The Role of Self-compassion in Women's Self-determined Motives to Exercise and Exercise-related Outcomes

When the night is too short. Bedtime procrastination, self-compassion, and sleep in a daily diary study

OBJECTIVE

Since sleep is an important part of life and too little sleep can lead to disastrous consequences, it is important to look at the factors that may disturb healthy sleep. While procrastination and in particular bedtime procrastination is such a disruptive factor, self-compassion on the other side might be a protective factor.

METHODS

For this reason, in this study, we took a closer look at the interplay between bedtime procrastination, self-compassion, as well as at the actual sleep outcomes in a longitudinal diary study over 1 week. Our assumption was that bedtime procrastination has a negative impact on sleep outcomes, yet self-compassion could be a protective factor buffering this influence. To enable comparability with a previous study, analyses of variance were carried out.

RESULTS

Utilizing frequentist and Bayesian analyses, we found a consistent negative influence of bedtime procrastination and a positive influence of self-compassion on almost all sleep outcomes. While self-compassion did not entirely mitigate the effect of bedtime procrastination on sleep, its positive impact on sleep outcomes was evident.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the significance of self-compassion and procrastination in relation to actual sleep behaviour, adding to the existing body of literature on sleep research.

Effect of age and gender on dietary patterns, mindful eating, body image and confidence

The emergence of 'Diet Culture' came into existence with the era of pop culture, which emphasized the idea of body improvement by embracing the portrayal of unrealistic beauty standards set by the thin-ideal media. This growing and trending culture gained its popularity in India with the COVID pandemic and the imposed lockdown, wherein the prevalence of obesity and binge eating resulted from counter-regulatory eating behaviors and restrictive food intake to a greater extent of skipping meals to achieve the desired body type. The present empirical investigation focuses on understanding the gender and age-based differences (between the ages 18 to 55) among Indian population on dietary patterns, body image, mindful eating and physical appearance confidence using 2 × 3 factorial design. The tools used were Eating Behavior Pattern Questionnaire (EBPQ) [43], Body Self- image Questionnaire (BSIQ) [40], Mindful Eating Questionnaire (MEQ) [18] and Personal Evaluation Inventory (PEI) [44] were administered on a sample size of 120, selected using convenience sampling technique. The collected data was analyzed using SPSS Version 20.0. Results of the study reveal non-significant age and gender differences for mindful eating and appearance confidence. Significant age- differences were observed for Snacking and convenience F(2,114) = 6.22, p < .05; social dependence F(2,114) = 3.87, p < .05 and height dissatisfaction F(2,114) = 8.79, p < .05. And, significant gender differences were observed for Meal Skipping F(1,114) = 6.46, P < .05; snacking and convenience F(1,114) = 4.19, p < .05; fatness evaluation F(1,114) = 5.94, p < .05 and fitness evaluation F(1,114) = 5.33, p < .05. The only significant interaction effect observed was for social dependence dimension F(2, 114) = 3.96, p < .05. Thus, high exposure to social media and diet-related content contributed significantly to changing dietary patterns, and how they look, feel or perceive their body.

A pilot randomized trial of self-compassion writing for young adult women engaged in emotional eating in the context of appearance-related cyberbullying

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effectiveness of a 10-min self-compassion writing in alleviating body dissatisfaction, self-objectification, and emotional eating in young adult women engaged in emotional eating in the context of appearance-related cyberbullying.

METHOD

A total of 175 Chinese young adult women (Mage  = 20.90, SD = 1.65) were randomly assigned to one of the three groups: self-compassion, distraction, or control group. At baseline, participants completed assessments of trait and state body dissatisfaction, trait self-objectification, trait self-compassion, emotional eating, and positive and negative affect. Then they needed to recall an appearance-related cyberbullying victimization experience, after which state body dissatisfaction, state self-objectification, and positive and negative affect were measured. After the intervention, participants completed measures of state body dissatisfaction, state self-objectification, positive and negative affect, state self-compassion, and a food-choosing task. At 1-month follow-up, participants completed measures of trait body dissatisfaction, trait self-objectification, trait self-compassion, and emotional eating.

RESULTS

At post-intervention, state body dissatisfaction and negative affect were significantly lower, and positive affect was significantly higher in both the self-compassion and distraction groups compared to control. State self-objectification was significantly lower in the self-compassion group than in the other two groups. At 1-month follow-up, the self-compassion group showed significantly lower levels of body dissatisfaction than the control group.

DISCUSSION

The findings provide initial evidence for the potential of self-compassion writing in reducing state self-objectification and state body dissatisfaction in the context of appearance-related cyberbullying.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

Appearance-related cyberbullying, a common phenomenon in social networking sites, has been documented to associate with appearance-related concerns and disordered eating in young adult women. However, effective interventions that can reduce these negative associations are scarce. This study preliminarily found that a brief self-compassion writing could be a potential intervention for reducing state self-objectification and state body dissatisfaction in young adult women who had suffered appearance-related cyberbullying.

Self-Compassion and Physical Activity: The Underpinning Role of Psychological Distress and Barrier Self-Efficacy

Unlike other personality traits or dispositions, self-compassion can be nurtured and is likely a driving source for physical activity. Emerging research has started to examine self-compassion in physical activity contexts; however, most existing studies were underpowered and overlooked the psycho-behavioural factors underlying the link between self-compassion and physical activity. In a sample of 569 UK adults (mean age = 41.92 years, SD = 13.70; 47.8% female), we examined the hypothesis that self-compassion's positive influence on physical activity operates through reduced psychological distress and subsequently increased barrier self-efficacy. Results supported the prediction, with the positive influences of self-compassion being more prominent in more vigorous physical activity. The findings suggest that self-compassion is a good source of emotional resources (i.e., attenuated psychological distress) and confidence to overcome challenges and obstacles (i.e., increased barrier self-efficacy) in the context of physical activity. Future interventions and programs could consider incorporating self-compassion for physical activity adoption and maintenance.

