Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in domestic animals and wildlife: advances and prospects in the development of animal models for vaccine and therapeutic research

Lessons learnt from broad-spectrum coronavirus antiviral drug discovery

INTRODUCTION

Highly pathogenic coronaviruses (CoVs), such as severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV (MERS-CoV), and the most recent SARS-CoV-2 responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, pose significant threats to human populations over the past two decades. These CoVs have caused a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging from asymptomatic to severe distress syndromes (ARDS), resulting in high morbidity and mortality.

AREAS COVERED

The accelerated advancements in antiviral drug discovery, spurred by the COVID-19 pandemic, have shed new light on the imperative to develop treatments effective against a broad spectrum of CoVs. This perspective discusses strategies and lessons learnt in targeting viral non-structural proteins, structural proteins, drug repurposing, and combinational approaches for the development of antivirals against CoVs.

EXPERT OPINION

Drawing lessons from the pandemic, it becomes evident that the absence of efficient broad-spectrum antiviral drugs increases the vulnerability of public health systems to the potential onslaught by highly pathogenic CoVs. The rapid and sustained spread of novel CoVs can have devastating consequences without effective and specifically targeted treatments. Prioritizing the effective development of broad-spectrum antivirals is imperative for bolstering the resilience of public health systems and mitigating the potential impact of future highly pathogenic CoVs.

Breaking the Barrier: SARS-CoV-2 Infections in Wild and Companion Animals and Their Implications for Public Health

The emergence of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has led to significant interest in its potential transmission between animals and humans, especially pets. This review article summarises the literature on coronavirus infections in domestic animals, emphasising epidemiology, transmission dynamics, clinical manifestations, and public health implications. This article highlights current understandings of the relationship between infections in companion animals and humans, identifies research gaps, and suggests directions for future research. Cases of disease in cats, dogs, and other domestic animals, often occurring through close contact with infected owners, are reviewed, raising concerns about possible zoonotic and reverse zoonotic transmission. Precautions and recommendations for pet owners and healthcare workers are also discussed. The scientific evidence presented in the article highlights the need for a One Health approach that considers the health of people, animals, and the environment to combat future pandemics.

In Silico Approaches to Developing Novel Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β (GSK-3β)

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is caused by plaque agglomeration and entanglement in several areas of the neural cells, which leads to apoptosis. The main etiology of AD is senile dementia, which is linked to amyloid-beta (Aβ) deregulation and tau perivascular pathogeny. Hyperphosphorylated tau has a propensity for microtubules, which elevate the instability and tau-protein congregates, leading to accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Tau hyperphosphorylation is susceptible to GSK-3, which has led to an emerging hypothesis regarding the pathogenesis of AD. Accordingly, attempts have been made to conduct investigations and achieve further advancements on new analogues capable of inhibiting the GSK-3 protein, which are currently in the clinical trials. In this analysis, we have evaluated certain GSK-3 inhibitor variants utilising scaffolding and framework devised techniques with pharmacological characteristics, accompanied by computational screenings (pharmacokinetics and docking). The structure-based designed analogues interacted effectively with the active amino acids of GSK-3β target protein. The in silico pharmacokinetic studies revealed their drug-like properties. The analogues with best interactions and binding scores will be considered in the future to completely demonstrate their potential relevance as viable GSK-3 inhibitors.

Solar desalination/purification (solar stills, humidification-dehumidification, solar disinfection) in high altitude during COVID19: Insights of gastrointestinal manifestations and systems' mechanism

From the starting of the pandemic different transmission routes of the pathogen was brought into the spotlight by researchers from different disciplines. This matter in high-altitudes was more boosted as the main parameters were not exactly realized. In this review we are about to highlight the possibility of consuming contaminated water generated form solar water desalination/disinfection systems in highlands. Three systems including solar still, solar disinfection (which experimented by the authors in 2019 in high altitude) and humidification-dehumidification were consider in this context. Ascribe to the risks of pathogens transmission in solar desalination/disinfection systems where the water resources are heavily polluted in every corner of the world, highlighting the risk of consuming water in high-altitude where there are many other parameters associated with spread of pathogen is of great importance. As it was reported, reliability of solar desalination and solar water disinfections systems against contaminated water by the novel coronavirus remained on the question because the virus can be transmitted by vapor in solar stills due to tiny particle size (60-140 nm) and would not be killed by solar disinfections due to low-temperature of operation <40 °C while for HDH contamination of both water and air by sars-cov-2 could be a concern. Although the SARS-CoV-2 is not a waterborne pathogen, its capability to replicate in stomach and infection of gastrointestinal glandular suggested the potential of transmission via fecal-oral. Eventually, it was concluded that using solar-based water treatment as drinking water in high altitude regions should be cautiously consider and recommendations and considerations are presented. Importantly, this critical review not only about the ongoing pandemic, but it aims is to highlight the importance of produced drinking water by systems for future epidemic/pandemic to prevent spread and entering a pathogen particularly in high-altitude regions via a new routes.

