current psychosocial stress, childhood trauma and cognition in patients with schizophrenia and healthy participants

BACKGROUND

Cognitive difficulties are experienced frequently in schizophrenia (SZ) and are strongly predictive of functional outcome. Although severity of cognitive difficulties has been robustly associated with early life adversity, whether and how they are affected by current stress is unknown. The present study investigated whether acute stress reactivity as measured by heart rate and mood changes predict cognitive performance in patients with schizophrenia and healthy individuals, and whether this is moderated by diagnosis and previous childhood trauma exposure.

METHODS

One hundred and four patients with schizophrenia and 207 healthy participants were administered a battery of tasks assessing cognitive performance after psychosocial stress induction (Trier Social Stress Test; TSST). Mood states (Profile of Mood States; POMS) and heart rate were assessed at baseline, immediately before, and after the TSST.

RESULTS

Both healthy participants and patients showed increases in POMS Tension and Total Mood Disturbance scores between Time Point 2 (pre-TSST) and Time Point 3 (post-TSST). These changes were not associated with variation in cognition. Although childhood trauma exposure was associated with higher stress reactivity and poorer cognitive function in all participants, childhood trauma did not moderate the association between stress reactivity and cognition. Neither was diagnosis a moderator of this relationship.

DISCUSSION

These findings suggest that while chronic stress exposure explains significant variation in cognition, acute stress reactivity (measured by changes in Tension and Total Mood Disturbance) did not. In the context of broader developmental processes, we conclude that stressful events that occur earlier in development, and with greater chronicity, are likely to be more strongly associated with cognitive variation than acute transient stressors experienced in adulthood.

Randomized controlled evaluation of the psychophysiological effects of social support stress management in healthy women

Considering the high and increasing prevalence of stress, approaches to mitigate stress-related biological processes become a matter of public health. Since supportive social interactions contribute substantially to mental and physical health, we set out to develop a social support stress management intervention and examined its effects on psychophysiological stress responses as well as self-reported stress in healthy women. In a parallel-group randomized controlled trial, registered in the DSRK (DRKS00017427), 53 healthy women were randomly assigned to a social support stress management or a waitlist control condition. All participants underwent a standardized psychosocial stress test where physiological and emotional stress responses were assessed by repeated measurements of cortisol, heart rate, heart rate variability and state anxiety. Also, all participants completed self-report questionnaires of perceived stress and social support at pre-intervention, post-intervention and follow-up four weeks later. Participants in the social support stress management showed a significantly attenuated integrated state anxiety response in comparison to those in the control condition, but conditions did not differ in any of the assessed physiological stress responses. The intervention significantly reduced perceived stress in comparison to the control condition, but perceived stress levels returned to baseline at follow-up. Our results indicated that the intervention had no effect on physiological responses to acute psychosocial stress, even though anxiety responses to stress were attenuated. However, the social support stress management intervention had a significant, albeit transient impact on perceived stress.

Manipulating Levels of Socially Evaluative Threat and the Impact on Anticipatory Stress Reactivity

Previous work suggests that relative increases in socially evaluative threat modulate the psychobiological stress response. However, few studies have compared stressors which manipulate the level of socially evaluative threat to which the participant is exposed. Here we present two studies. In the first, we assessed the integrity of an ecologically valid, laboratory stressor (direct socially evaluated multitasking) and its effects on acute psychobiological reactivity and ability to evoke an anticipatory response prior to participation. Specifically, we assessed whether the expectation and experience of direct social evaluation (multitasking while standing and facing an evaluator) evokes greater reactivity than indirect evaluation (over-the-shoulder evaluation). In the second study, we sought to replicate the findings regarding acute stress reactivity whilst extending the assessment window to assess the extent to which the stressor evokes anticipatory responses. As hypothesized, greater reactivity was observed following direct social evaluation compared with indirect observation. Increases in anxiety, heart rate and blood pressure were demonstrated across both studies and the paradigm therefore provides an ecologically valid technique for the activation of psychological and cardiovascular stress responding. Additionally, anticipation of experiencing socially evaluated multitasking led to increases in anxiety, tension, and worry prior to the event itself, supporting previous suggestions that threat anticipation may prolong the activation of stress mechanisms. In the present studies we assessed whether the expectation and experience of direct social evaluation evokes greater reactivity than indirect evaluation. The findings have demonstrated that direct social evaluation of multitasking is a more potent stressor than multitasking with indirect evaluation. Furthermore, our findings indicate that the period of anticipation of stressful events may be critical to understanding the process of stress regulation, and as such we recommend extending the sampling window to allow for the investigation of these processes.