Appearance Orientation and Dating Anxiety in Emerging Adults: Considering the Roles of Appearance-Based Rejection Sensitivity, Social Physique Anxiety, and Self-Compassion

Emerging research has suggested that appearance-related factors, such as greater appearance orientation, are associated with dating anxiety in emerging adults, but much more could be done to understand mechanistic pathways and potential buffers. Here, we tested a moderated mediation model in which appearance-based rejection sensitivity and social physique anxiety were explored as mediators, and self-compassion was explored as a moderator, of the relationship between appearance orientation and dating anxiety. A total of 501 heterosexual emerging adults (248 women, 253 men) from the UK completed instruments measuring the aforementioned constructs. Relationships among all variables were largely similar across women and men, with only the association between social physique anxiety and appearance-based rejection sensitivity being significantly stronger in women. Mediation analysis in the total sample indicated that both social physique anxiety and appearance-based rejection anxiety were significant mediators. Additionally, we confirmed a serial mediation involving appearance orientation → appearance-based rejection sensitivity → social physique anxiety → dating anxiety. Conversely, self-compassion did not moderate the effects of either social physique anxiety or appearance-based rejection sensitivity on dating anxiety, although greater self-compassion was moderately associated lower dating anxiety. We suggest ways in which existing interventions aimed at reducing dating anxiety could be combined with body image interventions to reduce dating anxiety in heterosocial contexts.

Using social cognition models to understand why people, such as perfectionists, struggle to respond with self-compassion

Responding with self-compassion to lapses in goal pursuit helps people to achieve their goals, yet evidence suggests that some people struggle to respond with self-compassion. The current research proposes that social cognition models such the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Prototype Willingness Model could explain why some people, such as those high in perfectionistic concerns, struggle to respond with self-compassion. We therefore conducted a pre-registered prospective study that measured participants' beliefs about self-compassion, difficulties enacting self-compassionate responding, perfectionistic concerns, and then tested their ability to be self-compassionate in response to a recalled and future lapse. The results showed that participants were less likely to respond with self-compassion to lapses if they held negative beliefs about self-compassion and experienced difficulties enacting self-compassion. Participants high in perfectionistic concerns were more likely to have negative beliefs about self-compassion and experience difficulties enacting self-compassion. Together, these findings provide evidence that social cognition models can be used to understand self-compassionate responding and identify why some people struggle to respond with self-compassion to goal lapses.

Experiences of Barriers to Self-Compassion in Women Experiencing Weight Difficulties: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

There is currently little understanding of why some individuals find it difficult to engage in self-compassion (SC), defined as a form of self-kindness, self-acceptance, and courage to face one’s distress. This is especially true for women experiencing weight difficulties, despite the emergence of promising results from compassion-focused approaches to weight management. Consequently, this study undertakes a qualitative study to explore the experiences of barriers to self-compassion in women who were actively trying to manage their weight, using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). A qualitative study was employed using an interpretive approach. Using purposive sampling, 10 women were recruited from London-based weight loss groups. Three super-ordinate themes emerged: (I) feeling unable to prioritise own needs over others’ needs; (II) having to learn and sustain a new approach to weight loss; and (III) having very high standards. The emergent themes suggest that women who face weight difficulties have numerous barriers to self-compassion. To fully utilise compassionate-based weight loss interventions for women, it is important to recognise these barriers and implement strategies to lessen their impact.

Adaptive body image can be contagious: An examination of college women facing situational body image threats

The present research examined whether and which adaptive body image displays in peers can promote more adaptive body image in self. In two studies, female-identified undergraduates recalled a personally distressing body image event. In Study 1, participants (N = 158) then heard an alleged female-identified peer responding to her own distressing body image event with either self-compassion, self-esteem enhancement, or distraction. Participants across conditions reported increased body acceptance and body image-related self-compassion, and decreased body image distress, but changes did not vary by condition. Study 2 sought to determine which component(s) common to Study 1's conditions explained the benefits participants experienced. Participants (N = 207) listened to an alleged peer: describe body image distress with which she coped adaptively; express body image distress but no adaptive coping; or deny body image distress and relate positively to her body. Hearing a peer cope adaptively with body image distress yielded the greatest body image benefits, whereas hearing a peer deny body image distress was generally least helpful. Results suggest that learning how a peer copes adaptively with body image distress may be most helpful in the face of personal body image distress, and support the overarching theory that adaptive body image may be socially transmissible.

Investigating the Links Between Performers' Self-Compassion, Mental Toughness and Their Social Environment: A Semi-Systematic Review

Being mentally tough while evaluating oneself in a compassionate way is still a difficult path for performers. Self-compassion, characterized by the ability to be kind to oneself, to see one's experiences as part of the larger human experience and have a balanced awareness to one's emotions and thoughts, was recently studied as a stepping stone to performance optimization and personal development. Despite a mistrust of this concept in the sports world, various studies show its benefits within athletes. A major question remains the environment that fosters or hinders the development of self-compassion: when role models extend compassionate attitudes, does it allow performers to respond in more self-compassionate ways? The relationship between self-compassion, mental toughness, and social environment is still unclear and is an important direction for future research within performers. This semi-systematic literature review aims at proposing an overview of the state of the art regarding self-compassion, mental toughness, and the influence of performer's, and social environments. Sixteen studies were retrieved. We conclude that the number of multi-day intervention programs and longitudinal studies should be increased. The studies should also consider assessing the specific aspects of performance culture and settings. In addition, overall performance-specific measures could be developed to assess general levels of self-compassion. The development of a theoretical framework explaining how self-compassion affects a performer, the role of their entourage and its link to other psychological resources, such as mental toughness, could help to better understand this concept.