Susceptibility of SARS Coronavirus-2 infection in domestic and wild animals: a systematic review

Animals and viruses have constantly been co-evolving under natural circumstances and pandemic like situations. They harbour harmful viruses which can spread easily. In the recent times we have seen pandemic like situations being created as a result of the spread of deadly and fatal viruses. Coronaviruses (CoVs) are one of the wellrecognized groups of viruses. There are four known genera of Coronavirus family namely, alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), and delta (δ). Animals have been infected with CoVs belonging to all four genera. In the last few decades the world has witnessed an emergence of severe acute respiratory syndromes which had created a pandemic like situation such as SARS CoV, MERS-CoV. We are currently in another pandemic like situation created due to the uncontrolled spread of a similar coronavirus namely SARSCoV-2. These findings are based on a small number of animals and do not indicate whether animals can transmit disease to humans. Several mammals, including cats, dogs, bank voles, ferrets, fruit bats, hamsters, mink, pigs, rabbits, racoon dogs, and white-tailed deer, have been found to be infected naturally by the virus. Certain laboratory discoveries revealed that animals such as cats, ferrets, fruit bats, hamsters, racoon dogs, and white-tailed deer can spread the illness to other animals of the same species. This review article gives insights on the current knowledge about SARS-CoV-2 infection and development in animals on the farm and in domestic community and their impact on society.

Vaccine hesitancy among communities in ten countries in Asia, Africa, and South America during the COVID-19 pandemic

Vaccine hesitancy is considered one of the greatest threats to the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination programs. Lack of trust in vaccine benefits, along with concerns about side effects of the newly developed COVID-19 vaccine, might significantly contribute to COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy. The objective of this study was to determine the level of vaccine hesitancy among communities in particular their belief in vaccination benefits and perceived risks of new vaccines. An online cross-sectional study was conducted in 10 countries in Asia, Africa, and South America from February to May 2021. Seven items from the WHO SAGE Vaccine Hesitancy Scale were used to measure a construct of belief in vaccination benefit, and one item measured perceived riskiness of new vaccines. A logistic regression was used to determine which sociodemographic factors were associated with both vaccine hesitancy constructs. A total of 1,832 respondents were included in the final analysis of which 36.2% (range 5.6-52.2%) and 77.6% (range 38.3-91.2%) of them were classified as vaccine hesitant in terms of beliefs in vaccination benefits and concerns about new vaccines, respectively. Respondents from Pakistan had the highest vaccine hesitancy while those from Chile had the lowest. Being females, Muslim, having a non-healthcare-related job and not receiving a flu vaccination during the past 12 months were associated with poor beliefs of vaccination benefits. Those who were living in rural areas, Muslim, and those who did not received a flu vaccination during the past 12 months had relatively higher beliefs that new vaccines are riskier. High prevalence of vaccine hesitancy in some countries during the COVID-19 pandemic might hamper COVID-19 vaccination programs worldwide. Programs should be developed to promote vaccination in those sociodemographic groups with relatively high vaccine hesitancy.

Why was this cited? Explainable machine learning applied to COVID-19 research literature