Experiences of shame and intellectual disabilities: Two case studies

Shame is a trans-diagnostic phenomenon that underlies a variety of mental health difficulties. People with intellectual disabilities (IDs) are reported to be one of the most stigmatized and excluded groups in society and are more likely to experience mental health problems than the general population. Consequently, this group may be at a significant risk of shame-related distress. However, there is a lack of research that investigates the experience of shame in people with ID, and there is currently a lack of interventions targeting shame in people with ID. Two case studies were undertaken to document the experiences of stigma, discrimination, and shame in people with ID and to explore how shame may present in this population. Shame was found to be a significant barrier to social inclusion and to contribute towards poor psychological health in people with ID. The development of interventions that specifically target shame in this population is recommended.

Dynamics and determinants of cortisol and alpha-amylase responses to repeated stressors in recent interpersonal trauma survivors

BACKGROUND

Alterations in major stress response systems are present during the immediate aftermath of trauma and may play a role in determining risk for developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, the dynamics and determinants of stress responses during this acute recovery phase, and their relevance for longitudinal clinical course and prognosis, have yet to be fully examined. The objectives of the present study were to characterize stress response and habituation patterns to repeated social stressors in women who recently experienced interpersonal trauma and to determine the extent to which these stress responses were associated with PTSD during prospective follow-up.

METHOD

This longitudinal study examined salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase and heart rate (HR) responses to repeated stressors in 98 young women (ages 18-30). Participants included women who had experienced an incident of interpersonal trauma (i.e., physical and/or sexual assault) in the three months prior to their baseline assessment (n = 58) and a comparison group of healthy, non-traumatized women (n = 40). Women completed the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), clinical interviews to evaluate posttraumatic stress symptom severity at the baseline assessment and again at 1-, 3-, and 6-month follow-ups.

RESULTS

Multilevel models revealed a pattern of robust initial cortisol TSST responses and habituation across successive TSSTs; alpha-amylase and HR responses showed no evidence of habituation across TSSTs. Among interpersonal trauma survivors, current PTSD status was associated with more pronounced cortisol responses to the first TSST. Survivors exhibited similarly blunted cortisol responses across follow-up TSSTs regardless of PTSD status, suggesting habituation of cortisol responses among survivors who developed PTSD. PTSD re-experiencing symptoms were uniquely associated with blunting of cortisol TSST responses.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that PTSD as a diagnostic entity is meaningfully associated with cortisol responses to repeated social stressors. Social-evaluative threat is a salient form of danger for interpersonal trauma survivors. Identifying the determinants of cortisol (non)habituation to repeated social-evaluative threat among interpersonal trauma survivors could inform the development of early interventions for PTSD.

The Dark Triad of personality and attitudes toward cognitive enhancement

Background

Cognitive enhancement (CE) refers to the voluntary improvement of human cognitive capabilities. Few studies have examined the general attitude of the public towards CE. Such studies have suggested that the use of CE is considered largely unacceptable by the public. In parallel, past research indicates that individuals scoring high on the Dark Triad of personality (Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy) and competitiveness have atypical views of ethical questions. In this study, we examined (a) whether attitudes towards CE are associated with individual differences in the Dark Triad of personality as well as in trait and contextual competitiveness and (b) whether the Dark Triad moderates the effect of trait and contextual competitiveness on attitudes towards CE.