Investigating the effects of fit-normative and weight-inclusive Instagram images on women's exercise motivations

Exposure to "fitspiration" may promote exercising for maladaptive weight and appearance reasons in young women. Fitness content depicting higher-weight bodies could promote exercise for adaptive non-appearance motives, and body compassion might protect against the negative effects of "fitspiration" exposure. Two pre-registered experimental studies examined (i) the effects of exposure to fit-normative vs. weight-inclusive Instagram images on young women's exercise intentions and motivations, and (ii) tested trait body compassion as a moderator of the relationships between image exposure and psychosocial exercise outcomes. Using an online experimental paradigm, young adult women were randomized to view Instagram images representing fit-normative, weight-inclusive, or control conditions and completed state measures of exercise intention and motivation. Study 1 (n = 228) employed a post-test design and found no significant effects of condition on exercise outcomes, nor an effect of body compassion. Using a pre- and post-experimental design in Study 2 (n = 797), participants in the weight-inclusive condition exhibited significantly greater increases in exercise intention and fitness/health motivation, while those in the fit-normative condition exhibited greater increases in weight/appearance motivation, compared to controls. Body compassion was not a significant moderator of the associations between exposure to weight-inclusive vs. fit-normative images and exercise outcomes. Exposure to fit-normative Instagram content may encourage dysfunctional exercise motives in young women. Weight-inclusive imagery may more effectively inspire adaptive exercise intentions and motivations, and future research should investigate how it may be leveraged to improve psychosocial exercise outcomes.

The association between carer self-compassion, expressed emotion, quality of life, and paediatric eating disorder symptoms

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate carer variables on paediatric eating disorders. We examined whether carer self-compassion, the tendency to treat oneself with kindness during distress and disappointments, was associated with lower carer expressed emotion, and, in turn, whether lower carer expressed emotion would be associated with both higher carer quality of life and lower eating disorder symptoms in young people. Further, we examined whether higher carer quality of life was associated with lower adolescent eating disorder symptoms.

METHOD

Data were extracted from the Helping out Paediatric Eating Disorders (HOPE) project database. Participants included children and adolescents diagnosed with a DSM5 eating disorder and their primary carer (N of dyads = 359). Primary carers completed the Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form (SCS-SF), Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire (Q-LES-Q-SF), and the Family Questionnaire-Expressed Emotion (FQ-EE). Children and adolescents completed an adapted version of the Eating Disorder Examination (EDE).

RESULTS

As hypothesised, structural equation modelling (SEM) revealed a direct relationship between higher carer self-compassion and lower expressed emotion, and between lower expressed emotion and both higher carer quality of life and lower eating disorder symptoms. However, contrary to our hypothesis, carer quality of life was not significantly associated with paediatric eating disorder symptoms. Expressed emotion carried significant indirect effects between carer self-compassion and (a) paediatric eating disorder symptoms and (b) carer quality of life.

DISCUSSION

The results highlight the importance of further research to determine whether targeting carer self-compassion is helpful in the treatment of eating disorders in young people.

Development and validation of the Body Compassion Questionnaire

Background

The associations between compassion, self-compassion, and body image are well established. However, there is not yet a compassion-informed measure of body compassion that can be applied to any aspect of one’s body.

Method

Items for The Body Compassion Questionnaire (BCQ) were derived from an earlier expressive writing study on self-compassion in body image. In study 1, the BCQ was completed by 728 men and women; with factor analysis, Rasch analysis, content and concurrent validation and reliability assessed. Study 2 compared BCQ scores with investigator-based ratings of spontaneous expressions of body compassion through writing in female undergraduates as well as an existing measure of body compassion. Study 3 examined the associations between BCQ scores, and the emotions expressed in a structured body image writing task. It also examined the relative predictive ability of the BCQ versus self-compassion in predicting eating pathology.

Results

A bi-factor structure was identified, with an overall BCQ score and three subscales: body kindness, common humanity, and motivated action. The BCQ and its subscales had good validity and reliability and Rasch analysis showed the item fit was invariant across a range of demographic characteristics. Spontaneous expressions of body compassion showed positive associations with body kindness. Overall BCQ scores and body kindness were also inversely related to negative emotions expressed in relation to body image. The BCQ was a better predictor of eating disorder symptoms than was self-compassion.

Conclusions

The BCQ is the first measure of body compassion that is aligned with theoretical aspects of self-compassion, and which includes aspects of both the first and second psychologies of compassion. It also highlights its potential use as a process measure of body compassion in models of eating disorder symptomology, mood and wellbeing as well as an outcome measure for compassion-based interventions in eating disorders and body image.

The Independent, Joint, and Additive Associations of Physical Activity and Self-Compassion on Depression Symptoms Among Chinese College Students

Background

Physical activity and self-compassion are closely related to individuals' mental health (eg, depression). However, most studies only examined their independent roles in mental health without considering the potential interaction between the two variables. The present study aimed to investigate the independent and joint associations between physical activity (PA) and self-compassion (SC) on depression symptoms and examine the additive interaction between PA and SC.

Methods

A cross-sectional design was utilized in the present descriptive study. By recruiting participants via social media platforms, 1846 Chinese college students completed International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form, the Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form, the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire, and items regarding socio-demographic information. Independent and joint roles of low-level PA (LPA) and low-level SC (LSC) on depression symptoms were examined by logistic regression models. Additive interaction between LPA and LSC on depression symptoms was examined by the following indices: relative excess risk due to interaction (RERI), attributable proportion (AP), and synergy index (S). Socio-demographic variables were included in the models as covariates.

Results

Both LPA (OR = 1.47 [1.16, 1.86]) and LSC (OR = 5.74 [3.89, 8.45]) were independently associated with higher probability of depression symptoms. Combining LPA and LSC led to an additive interaction and greatly increased the odds of depression symptoms (OR = 9.62 [5.38, 17.22]; RERI = 2.47 [0.19, 4.75], AP = 0.25 [0.05, 0.44], S = 1.38 [1.02, 1.87]).

Conclusion

Both LPA and LSC were associated with an increased risk of depression symptoms. Moreover, combining LPA and LSC may develop an additive risk for depression symptoms. Future research and clinical intervention could integrate PA and SC to find a better way to resist depression symptoms.