Multiple studies have investigated bibliometric factors predictive of the citation count a research article will receive. In this article, we go beyond bibliometric data by using a range of machine learning techniques to find patterns predictive of citation count using both article content and available metadata. As the input collection, we use the CORD-19 corpus containing research articles—mostly from biology and medicine—applicable to the COVID-19 crisis. Our study employs a combination of state-of-the-art machine learning techniques for text understanding, including embeddings-based language model BERT, several systems for detection and semantic expansion of entities: ConceptNet, Pubtator and ScispaCy. To interpret the resulting models, we use several explanation algorithms: random forest feature importance, LIME, and Shapley values. We compare the performance and comprehensibility of models obtained by “black-box” machine learning algorithms (neural networks and random forests) with models built with rule learning (CORELS, CBA), which are intrinsically explainable. Multiple rules were discovered, which referred to biomedical entities of potential interest. Of the rules with the highest lift measure, several rules pointed to dipeptidyl peptidase4 (DPP4), a known MERS-CoV receptor and a critical determinant of camel to human transmission of the camel coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Some other interesting patterns related to the type of animal investigated were found. Articles referring to bats and camels tend to draw citations, while articles referring to most other animal species related to coronavirus are lowly cited. Bat coronavirus is the only other virus from a non-human species in the betaB clade along with the SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 viruses. MERS-CoV is in a sister betaC clade, also close to human SARS coronaviruses. Thus both species linked to high citation counts harbor coronaviruses which are more phylogenetically similar to human SARS viruses. On the other hand, feline (FIPV, FCOV) and canine coronaviruses (CCOV) are in the alpha coronavirus clade and more distant from the betaB clade with human SARS viruses. Other results include detection of apparent citation bias favouring authors with western sounding names. Equal performance of TF-IDF weights and binary word incidence matrix was observed, with the latter resulting in better interpretability. The best predictive performance was obtained with a “black-box” method—neural network. The rule-based models led to most insights, especially when coupled with text representation using semantic entity detection methods. Follow-up work should focus on the analysis of citation patterns in the context of phylogenetic trees, as well on patterns referring to DPP4, which is currently considered as a SARS-Cov-2 therapeutic target.

COVID-19: A systematic review and update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment

Since the rapid onset of the COVID-19 or SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in the world in 2019, extensive studies have been conducted to unveil the behavior and emission pattern of the virus in order to determine the best ways to diagnosis of virus and thereof formulate effective drugs or vaccines to combat the disease. The emergence of novel diagnostic and therapeutic techniques considering the multiplicity of reports from one side and contradictions in assessments from the other side necessitates instantaneous updates on the progress of clinical investigations. There is also growing public anxiety from time to time mutation of COVID-19, as reflected in considerable mortality and transmission, respectively, from delta and Omicron variants. We comprehensively review and summarize different aspects of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of COVID-19. First, biological characteristics of COVID-19 were explained from diagnosis standpoint. Thereafter, the preclinical animal models of COVID-19 were discussed to frame the symptoms and clinical effects of COVID-19 from patient to patient with treatment strategies and in-silico/computational biology. Finally, the opportunities and challenges of nanoscience/nanotechnology in identification, diagnosis, and treatment of COVID-19 were discussed. This review covers almost all SARS-CoV-2-related topics extensively to deepen the understanding of the latest achievements (last updated on January 11, 2022).

Why was this cited? Explainable machine learning applied to COVID-19 research literature

Multiple studies have investigated bibliometric factors predictive of the citation count a research article will receive. In this article, we go beyond bibliometric data by using a range of machine learning techniques to find patterns predictive of citation count using both article content and available metadata. As the input collection, we use the CORD-19 corpus containing research articles-mostly from biology and medicine-applicable to the COVID-19 crisis. Our study employs a combination of state-of-the-art machine learning techniques for text understanding, including embeddings-based language model BERT, several systems for detection and semantic expansion of entities: ConceptNet, Pubtator and ScispaCy. To interpret the resulting models, we use several explanation algorithms: random forest feature importance, LIME, and Shapley values. We compare the performance and comprehensibility of models obtained by "black-box" machine learning algorithms (neural networks and random forests) with models built with rule learning (CORELS, CBA), which are intrinsically explainable. Multiple rules were discovered, which referred to biomedical entities of potential interest. Of the rules with the highest lift measure, several rules pointed to dipeptidyl peptidase4 (DPP4), a known MERS-CoV receptor and a critical determinant of camel to human transmission of the camel coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Some other interesting patterns related to the type of animal investigated were found. Articles referring to bats and camels tend to draw citations, while articles referring to most other animal species related to coronavirus are lowly cited. Bat coronavirus is the only other virus from a non-human species in the betaB clade along with the SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 viruses. MERS-CoV is in a sister betaC clade, also close to human SARS coronaviruses. Thus both species linked to high citation counts harbor coronaviruses which are more phylogenetically similar to human SARS viruses. On the other hand, feline (FIPV, FCOV) and canine coronaviruses (CCOV) are in the alpha coronavirus clade and more distant from the betaB clade with human SARS viruses. Other results include detection of apparent citation bias favouring authors with western sounding names. Equal performance of TF-IDF weights and binary word incidence matrix was observed, with the latter resulting in better interpretability. The best predictive performance was obtained with a "black-box" method-neural network. The rule-based models led to most insights, especially when coupled with text representation using semantic entity detection methods. Follow-up work should focus on the analysis of citation patterns in the context of phylogenetic trees, as well on patterns referring to DPP4, which is currently considered as a SARS-Cov-2 therapeutic target.