Method

US employees (N = 326) were recruited using Mechanical Turk. Participants completed a web survey. Data were analyzed by means of (robust) hierarchical regression and (robust) ANCOVAs.

Results

The Dark Triad of personality and one of its subscales, Machiavellianism, predicted positive attitudes towards CE. Neither trait competitiveness nor contextual competitiveness were linked to general attitudes towards CE, but the DT was a positive moderator of the association between contextual competitiveness and positive attitudes.

Conclusion

Our findings extend the incipient knowledge about the factors relating to favourable views of CE by highlighting the role of dark personality traits in shaping such views. Our study further shows contextual factors can play a differentiated role with respect to such attitudes depending upon dark personality traits. Implications for policy-making are discussed.

“You’re such a pain!”: Investigating how psychological pain influences the ostracism of a burdensome group member

Maintaining social relationships with others is essential for survival, but not all relationships are beneficial. Individuals exclude nonbeneficial burdensome group members, those who encumber group success. We investigated whether feeling psychological pain is a mechanism that prompts assessment of social threats―potentially putting the “brakes” on burdensome (nonbeneficial) relationships. Specifically, we investigated if interacting with burdensome individuals caused others to experience psychological pain, negative affect, and to dislike the burdensome individual. Across 5 studies, using 3 different paradigms, we found those who interacted with a burdensome individual experienced psychological pain, which influenced ostracizing (excluding and ignoring) the burdensome group member. In Studies 4 and 5, we found psychological pain mediated the relationship between burdensomeness and ostracism even when we accounted for negative affect and dislike of the burdensome individual. Our results suggest psychological pain can guide social interactions and should be the subject of future research involving social threat.

Stress as Offense to Self: a Promising Approach Comes of Age

Stress is related to goals being thwarted. Arguably, protecting one’s self, both in terms of personal self-esteem and in terms of social self-esteem, is among the most prominent goals people pursue. Although this line of thought is hardly disputed, it does not play the prominent role in occupational health psychology that we think it deserves. Stress-as-Offense-to-Self theory focuses on threats and boosts to the self as important aspects of stressful, and resourceful, experiences at work. Within this framework we have developed the new concepts of illegitimate tasks and illegitimate stressors; we have investigated appreciation as a construct in its own right, rather than as part of larger constructs such as social support; and we propose that the threshold for noticing implications for the self in one’s surroundings typically is low, implying that even subtle negative cues are likely to be appraised as offending, as exemplified by the concept of subtly offending feedback. Updating the first publication of the SOS concept, the current paper presents its theoretical rationale as well as research conducted so far. Research has covered a variety of phenomena, but the emphasis has been (a) on illegitimate tasks, which now can be considered as an established stressor, and (b) on appreciation, showing its importance in general and as a core element of social support. Furthermore, we discuss implications for further research as well as practical implications of an approach that is organized around threats and boosts to the self, thus complementing approaches that are organized around specific conditions or behaviors.

Feeling Hurt: Revisiting the Relationship Between Social and Physical Pain

Pain overlap theory has generated decades of controversy and still receives considerable research attention. A major advance has been the revelation that social and physical pain activate similar neural regions, providing suggestive evidence of a “piggybacked” alarm system that coevolved to detect social exclusion. Recent developments, however, have brought neural evidence for pain overlap into question. We analyze these developments from a social psychological perspective and identify the need for a reformulated approach. To meet this need, we provide a framework that a priori predicts generalized overlap and specific divergence across a range of biopsychosocial domains. The framework points to a functional pattern for similarities and differences, which can be utilized to generate testable hypotheses so that the field can move forward. To demonstrate the utility and promise of the framework, we identify key hypotheses relating to attention, motivation, and responses to pain, and review research relevant to these hypotheses.