Self-Compassion and Reactions to a Recalled Exercise Lapse: The Moderating Role of Gender-Role Schemas

Exercise is good for health and well-being, yet people experience lapses when trying to adhere to exercise. Self-compassion may help people cope with exercise lapses. Most research on self-compassion and exercise has been conducted with women; men may also benefit from self-compassion. No research has examined whether gender-role schema influences responses to exercise lapses. The authors examined both male and female adult exercisers (N = 220) who reported their self-compassion, recalled an exercise lapse, their reactions to the lapse, and their self-identification of masculinity and femininity. After controlling for self-esteem, age, and lapse importance, self-compassion negatively related to emotional responses (p < .001), rumination (p < .001), extrinsic motivation (p = .004), and positively related to intrinsic motivation (p < .001). Masculinity moderated the relationships between self-compassion and amotivation (p = .006), and identified regulation (p = .01). Self-compassion may be an effective resource for exercisers, especially those who identify as highly masculine.

Self-Compassion and Empathy as Predictors of Happiness among Late Adolescents

Happiness is a fundamental characteristic of life, helping individuals to become healthy and productive members of society. Pakistan has been ranked as the 67th happiest country out of 156 countries in the world. Self-compassion (SC) and empathy are considered some of the finest emotions and moral values of human beings leading to a happier life. This is the first study in South Asia that examined self-compassion as a moderator between empathy and happiness. Furthermore, we also determined self-compassion and empathy as predictors of happiness among late adolescents. Data collected from 566 students, selected randomly from different educational institutions in Lahore, suggested that self-compassion (r = 0.273) and empathy (r = 0.131) had a significant positive relationship with happiness. Self-compassion and empathy both significantly predicted happiness. Male adolescents had slightly higher self-compassion and mindfulness than females. Self-compassion (F (3, 562) = 29.74, p = 0.000) was found to significantly moderate the relationship between empathy and happiness. Self-compassion can be highly beneficial to relate to oneself, specifically for adolescents who are involved in developing their identities and self-worth, and it makes their transition from adolescence to adulthood easy.

Psychosocial Well-Being: An Exploratory Cross-Sectional Evaluation of Loneliness, Anxiety, Depression, Self-Compassion, and Professional Quality of Life in Oncology Nurses

BACKGROUND

In addition to heavy workloads, oncology nurses are confronted with emotionally demanding caregiving moments with little training or institutional support for coping and emotional well-being.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to explore the associations and potential predictors among self-compassion, loneliness, anxiety, depression, and professional quality of life in oncology nurses.

METHODS

Participants were recruited throughout central Texas. Descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and multivariate regression analyses were conducted on survey data.

FINDINGS

Burnout and compassion satisfaction were strongly related to loneliness, self-compassion, and depression. Compassion fatigue was most highly related to anxiety and depression. Loneliness made the strongest unique contribution to burnout and compassion satisfaction, and depression was the only statistically significant predictor of compassion fatigue.

Adjusting Identities When Times Change: The Role of Self-Compassion

Adjusting identity standards may be preferable to relentless pursuit or abandonment of an identity when facing an identity-challenging life transition. Self-compassion (SC) can help people adjust to challenges. The authors examined whether SC was associated with identity adjustment, exercise, and the moderating effect of identity-behavior discrepancy in 279 women exercisers who reported reduced exercise in motherhood. Participants completed the Self-Compassion Scale and reported the extent of and reflected on their identity discrepant behavior (reduced exercise). Reactions to discrepancy (acceptance, shame, guilt, and rumination), correlates of identity adjustment (subjective well-being, autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and role conflict), and exercise behavior were assessed. SC associated positively with acceptance, correlates of successful identity adjustment, and exercise behavior. SC associated negatively with shame, rumination, and correlates of unsuccessful adjustment. SC may help exercise-identifying women who exercise less after becoming mothers adaptively cope with this identity challenge and continue exercising.

Examining self-affirmation as a tactic for recruiting inactive women into exercise interventions

Recruitment of insufficiently active individuals into exercise interventions is difficult due to many different barriers, including motivational barriers and negative body image. The present study provided an initial conceptual test of whether self-affirmation can help increase recruitment of insufficiently active women to an exercise intervention. Emerging adult women were randomly assigned to complete a self-affirmation or control task prior to reading the same message concerning the consequences of inactivity. In addition to completing demographic and body image measures at baseline, U.S. undergraduate participants (N = 254) indicated their interest in registering for an intervention and their intention to exercise after the experimental manipulation. Data did not support hypotheses that (1) self-affirmed women would find the message less threatening and less manipulative, (2) self-affirmed women would have higher intentions to exercise, (3) self-affirmed women would be more likely to register interest for a future exercise intervention, and (4) condition and body dissatisfaction would interact such that the intervention would be particularly beneficial for women with high body dissatisfaction. Results revealed that 70% of participants were unwilling to register for an exercise intervention, which indicates that other novel exercise intervention recruitment techniques need to be tested.

Self-compassion and resistance to persuasion

OBJECTIVE

Persuasive health messages sometimes induce resistance. This article explores the link between self-compassion and resistance to health messages that threaten autonomy.

DESIGN

A pilot study (N = 100) tested whether threatening health messages versus non-threatening messages damage needs for autonomy, which translates into emotional resistance and behavioural intentions of resistance. The main study (N = 83) tested self-compassion and reactant traits as moderators of observable health-behaviour (soft drink consumption) faced with threatening messages versus non-threatening messages.

OUTCOME MEASURES

The pilot study tested whether threatening health messages create resistance using self-reports of anger and resistant behavioural intentions. Observable health-behaviour (soft drink vs. water consumption) was measured in the main study.

RESULTS

The pilot study showed that the perceived threat to autonomy, which was induced by threatening health messages about soft drink consumption, creates resistance (self-reports of anger and resistant behavioural intentions). The main study shows that the most self-compassionate people act in favour of the arguments of the threatening messages (drinking water rather than soft drinks), whereas the least self-compassionate do not.

CONCLUSION

These innovative results are discussed in regard to the compliance role of self-compassion through self-regulatory functions.