SARS-CoV-2 vaccine for domestic and captive animals: An effort to counter COVID-19 pandemic at the human-animal interface

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has already affected millions worldwide. The emergence of multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants may pose a significant threat to our efforts in controlling the pandemic. The impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants on the efficacy of available vaccines, therapeutics, and diagnostics is currently being investigated. SARS-CoV-2 has been implicated to be originated from animals due to cross-species jumping and raises zoonotic concerns due to the potential for reintroduction into the human populations via interspecies transmission between humans and animals. Natural SARS-CoV-2 infections have been reported in domestic animals (dog, cat, and ferret), captive animals (tiger, lion, snow leopard, puma, otter, and gorilla), and wild and farmed minks. Vaccination of domestic animals can prevent the possible introduction of SARS-CoV-2 into the feral population and subsequent transmission to wildlife. Although the need to vaccinate susceptible animal species, such as cats, minks, and great apes, might seem irrational from a public health standpoint, the successful elimination of SARS-CoV-2 will only be possible by controlling the transmission in all susceptible animal species. This is necessary to prevent the re-emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in the future.

SARS-CoV-2 in animals: potential for unknown reservoir hosts and public health implications

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2, previously 2019-nCoV) is suspected of having originated in 2019 in China from a coronavirus infected bat of the genus Rhinolophus. Following the initial emergence, possibly facilitated by a mammalian bridge host, SARS-CoV-2 is currently transmitted across the globe via efficient human-to-human transmission. Results obtained from experimental studies indicate that animal species such as cats, ferrets, raccoon dogs, cynomolgus macaques, rhesus macaques, white-tailed deer, rabbits, Egyptian fruit bats, and Syrian hamsters are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, and that cat-to-cat and ferret-to-ferret transmission can take place via contact and air. However, natural infections of SARS-CoV-2 have been reported only in pet dogs and cats, tigers, lions, snow leopards, pumas, and gorillas at zoos, and farmed mink and ferrets. Even though human-to-animal spillover has been reported at several instances, SARS-CoV-2 transmission from animals-to-humans has only been reported from mink-to-humans in mink farms. Following the rapid transmission of SARS-CoV-2 within the mink population, a new mink-associated SARS-CoV-2 variant emerged that was identified in both humans and mink. The increasing reports of SARS-CoV-2 in carnivores indicate the higher susceptibility of animal species belonging to this order. The sporadic reports of SARS-CoV-2 infection in domestic and wild animal species require further investigation to determine if SARS-CoV-2 or related Betacoronaviruses can get established in kept, feral or wild animal populations, which may eventually act as viral reservoirs. This review analyzes the current evidence of SARS-CoV-2 natural infection in domestic and wild animal species and their possible implications on public health.

Novel coronavirus pathogen in humans and animals: an overview on its social impact, economic impact, and potential treatments

In the light of thousands of infections and deaths, the World Health Organization (WHO) has declared the outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) a worldwide pandemic. It has spread to about 22 million people worldwide, with a total of 0.45 million expiries, limiting the movement of most people worldwide in the last 6 months. However, COVID-19 became the foremost health, economic, and humanitarian challenge of the twenty-first century. Measures intended to curb the pandemic of COVID-19 included travel bans, lockdowns, and social distances through shelter orders, which will further stop human activities suddenly and eventually impact the world and the national economy. The viral disease is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). After SARS-CoV-2 virus and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)-related CoV, COVID-19 is the third most significant lethal disease to humans. According to WHO, COVID-19 mortality exceeded that of SARS and MERS since COVID-19 was declared an international public health emergency. Genetic sequencing has recently established that COVID-19 is close to SARS-CoV and bat coronavirus which has not yet been recognized as the key cause of this pandemic outbreak, its transmission, and human pathogen mechanism. This review focuses on a brief introduction of novel coronavirus pathogens, including coronavirus in humans and animals, its taxonomic classification, symptoms, pathogenicity, social impact, economic impact, and potential treatment therapy for COVID-19.