Health inequality implications from a qualitative study of experiences of poverty stigma in Scotland

Rationale

Individuals living in Scotland's most deprived communities experience a higher burden of morbidity and early mortality than those living in more affluent areas. Experiences of poverty-based stigma may be one psychosocial mechanism through which socioeconomic position influences health, although there is little available data on this issue from a Scottish perspective.

Objective

The aim of this study was to identify which aspects of poverty stigma are particularly salient to individuals with lived experience of poverty, and may therefore contribute to health inequalities.

Methods

Five focus groups were conducted with 39 individuals with experience of living on low incomes in Scotland in order to explore their experiences and perceptions of poverty stigma.

Results

Five main themes were identified, reflecting aspects of poverty stigma operating at various structural, public and individual levels: media representations of poverty; negative encounters with social security systems; perceived public attitudes regarding poverty in Scotland; lowered self-esteem and internalisation of negative attitudes, and; emotional responses to stigma.

Conclusion

These dimensions of stigma potentially influence public health and health inequalities in Scotland, although future research will be necessary to quantify these and estimate their relationships with health outcomes.

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Relatively little is currently known about poverty-based stigma in Scotland.

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People with experience of poverty discussed this issue in five focus groups.

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Participants' accounts reflected several forms of poverty stigma.

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Poverty stigma operates at various structural, social, and individual levels.

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Poverty stigma is a potentially important determinant of health inequalities.

Resilience characteristics and prior life stress determine anticipatory response to acute social stress in children aged 7-11 years

OBJECTIVES

To assess the interplay of prior life stress and characteristics of resilience in determining how children cope with potentially stressful situations, using a two-phase study that triangulates parent-child dyadic interview data with subsequent experience of an acute laboratory stressor in 7-11-year-olds.

METHODS

Participants (n = 34) were designated as being in one of four groups based on high/low levels of prior stress experience and high/low resilience ratings assessed during at-home interviews and from questionnaires measuring recent life events, hassles, and trait coping. During a subsequent laboratory stress protocol, salivary cortisol and heart rate were monitored, and a verbal subjective report was provided.

RESULTS

Salivary cortisol showed a significant increase in anticipation of the stress test, heart rate increased during the test, and children self-reported the task as stressful. Males displayed higher levels of cortisol than females in the anticipatory period. We observed no increase in salivary cortisol in response to the stress testing phase. Using the stress/resilience categorization, children with a higher level of resilience were differentiated by cortisol level in anticipation of the acute stress experiment based on their level of prior life stress. Highly resilient children with greater experience of prior life stress showed a lower anticipatory cortisol response than highly resilient children with less experience of prior life stress.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the relevance of contextual factors, such as prior stress experience and resilience, in physiological response to the anticipation of acute stress and has implications for understanding how children cope with stressful experiences. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? An adaptation to the stress testing paradigm, the Bath Experimental Stress Test for Children (BEST-C) was found to reliably induce a salivary cortisol response in young children, suggesting that peer matching the audience was an effective modification to laboratory social stress testing. Recent work focusing on early life adversity has seen the emergence of prior stress experience and resilience as key factors in the examination of acute stress responses. However, much of the research regarding the impact of childhood stress is ambiguous; some research suggests that if children have experienced prior stressful life events this will enact a positive effect on stress responses and lead to resilience, and other research suggested that it will have a compounding negative effect. What does the study add? Findings provide support for the capacity of the BEST-C to induce an anticipation stress response in children. Contextual factors e.g., prior stress experience and resilience are key for understanding stress responses. Resilient children with more experience of stress show lower cortisol than those with less stress experience.

Media ideals and early adolescents' body image: Selective avoidance or selective exposure?