Self-compassion training within a workplace physical activity program: A pilot study

BACKGROUND

Desire2Move (D2M) is an 8-week team-based, workplace program that incorporates competition and self-monitoring to encourage physical activity (PA).

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a self-compassion (SC) intervention within the existing workplace PA program.

METHODS

University employees (n = 20) were assigned to a SC treatment group or an attention control group. Participants logged their PA minutes using MapMyRun. Treatment group. participants received a 7-week, SC podcast intervention. Participants self-reported PA, SC, and demographic information at pre- and post-intervention. Separate ANOVAs were used to determine group differences.

RESULTS

There was not a statistically significant group x time interaction for SC, F(1, 18) = 0.02, p = 0.90, or main effects for time, F(1, 18) = 0.28, p = 0.61, or group, F(1, 18) = 1.70, p = 0.21, g = -0.42 [95%CI = -3.13, 2.29]. There were not significant differences between groups for total PA minutes during D2M, F(1, 18) = 2.15, p = 0.16, g = -0.63 [-1.53,0.27]. Overall, participants engaged in more than the recommended levels of PA each week.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study provided feedback and guidance for future online SC training within a workplace PA intervention.

What Can Affect Competition Anxiety in Athletes? The Role of Self-Compassion and Repetitive Negative Thinking

Identifying the correlates of competition anxiety is fundamental to athletes' well-being and performance. Self-compassion is gaining attention in sport psychology because of its associations with positive outcomes, while repetitive negative thinking (i.e. worry and rumination) is associated with negative conditions, such as anxiety. Building on previous evidence in the general population of associations between self-compassion, repetitive negative thinking, and trait anxiety, we investigated these relations in athletes of different sports. A total of 263 athletes (Mage = 23.72, SD = 6.97, 141 males) completed scales measuring self-compassion, repetitive negative thinking, and trait competition anxiety. Regression models showed the effects of self-compassion and worry on concern (the cognitive component of anxiety), and of worry on somatic anxiety. Gender, number of competitions a year, and years of practice were also associated with trait competition anxiety. A subsequent mediation model revealed significant direct and indirect effects of self-compassion on anxiety, mediated by worry. Results are discussed theoretically and considering their practical implications for athletes.

The Importance of Self-Compassion in Terms of Self Psychology

Self-compassion has fostered a new way to build connectedness with oneself and affirmed the importance of offering compassion to oneself. However, there have been numerous arguments about the similarity with other self-related concepts, yet they have neglected its importance in self-psychology. For instance, self-compassion could be seen as an important element in Kohut’s concept of self in illustrating the self-object and self-experience theory, thus leading to a healthy self. Additionally, the self-schemas (self-esteem and self-efficacy) have been sufficiently shown to be associating with and predicting positive psychological outcomes and have further demonstrated the positive relations with self-compassion. Self-compassion thus demonstrated that similar features have been shared among the self-schemas. Moreover, with the claim that self-compassion was more precise than self-esteem, self-compassion should be emphasized by self-psychology then to develop a new era of “true self-esteem”.

Meta-analytic review on the differential effects of self-compassion components on well-being and psychological distress: The moderating role of dialecticism on self-compassion

Although self-compassion has been extensively studied in the recent decades, the representation of self-compassion as a unitary measure or the presence of self-warmth (i.e., presence of the positive components: self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness) and self-coldness (i.e., presence of the negative components: self-judgment, isolation, and mindfulness) remains controversial. Moreover, the differential effects of the six components of self-compassion on mental well-being and psychological distress have not been systematically investigated. To synthesize the differential effects of the six components of self-compassion and to examine how people in different cultures may associate the positive and negative components of self-compassion differentially, the present meta-analysis synthesized 183 effect sizes across 27 cultures. Results showed that the negative components of self-compassion (rs = 0.44 to 0.45) showed greater effect sizes with psychological distress than the positive counterparts (rs = -0.17 to -0.29) whereas the positive components of SCS (rs = 0.29 to.39) showed greater effect sizes with mental well-being than the negative counterparts (rs = -0.29 to -0.36), with the exception of common humanity and isolation (r = 0.29 and - 0.36). Cultural orientation of dialecticism moderated the association between the positive and the negative components of self-compassion, with dialectical cultures showing lower associations between the two opposing components. Findings have implications on the design and implementation of self-compassion interventions cross-culturally.

Can athletes be tough yet compassionate to themselves? Practical implications for NCAA mental health best practice no. 4

Recent tragic events and data from official NCAA reports suggest student-athletes' well-being is compromised by symptoms of mental health (MH) disorders. Self-compassion (SC) and mental toughness (MT) are two psychological constructs that have been shown effective against stressors associated with sports. The purpose of this study was to investigate SC, MT, and MH in a NCAA environment for the first time and provide practical suggestions for MH best practice No.4. In total, 542 student-athletes participated across Divisions (M_age = 19.84, SD = 1.7). Data were collected through Mental Toughness Index, Self-Compassion Scale, and Mental Health Continuum–Short Form. MT, SC (including mindfulness), and MH were positively correlated. Males scored higher than females on all three scales. No differences were found between divisions. SC partially mediated the MT-MH relationship, but moderation was not significant. Working towards NCAA MH best practice should include training athletes in both MT and SC skills (via mindfulness).

Socioeconomic and Demographic Statuses as Determinants of Adherence to Antiretroviral Treatment in HIV Infected Patients: A Systematic Review of the Literature

BACKGROUND

Socioeconomic and demographic statuses are associated with adherence to the treatment of patients with several chronic diseases. However, there is a controversy regarding their impact on adherence among HIV/AIDS patients. Thus, we performed a systematic review of the evidence regarding the association of socioeconomic and demographic statuses with adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among HIV/AIDS patients.

METHODS

The PubMed database was used to search and identify studies concerning about socioeconomic and demographic statuses and HIV/AIDS patients. Data were collected on the association between adherence to ART and varies determinants factors of socioeconomic (income, education, and employment/occupation) and socio-demographic (sex and age).