Egypt's COVID-19 Recent Happenings and Perspectives: A Mini-Review

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has affected countries across the world. While the zoonotic aspects of SARS-CoV-2 are still under investigation, bats and pangolins are currently cited as the animal origin of the virus. Several types of vaccines against COVID-19 have been developed and are being used in vaccination drives across the world. A number of countries are experiencing second and third waves of the pandemic, which have claimed nearly four million lives out of the 180 million people infected globally as of June 2021. The emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants and mutants are posing high public health concerns owing to their rapid transmissibility, higher severity, and in some cases, ability to infect vaccinated people (vaccine breakthrough). Here in this mini-review, we specifically looked at the efforts and actions of the Egyptian government to slow down and control the spread of COVID-19. We also review the COVID-19 statistics in Egypt and the possible reasons behind the low prevalence and high case fatality rate (CFR%), comparing Egypt COVID-19 statistics with China (the epicenter of COVID-19 pandemic) and the USA, Brazil, India, Italy, and France (the first countries in which the numbers of patients infected with COVID-19). Additionally, we have summarized the SARS-CoV-2 variants, vaccines used in Egypt, and the use of medicinal plants as preventive and curative options.

Transmission modes of COVID-19 disease pandemic in the light of ancient wisdom of Ayurveda medicine: a review

Human-to-human transmission of the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) occurs most often when people are in the incubation stage of the disease or are carriers and have no symptoms. SARS-CoV-2 transmission on different levels showed that the cold and dry climate, hot wind and relative humid wind, maximum wind speed, turbulent wind, intensified recirculating flow were causing transmission higher than factors. The role of environmental factors described in Ayurveda like air, water, soil, season, frequent earthquakes, sunlight exposure, frequent thunderstorm with lightening, and factors from arthropods were revalidated in perspective of COVID-19 transmission. The authors searched the information regarding epidemic diseases in Ayurveda textbooks. Pubmed, Science Direct, Wikipedia, Elsevier, Lancet, and Springer were approached for the latest knowledge relating to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Google Scholar search engine was thoroughly checked upon for scientific evidence regarding the Ayurveda drugs. Various environmental factors like soil, air, water, frequent earthquake disasters, wildlife animals, aquatic birds, space, inevitable disastrous factors, weather or seasonal hazards, violent thunderstorm with lightning, intermediate hosts, sunlight exposure etc. were considered for their role in the genesis of the disease. The Ayurvedic concepts behind the etiology and development of epidemics are the same as modern epidemiological theories. The mysteries of many aspects of the current pandemic might be deciphered by traditional medicine knowledge and thus adding upon to the integrative medicine concept.

Diverse Immunological Factors Influencing Pathogenesis in Patients with COVID-19: A Review on Viral Dissemination, Immunotherapeutic Options to Counter Cytokine Storm and Inflammatory Responses

The pathogenesis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is still not fully unraveled. Though preventive vaccines and treatment methods are out on the market, a specific cure for the disease has not been discovered. Recent investigations and research studies primarily focus on the immunopathology of the disease. A healthy immune system responds immediately after viral entry, causing immediate viral annihilation and recovery. However, an impaired immune system causes extensive systemic damage due to an unregulated immune response characterized by the hypersecretion of chemokines and cytokines. The elevated levels of cytokine or hypercytokinemia leads to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) along with multiple organ damage. Moreover, the immune response against SARS-CoV-2 has been linked with race, gender, and age; hence, this viral infection's outcome differs among the patients. Many therapeutic strategies focusing on immunomodulation have been tested out to assuage the cytokine storm in patients with severe COVID-19. A thorough understanding of the diverse signaling pathways triggered by the SARS-CoV-2 virus is essential before contemplating relief measures. This present review explains the interrelationships of hyperinflammatory response or cytokine storm with organ damage and the disease severity. Furthermore, we have thrown light on the diverse mechanisms and risk factors that influence pathogenesis and the molecular pathways that lead to severe SARS-CoV-2 infection and multiple organ damage. Recognition of altered pathways of a dysregulated immune system can be a loophole to identify potential target markers. Identifying biomarkers in the dysregulated pathway can aid in better clinical management for patients with severe COVID-19 disease. A special focus has also been given to potent inhibitors of proinflammatory cytokines, immunomodulatory and immunotherapeutic options to ameliorate cytokine storm and inflammatory responses in patients affected with COVID-19.