The present study combines selective exposure theory with body image coping literature to study effects of media internalization in early adolescence. The main objective was to explore how early adolescents selectively internalize media body ideals to manage their body image. To examine the role of media internalization in early adolescents' body image management, we used two-wave panel data (N_Wave1 = 1986) gathered among 9- to 14-year-olds. Structural equation analyses indicated that media internalization (Wave 1) positively related to body surveillance (Wave 2). Body surveillance (Wave 2), in turn, was associated with more body image self-discrepancy (Wave 2). In addition, body image self-discrepancy (Wave 1) related to higher body surveillance (Wave 1). Body surveillance, in turn, related to more media internalization cross-sectionally, but less media internalization six months later. Taken together, these results suggest a role for media internalization in early adolescents' body image management. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Development of MPFC function mediates shifts in self-protective behavior provoked by social feedback

How do people protect themselves in response to negative social feedback from others? How does such a self-protective system develop and affect social decisions? Here, using a novel reciprocal artwork evaluation task, we demonstrate that youths show self-protective bias based on current negative social evaluation, whereas into early adulthood, individuals show self-protective bias based on accumulated evidence of negative social evaluation. While the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) mediates self-defensive behavior based on both current and accumulated feedback, the rostromedial prefrontal cortex (RMPFC) exclusively mediates self-defensive behavior based on longer feedback history. Further analysis using a reinforcement learning model suggests that RMPFC extending into VMPFC, together with posterior parietal cortex (PPC), contribute to age-related increases in self-protection bias with deep feedback integration by computing the discrepancy between current feedback and previously estimated value of self-protection. These findings indicate that the development of RMPFC function is critical for sophisticated self-protective decisions.

Acute stress enhances pupillary responses to erotic nudes: Evidence for differential effects of sympathetic activation and cortisol

Chronic stress attenuates reproductive behavior in many species, but evidence regarding the impact of acute stress on human sexual arousability is insufficient. Stressor-specific effects might result from divergent roles of both stress response systems. Social self-threat, linked to affiliation-oriented coping, might also influence sexual responsivity. To investigate stress-induced modulation of the processing of sexual cues and its relationship with cortisol, 58 participants underwent either a predominantly sympathetic stressor (3 min sustained handgrip) or similar control procedure. In both conditions, half of the sample was monitored by an opposite-sex person (social evaluation). Pupillary responses to erotic nudes were recorded and dissociated into fast and slow PCA components. Physically stressed participants showed enhanced (slow) dilation to explicit pictures. Cortisol levels after stress negatively predicted rapid responses to opposite-sex and (marginally) explicit stimuli. Our results suggest that acute sympathetic stress exposure facilitates cognitive sexual processing, whereas subsequent HPA-axis activation may induce counteracting effects.

Functionally distinct smiles elicit different physiological responses in an evaluative context

When people are being evaluated, their whole body responds. Verbal feedback causes robust activation in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. What about nonverbal evaluative feedback? Recent discoveries about the social functions of facial expression have documented three morphologically distinct smiles, which serve the functions of reinforcement, social smoothing, and social challenge. In the present study, participants saw instances of one of three smile types from an evaluator during a modified social stress test. We find evidence in support of the claim that functionally different smiles are sufficient to augment or dampen HPA axis activity. We also find that responses to the meanings of smiles as evaluative feedback are more differentiated in individuals with higher baseline high-frequency heart rate variability (HF-HRV), which is associated with facial expression recognition accuracy. The differentiation is especially evident in response to smiles that are more ambiguous in context. Findings suggest that facial expressions have deep physiological implications and that smiles regulate the social world in a highly nuanced fashion.