FINDINGS

From 393 potentially-relevant articles initially identified, 35 original studies were reviewed in detail, which contained data that were helpful in evaluating the association between socioeconomic/ demographic statuses and adherence to ART among HIV patients. Two original research study has specifically focused on the possible association between socioeconomic status and adherence to ART. Income, level of education, and employment/occupational status were significantly and positively associated with the level of adherence in 7 studies (36.8%), 7 studies (28.0%), and 4 studies (23.5%) respectively out of 19, 25, and 17 studies reviewed. Sex (being male), and age (per year increasing) were significantly and positively associated with the level of adherence in 5 studies (14.3%), and 9 studies (25.7%) respectively out of 35 studies reviewed. However, the determinant of socioeconomic and demographic statuses was not found to be significantly associated with adherence in studies related to income 9(47.4%), education 17(68.0%), employment/ occupational 10(58.8%), sex 27(77.1%), and age 25(71.4%).

CONCLUSION

The majority of the reviewed studies reported that there is no association between socio- demographic and economic variables and adherence to therapy. Whereas, some studies show that age of HIV patients (per year increasing) and sex (being male) were positively associated with adherence to ART. Among socio-economic factors, the available evidence does not provide conclusive support for the existence of a clear association with adherence to ART among HIV patients. There seems to be a positive trend between socioeconomic factors and adherence to ART in some of the reviewed studies.

Self-compassion and responses to health information in middle-aged and older women: An observational cohort study

The aim of this study was to determine whether self-compassion—orientation to care for oneself during challenges—helps people at risk of cardiovascular disease deal with emotional reactions and assist with self-regulating health behaviors. This observational study recruited women ( N = 102) who attended three research visits over 3 weeks to gather information on emotions, intentions, and engagement in health behaviors after women received news they were at risk of cardiovascular disease. Self-compassion negatively associated with emotional responses and associated with intentions and engagement in health behaviors after receiving news of their cardiovascular disease risk. Self-compassion was associated with adaptive lifestyle behaviors.

Exploring the Use of Meditation as a Valuable Tool to Counteract Sedentariness

Some forms of meditation have been recently proposed as effective tools to facilitate the handling of undesired thoughts and reappraisal of negative emotions that commonly arise during exercise-related situations. The effects of meditation-based interventions on psychological responses could also be used as a means by which to increase exercise adherence and counteract the detrimental consequences of sedentariness. In the present article, we briefly describe the effects of meditation on physical activity and related factors. We also propose a theoretical model as a means by which to further understanding of the effects of meditation on psychological, psychophysical, and psychophysiological responses during exercise. The results of very recent studies in the realms of cognitive and affective psychology are promising. The putative psychological mechanisms underlying the effects of meditation on exercise appear to be associated with the interpretation of interoceptive and exteroceptive sensory signals. This is primarily due to the fact that meditation influences the cerebral processing of physical sensations, emotions, and thoughts. In such instances, the bodily and perceptual responses that are commonly reported during exercise might be assuaged during the practice of meditation. It also appears that conscious presence and self-compassion function as an emotional backdrop against which more complex behaviors can be forged. In such instances, re-engagement to physical activity programs can be more effectively achieved through the implementation of holistic methods to treat the body and mind. The comments provided in the present paper might have very important implications for exercise adherence and the treatment of hypokinetic diseases.

Understanding the role of mother guilt and self-compassion in health behaviors in mothers with young children

We explored whether the guilt mothers of young children feel about engaging in health behaviors mediates the relationship between self-compassion and self-reported engagement in health-promoting behaviors such as physical activity, eating a healthy diet and getting enough sleep. In this online, cross-sectional study, 143 mothers of young children completed measures of self-compassion, guilt about taking time to engage in health-promoting behaviors, trait guilt, health-promoting behaviors, self-esteem, and demographics. Mediation analysis, using Hayes' PROCESS macro showed that mother guilt mediated the relationship between self-compassion and health-promoting behaviors, ß = .05, Bca CI (.0014, .1133) with a bootstrapped standard error of .03 and a 95% confidence interval. Self-compassion may offer mothers a positive way to deal with guilty feelings about looking after their health.

A novel mindful-compassion art therapy (MCAT) for reducing burnout and promoting resilience for end-of-life care professionals: a waitlist RCT protocol

INTRODUCTION

End-of-life (EoL) care professionals are prone to burnout given the intense emotional nature of their work. Previous research supports the efficacy of art therapy in reducing work-related stress and enhancing emotional health among professional EoL caregivers. Integrating mindfulness meditation with art therapy and reflective awareness complementing emotional expression has immense potential for self-care and collegial support. Mindful-compassion art therapy (MCAT) is a novel, empirically informed, and highly structured intervention that aims to reduce work-related stress, cultivate resilience, and promote wellness. This study aims to assess the potential effectiveness of MCAT for supporting EoL care professionals in Singapore.

METHODS

This is an open-label waitlist randomized controlled trial. Sixty EoL care professionals, including doctors, nurses, social workers, and personal care workers, are randomly allocated to one of two groups: (i) an intervention group that receives MCAT immediately and (ii) a waitlist-control group that receives MCAT after the intervention group completes treatment. Face-to-face self-administered outcome assessments are collected at three different time points-baseline (T1) for both groups, post-intervention (T2), and 6-week follow-up (T3) for intervention group-as well as pre-intervention (T2) and post-intervention (T3) for the waitlist-control group. The primary outcome measure is burnout, and secondary measures include emotional regulation, resilience, compassion, quality of life, and death attitudes. Between- and within-participant comparisons of outcomes are conducted, and the appropriate effect size estimates are reported. An acceptability and feasibility study is to be conducted by using a triangulation of qualitative data with framework analysis.

DISCUSSION

The outcomes of this study will contribute to advancements in both theories and practices for supporting professional EoL caregivers around the world. It will also inform policy makers about the feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness of delivering a multimodal psycho-socio-spiritual intervention within a community institutional setting. The study has received ethical approval from the institutional review board of Nanyang Technological University.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03440606 . Retrospectively registered February 21, 2018.