The socially evaluated handgrip test: Introduction of a novel, time-efficient stress protocol

Most widely-used stress-induction procedures (such as the TSST and the Cold Pressor Test) require considerable effort and overhead in terms of preparation, logistics, and staff recruitment. Moreover, while known to reliably induce HPA axis activation, especially when combined with social self-threat, most conventional laboratory stressors cannot be flexibly adapted to elicit either a mainly autonomic or an additional endocrine stress response. Being a promising alternative approach, a new version of the isometric handgrip test enriched by a social-evaluative component was evaluated in the present study. On two consecutive sessions, forty participants (20 women) performed a handgrip task at both 45% (stress) and 10% (control) of maximum voluntary isometric contraction lasting for 3min. During the stress test, continuous visual feedback on performance was given. Participants in the social-evaluative condition (50%) were observed and evaluated by a previously unknown person of the opposite sex, whereas in the standard condition feedback was provided via a computer monitor. Cardiovascular measures (heart rate, blood pressure) as well as additional indices of autonomic reactivity (skin conductance, heart-rate variability) were registered before, during, and after stress induction. Moreover, changes in salivary cortisol and in subjective well-being were assessed. Relative to control, significant increases in cardiovascular and sympathetic activity were found, irrespective of experimental group. Importantly, however, additional social evaluation resulted in elevated cortisol levels. Furthermore, evidence for reduced vagal tone during sustained socially evaluated handgrip emerged. In conclusion, the socially evaluated handgrip test represents a versatile, time-efficient method to induce stress in small laboratory settings.

Subjective Socioeconomic Status Matters Less When Perceived Social Support Is High: A Study of Cortisol Responses to Stress

Low objective and subjective socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with the experience of frequent stressors known to have physiological costs. We tested whether perceived social support, a key health-protective resource, buffered the association between lower subjective SES and cortisol responses to an acute stressor. Participants ( N = 115; 54.78% female; age M = 19.56) reported subjective SES and perceived support, completed a social-evaluative stressor task, and provided saliva for cortisol assessment. There was a significant interaction of subjective SES with support predicting linear change in cortisol stress responses, γ = .08, z = 2.34, p = .02. When support was low, subjective SES was strongly related to cortisol, and those who reported lower subjective SES exhibited higher cortisol during recovery than those who reported higher subjective SES. When support was high, those who reported higher and lower subjective SES exhibited similar cortisol responses. These results highlight the important protective role that supportive relationships can have when subjective SES is low.

Cortisol Levels and Autonomic Control of Heart Rate in Healthy Subjects

Introduction: There is an increase in level of stress in the general population because of the social, personal and professional demands. Currently, there are only simple tools that can safely measure this stress such as levels of cortisol and heart rate variability (HRV). Objective: To analyze the relationship between salivary cortisol and the cardiac autonomic modulation. Methods: A total of fifty-one male and female subjects between 18 and 40 years old were evaluated. Saliva collection was achieved for the salivary cortisol dosage. The collection was performed through the SalivetteR tube. After this collection, the median cortisol levels (0.24 ug/dl) were analyzed and the volunteers were divided into two groups: i) cortisol below the mediane ii) cortisol above the median. After this division, each group consisted of 25 volunteers and then was verified the following information: age, gender, weight, height, body mass index (BMI), blood pressure. Shortly thereafter was assessment of cardiac autonomic modulation por meio da HRV. The Polar RS800cx heart rate receiver was placed on the chest of the volunteers, in the vicinity of the distal third of the sternum. The volunteers were instructed to remain in rest with spontaneous breathing in dorsal position for 20 minutes. HRV analysis included geometric, time and frequency domain indices. Results: There were no statistical differences for the two groups regarding systolic and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, RR intervals or linear and frequency indices for the volunteers. In addition, also there was no correlation the cortisol with the analyzed variables (SAP, p=0.460; DAP, p = 0.270; HR, p = 0.360; RR, p = 0.380; SDNN, p = 0.510; rMSSD, p = 0.660; pNN50, p = 0.820; RRtri, p = 0.170; TINN, p = 0.470; SD1, p = 0.650; SD2, p = 0.500; LF [ms2], p = 0.880; LF [nu], p = 0.970; HF [ms2], p = 0.870; HF [nu], p = 0.960; LF/HF, p = 0.380 Conclusion: Heart rate variability autonomic control was unchanged in healthy subjects with physiological distribution of salivary cortisol levels. There was no association between normal salivary cortisol and resting autonomic regulation of heart rate.

Effects of Process and Outcome Accountability on Idea Generation

Previous research on the effects of outcome and process accountability on decision making has neglected the preceding phase of idea generation. We conducted a 2 (outcome accountability: yes vs. no) × 2 (process accountability: yes vs. no) experiment (N = 147) to test the effects of accountability on quantity and quality of generated ideas in a product design task. Furthermore, we examined potential negative side effects of accountability (i.e., stress and lengthened decision making). We found that (a) outcome accountability had a negative effect on quantity of ideas and (b) process accountability extended the idea generation process. Furthermore, any type of accountability (c) had a negative effect on uniqueness of ideas, (d) did not affect the quality of the idea that was selected, and (e) increased stress. Moreover, the negative effect of accountability on uniqueness of ideas was mediated by stress.

The interplay of subjective social status and essentialist beliefs about cognitive aging on cortisol reactivity to challenge in older adults

Older adults are more likely than younger adults to experience stress when confronted with cognitive challenges. However, little is known about individual differences that might explain why some older adults exhibit stronger stress responses than others. We examined the interplay of two social-cognitive factors to explain older adults' cortisol reactivity: (1) subjective social status, and (2) essentialist beliefs about cognitive aging. We hypothesized that, depending on whether older adults believe that aging-related cognitive decline is inevitable versus modifiable, low subjective social status should lead to stronger or weaker cortisol reactivity. Using longitudinal data, we assessed the impact of cognitive challenges on stress reactivity in a sample of older adults (N = 389; 61-86 years). As predicted, regression analyses confirmed that 44 min after cognitively challenging tasks, older adults exhibited a significantly different cortisol reactivity depending on their subjective social status and their essentialist beliefs about cognitive aging. Specifically, older adults with low subjective social status and high essentialist beliefs showed a significantly elevated cortisol reactivity. We discuss the role of essentialist beliefs about cognitive aging to predict when and why high versus low subjective social status leads to stress responses in older adults.

Panel manipulation in social stress testing: The Bath Experimental Stress Test for Children (BEST-C)

BACKGROUND

Whilst acute stress paradigms in adults make use of adult panel members, similar paradigms modified for child participants have not manipulated the panel. Most work has utilised an audience of adult confederates, regardless of the age of the population being tested. The aim of this study was to trial a social stress test for children that provided a meaningful environment using age-matched child peers as panel actors.

METHODS

Thirty-three participants (7-11 years) underwent the Bath Experimental Stress Test for Children (BEST-C). Based on the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), it comprises a shortened six-minute public speaking task and four-minute maths challenge. It differs from previous stress tests by using age-matched children on the panel, pre-recorded and presented as a live feed, and includes an expanded manipulation check of subjective experience. Salivary cortisol was assessed at four time points, pre-post stress testing; life events, daily hassles and coping strategies were measured through questionnaires. A simple numerical coding scheme was applied to post-test interview data.

RESULTS

The BEST-C generated a typical stress and adaptation response in salivary cortisol (p=.032). Age and gender differences were observed during recovery. Cortisol responses mapped directly onto three distinct subjective response patterns: (i) expected response and recovery; (ii) expected response, no recovery; (iii) no response.

CONCLUSIONS

The BEST-C, utilising child confederates of participant target age is a meaningful social stress test for children. This is the first social stress test developed specifically for children that manipulates panel characteristics by using child confederates and a pre-recorded sham panel. Greater cortisol responses to the test were also found to match subjective verbal accounts of the experience. It offers a meaningful acute stress paradigm with potential applications to other child and adolescent age groups. Furthermore, it leads the way in the use of panel manipulation in social stress testing.