The roles of self-compassion, body surveillance, and body appreciation in predicting intrinsic motivation for physical activity: Cross-sectional associations, and prospective changes within a yoga context

Engaging in physical activity for the immediate internal experiences it brings (e.g., pleasure, satisfaction) is critical for long-term exercise adherence. Investigations of how factors such as body image contribute to intrinsic motivation for physical activity are needed. The present study examined body surveillance and body appreciation as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and intrinsic motivation for physical activity cross-sectionally and prospectively. One sample of college women completed measures of study variables at one time point (Sample 1; N = 269, M_age = 19.96) and a second sample did so during Weeks 1, 8, and 16 while participating in a 16-week yoga course (Sample 2; N = 323, M_age = 20.31). In Sample 1, latent variable structural equation modeling supported body appreciation as a mediator between self-compassion and intrinsic motivation for physical activity. In Sample 2, latent growth curve analyses revealed that change in self-compassion predicted changes in body surveillance and body appreciation in expected directions. Further, change in body appreciation positively predicted change in intrinsic motivation. Targeting self-compassion and body appreciation may help support women's intrinsic motivation for physical activity.

Soothing Your Heart and Feeling Connected: A New Experimental Paradigm to Study the Benefits of Self-Compassion

Self-compassion and its cultivation in psychological interventions are associated with improved mental health and well-being. However, the underlying processes for this are not well understood. We randomly assigned 135 participants to study the effect of two short-term self-compassion exercises on self-reported-state mood and psychophysiological responses compared to three control conditions of negative (rumination), neutral, and positive (excitement) valence. Increased self-reported-state self-compassion, affiliative affect, and decreased self-criticism were found after both self-compassion exercises and the positive-excitement condition. However, a psychophysiological response pattern of reduced arousal (reduced heart rate and skin conductance) and increased parasympathetic activation (increased heart rate variability) were unique to the self-compassion conditions. This pattern is associated with effective emotion regulation in times of adversity. As predicted, rumination triggered the opposite pattern across self-report and physiological responses. Furthermore, we found partial evidence that physiological arousal reduction and parasympathetic activation precede the experience of feeling safe and connected.

Comparing the efficacy of a brief self-esteem and self-compassion intervention for state body dissatisfaction and self-improvement motivation

This study explored the efficacy of reflective writing tasks for reducing state body dissatisfaction and improving self-improvement motivation. Participants (N = 153) were exposed to a threatening body image scenario, after which they reported their state body dissatisfaction. Following randomisation to one of three interventions (self-esteem, self-compassion, or positive distraction control), participants completed the state body dissatisfaction measures again along with a measure of self-improvement motivation. At post-intervention, state weight dissatisfaction and appearance dissatisfaction were significantly lower and self-improvement motivation was significantly higher in the self-compassion group than in both the self-esteem and control groups. Trait body dissatisfaction moderated the efficacy of the intervention whereby the benefit of the self-compassion intervention became evident at moderate levels of trait body dissatisfaction, and was most apparent at high levels of body dissatisfaction. Self-compassion was a robust and efficacious method through which to promote immediate improvements to bodily feelings and desire to self-improve.

Examining fat talk and self-compassion as distinct motivational processes in women's eating regulation: A self-determination theory perspective

This study examined whether pursuing intrinsic versus extrinsic goals was associated with distinct motivational processes in eating regulation and with healthy versus unhealthy eating. Path analysis demonstrated that appearance goals were associated with fat talk, whereas health goals were associated with self-compassion. Fat talk was positively associated with non-self-determined motivation and unhealthy eating, whereas self-compassion was positively associated with self-determined motivation and healthy eating, and negatively associated with unhealthy eating. Findings emphasize the negative effects of pursuing appearance goals and engaging in fat talk and the benefits of pursuing health goals and being self-compassionate.

A Qualitative Exploration of Self-Kindness and "Treating Oneself" in Contexts of Eating, Weight Regulation and Other Health Behaviors: Implications for Mindfulness-Based Eating Programs

Background: Caring for oneself through mindfulness and compassion to improve or enhance health behaviors, and specifically eating behaviors has come to the forefront of scientific inquiry. The experiences and challenges for people in decision making around food within the context of self-kindness for body and mind care have not been previously explored.

Aims: This study explored the experiences of eating behaviors in a community sample and examined the understanding of self-kindness and its relationship to eating behaviors and wellbeing of body and mind.

Methods: A phenomenological theoretical position was taken; data were collected using individual semi-structured interviews. The sample was twenty-five members of the wider community in the West Midlands in England. The data were analyzed using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) procedural steps for thematic analysis.

Results: Two overarching themes were inductively formulated: ‘Thinking about eating’ and ‘Caring for body and mind’. Five themes were constructed: (a) Treat food is exceptional eating, (b) The proof of the pudding is in the planning, (c) Dieting is a dirty word, which are subsumed under Thinking about eating, and (d) Self-kindness is a disavowed abstract noun, and (e) Self-kindness: A rose by any other name; under Caring for body and mind. Participants described a number of ways of treating themselves both with food and with other activities and pleasure in eating was discussed in terms of social aspects of eating rather than food. Two clear contradictions within narratives around eating and health behaviors were shown. Participants largely eschewed the concept of dieting, but described engaging in highly regulated and restrained eating. There was a lack of connection with the notion of self-kindness; although positive eating and exercise health behaviors were undertaken, they were described as necessary self-regulation, not construed as acts of self-kindness.

Conclusion: The results suggests a lack of ease in the interpretation of being kind to oneself as a means of improving mental wellbeing, and an inability to relate self-kindness to physical health behaviors. The association of self-kindness with self-indulgence, and the described disconnect between hunger, satiety and pleasure in eating has implications for interpretation of mindful eating scales, practices and interventions.