Coordination of the cortisol and testosterone responses: A dual axis approach to understanding the response to social status threats

For many people, competitions, status challenges, and being evaluated by others result in increases in cortisol as well as testosterone. It is argued that physiological processes work in a coordinated fashion when facing social evaluative-competitive situations. Such a coordinated response may be part of an evolved system, monitoring and responding to threats to one's social status. In two studies, using within-person multi-level analyses, we tested the hypothesis that adult men, pre/early pubertal boys, and pre/early pubertal girls show a coordinated response in cortisol and testosterone (i.e., coupling of cortisol and testosterone responses) during a social evaluative situation. In Study 1, 85 men delivered speeches and performed difficult arithmetic tasks in front of critical evaluators, prepared for a competition, and provided multiple saliva samples throughout the procedure for cortisol and testosterone assays. In Study 2, 79 boys and 74 girls underwent similar procedures as in Study 1. Within-person analyses suggested that cortisol and testosterone responses were indeed positively associated for all three groups (men, boys, and girls). That is, on average a participant's cortisol and testosterone levels tended to rise and fall together throughout the procedure, suggesting that cortisol and testosterone show coordinated activation and deactivation (coupling) during social status threats. Furthermore, men with higher anxiety during the stressor tasks (Study 1; coded by raters from video recordings) and both boys and girls with higher parent reported trait negative affectivity (Study 2) had stronger coupling. Men (Study 1) higher in self-reported trait dominance and verbal dominance (coded by raters from video recordings during the stressor), and lower in basal testosterone had weaker coupling. A coordinated hormone response may have important adaptive functions when dealing with status threats; cortisol can mobilize energy resources and testosterone can facilitate performance. These findings have implications for developing a dual axis understanding of physiological responses during social threats and competition and their function.

The Trier Social Stress Test as a paradigm to study how people respond to threat in social interactions

In our lives, we face countless situations in which we are observed and evaluated by our social interaction partners. Social-evaluative threat is frequently associated with strong neurophysiological stress reactions, in particular, an increase in cortisol levels. Yet, social variables do not only cause stress, but they can also buffer the neurophysiological stress response. Furthermore, social variables can themselves be affected by the threat or the threat-induced neurophysiological stress response. In order to study this complex interplay of social-evaluative threat, social processes and neurophysiological stress responses, a paradigm is needed that (a) reliably induces high levels of social-evaluative threat and (b) is extremely adaptable to the needs of the researcher. The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) is a well-established paradigm in biopsychology that induces social-evaluative threat in the laboratory by subjecting participants to a mock job-interview. In this review, we aim at demonstrating the potential of the TSST for studying the complex interplay of social-evaluative threat, social processes and neurophysiological stress responses.

Anticipatory sensitization to repeated stressors: the role of initial cortisol reactivity and meditation/emotion skills training

Anticipation may play a role in shaping biological reactions to repeated stressors-a common feature of modern life. We aimed to demonstrate that: (a) individuals who display a larger cortisol response to an initial stressor exhibit progressive anticipatory sensitization, showing progressively higher cortisol levels before subsequent exposures, and (b) attention/emotional skills training can reduce the magnitude of this effect on progressive anticipatory sensitization. Female school teachers (N=76) were randomly assigned to attention/emotion skills and meditation training or to a control group. Participants completed 3 separate Trier Social Stress Tests (TSST): at baseline (Session 1), post-training (Session 2), and five months post (Session 3). Each TSST session included preparing and delivering a speech and performing an arithmetic task in front of critical evaluators. In each session participants' salivary cortisol levels were determined before and after the stressor. Control participants with larger cortisol reactivity to the first stressor showed increasing anticipatory (pre-stressor) cortisol levels with each successive stressor exposure (TSST session)-suggesting progressive anticipatory sensitization. Yet this association was absent in the training group. Supplementary analyses indicated that these findings occurred in the absence of group differences in cortisol reactivity. Findings suggest that the stress response can undergo progressive anticipatory sensitization, which may be modulated by attention/emotion-related processes. An important implication of the construct of progressive anticipatory sensitization is a possible self-perpetuating effect of stress reactions, providing a candidate mechanism for the translation of short-to-long-term stress reactions.