Self-Compassion and Adherence in Five Medical Samples: the Role of Stress

Emerging evidence indicates self-compassion can be beneficial for medical populations and for medical adherence; yet, research to date has not fully examined the reasons for this association. This study examined the association of dispositional self-compassion to adherence across five medical samples and tested the extent to which perceived stress accounted for this association. Five medical samples (total N = 709), including fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, and cancer patients, recruited from various sources, completed online surveys. Self-compassion was positively associated with adherence in all five samples. A meta-analysis of the associations revealed a small average effect size (average r = .22, [0.15, 0.29]) of self-compassion and adherence and non-significant heterogeneity among the effects (Q (4) = 3.15, p = .532). A meta-analysis of the kappa2 values from the indirect effects of self-compassion on adherence revealed that, on average, 11% of the variance in medical adherence that was explained by self-compassion could be attributed to lower perceived stress. Overall, findings demonstrate that dispositional self-compassion is associated with better medical adherence among people with fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, and cancer, due in part to lower stress. This research contributes to a growing evidence base indicating the value of self-compassion for health-related behaviours in a variety of medical populations.

Self-Compassion and the Self-Regulation of Exercise: Reactions to Recalled Exercise Setbacks

Self-compassion facilitates health behavior self-regulation; few studies have examined self-compassion and exercise. This online, cross-sectional study investigated self-compassion's relationship with exercise self-regulation of an exercise setback. Adults (N = 105) who had experienced an exercise setback within the last 6 months completed baseline measures, recalled an exercise setback, and completed questionnaires assessing self-regulation in this context. Self-compassion associated with self-determined motivations and exercise goal reengagement, and negatively related to extrinsic motivations, state rumination, and negative affect. Self-compassion predicted unique variance, beyond self-esteem, in exercise goal reengagement, external regulation, state rumination, and negative affect experienced after an exercise setback. Self-compassion and self-esteem had unique relationships with goal reengagement, state rumination, and situational motivation, while having a complementary relationship with negative affect. This research adds to the few studies that examine the role of self-compassion in exercise self-regulation by examining how self-compassion and self-esteem relate to reactions to a recalled exercise setback.

The association between self-compassion and treatment outcomes: Session-level and treatment-level effects

OBJECTIVE

Self-compassion (SC) has been consistently linked to less psychopathology; however, the link between changes in client's SC levels and psychotherapy outcomes has yet to be explored.

METHOD

Clients at a university-based community clinic completed SC and outcome measures session by session (N = 112) as well as pre- to posttreatment (N = 70).

RESULTS

Increases in clients' SC levels across the entire therapeutic process were associated with improvement in all posttreatment outcomes. Additionally, session-to-session increases in SC levels predicted improved symptoms and functioning at the session level; these effects were significant above and beyond the effects of the therapeutic alliance.

CONCLUSION

The results of the current study highlight SC as a possible process variable in psychotherapy.

Examining the roles of self-compassion and resilience on health-related quality of life for individuals with Multiple Sclerosis

BACKGROUND

There are over 400,000 individuals living with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) in the U.S. These individuals experience unpredictable relapses of disabling conditions and poorer quality of life than the general population. Recent literature suggests self-compassion and resilience may improve wellness in this population.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to examine the roles of self-compassion and resilience on perceived health-related quality of life for individuals with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) using mediation analysis.

METHODS

Two hundred fifty-nine adults with MS from MS advocacy, support, exercise, and education groups around the United States participated in the study. Participants' self-compassion, health-related quality of life (HRQoL), and resilience were assessed using self-report measures. A simple mediation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between the independent variable, self-compassion, the depended variable, HRQoL, and the mediating variable, resilience.

RESULTS

Results showed a significant direct effect between self-compassion and health-related quality of life (β = 0.49, p < 0.0001, CI = 0.37-0.61), as well as an indirect relationship through resilience (β = 0.18 p < 0.0001, CI: 0.17, 0.47).

CONCLUSION

These results contribute to the theoretical knowledge of how self-compassion influences HRQoL in this population. For individuals with MS, engaging in self-compassion may provide a strategy to cope with debilitating conditions and reframe perceptions of their health. Additionally, increasing resilience may help individuals overcome stressful and traumatic events and experience quality of life with disability. Self-compassion and resilience are both modifiable constructs that can be targeted by programs seeking to improve overall wellness.

Self-compassion and physical health: Exploring the roles of perceived stress and health-promoting behaviors

Growing evidence indicates that self-compassion is associated with better physical health, but the pathways that mediate this relationship are not well understood. This study tested a serial mediation model that linked self-compassion, perceived stress, health behaviors, and a comprehensive index of physical health. A sample of 176 individuals completed an online survey posted on Amazon's Mechanical Turk. Self-compassion had an indirect effect on physical health via both mediators and through the sequential pathway, suggesting that taking a kind, accepting and mindful stance toward one's flaws and failures may have benefits for reducing stress and promoting health behaviors.

Using health promotion guidelines for persons with disabilities to develop and evaluate a physical activity program for individuals with multiple sclerosis: A feasibility study

The Health Education for Persons with Multiple Sclerosis (HEMS) program was developed in response to the need for interventions aimed at increasing physical activity for individuals with Multiple Sclerosis (MS). It was developed and evaluated using Drum and colleagues (2009) guidelines for implementing health promotion programs for individuals with disabilities. The purpose of this feasibility study is to describe the development, implementation, and evaluation of the HEMS program. Thirteen individuals with MS completed the 8-week health education program. A mixed method approach for evaluation was implemented (i.e., survey and focus groups). Process and resource feasibility demonstrated that over half of the participants attended at least 80% of the weekly sessions. Focus group data provided valuable feedback for future iterations of the program including critiques on the delivery, content, and group support provided. Outcome evaluation showed increases in self-efficacy (survey), improvements in theoretical constructs (focus groups), and increased physical activity (focus groups). Results show that health promotion programs for persons with MS can improve physical activity and related constructs. Next steps will be to revise, implement, and reevaluate the HEMS program in a larger randomized control trial.