Did the COVID-19 Pandemic Spark a Public Interest in Pet Adoption?

This study aimed to determine if there has been an increase of global interest on pet adoption immediately after the WHO declaration of the pandemic and if the effect has been sustainable in 8 months on. We conducted a Google Trends search using keywords related to pet adoption. Relative search volume (RSV) was scored between 0 and 100 for the lowest and the highest, respectively. Top countries contributing to the dataset included Australia, the United States, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Singapore, the Philippines, and Malaysia. From 2015 through 2020, the worldwide RSV for the categories of pet, dog and cat adoption peaked between April and May 2020, the early epidemic phase of the pandemic. These were significantly higher than the 5-year worldwide average RSV for all three categories (P = 0.001). Comparing to the same period in 2019, the RSV ratio (2020/2019) for both dog and cat adoption increased by up to 250%. Nonetheless, the RSV for dog adoption has been decreasing since July 2020 and returned to the 5-year average by December 2020. In contrast, the interest in cat adoption remained sustainably high, possibly reflecting the feline acclimation to indoor living. In conclusion, the global interest in pet adoptions surged in the early phase of the pandemic but not sustainable. With the launch of COVID-19 vaccines, there is a concern for separation anxiety and possible abandonment of these newly adopted pets when the owners would leave their homes for work in the future.

Role of Inflammatory Cytokines in COVID-19 Patients: A Review on Molecular Mechanisms, Immune Functions, Immunopathology and Immunomodulatory Drugs to Counter Cytokine Storm

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is a severe pandemic of the current century. The vicious tentacles of the disease have been disseminated worldwide with unknown complications and repercussions. Advanced COVID-19 syndrome is characterized by the uncontrolled and elevated release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and suppressed immunity, leading to the cytokine storm. The uncontrolled and dysregulated secretion of inflammatory and pro-inflammatory cytokines is positively associated with the severity of the viral infection and mortality rate. The secretion of various pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-6 leads to a hyperinflammatory response by recruiting macrophages, T and B cells in the lung alveolar cells. Moreover, it has been hypothesized that immune cells such as macrophages recruit inflammatory monocytes in the alveolar cells and allow the production of large amounts of cytokines in the alveoli, leading to a hyperinflammatory response in severely ill patients with COVID-19. This cascade of events may lead to multiple organ failure, acute respiratory distress, or pneumonia. Although the disease has a higher survival rate than other chronic diseases, the incidence of complications in the geriatric population are considerably high, with more systemic complications. This review sheds light on the pivotal roles played by various inflammatory markers in COVID-19-related complications. Different molecular pathways, such as the activation of JAK and JAK/STAT signaling are crucial in the progression of cytokine storm; hence, various mechanisms, immunological pathways, and functions of cytokines and other inflammatory markers have been discussed. A thorough understanding of cytokines' molecular pathways and their activation procedures will add more insight into understanding immunopathology and designing appropriate drugs, therapies, and control measures to counter COVID-19. Recently, anti-inflammatory drugs and several antiviral drugs have been reported as effective therapeutic drug candidates to control hypercytokinemia or cytokine storm. Hence, the present review also discussed prospective anti-inflammatory and relevant immunomodulatory drugs currently in various trial phases and their possible implications.

An Insight Into COVID-19: A 21st Century Disaster and Its Relation to Immunocompetence and Food Antioxidants

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) ranks third in terms of fatal coronavirus diseases threatening public health, coming after SARS-CoV (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus), and MERS-CoV (Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus). SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2) causes COVID-19. On January 30, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced that the current outbreak of COVID-19 is the sixth global health emergency. As of December 3, 2020, 64 million people worldwide have been affected by this malaise, and the global economy has experienced a loss of more than $1 trillion. SARS-CoV-2 is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Betacoronavirus genus. The high nucleotide sequence identity of SARS-CoV-2 with the BatCoV RaTG13 genome has indicated that bats could be the possible host of SARS-CoV-2. SARS-CoV-2 penetrates the host cell via binding its spike protein to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor, which is similar to the mechanisms of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. COVID-19 can spread from person to person via respiratory droplets and airborne and contaminated fomites. Moreover, it poses a significant risk to smokers, the elderly, immunocompromised people, and those with preexisting comorbidities. Two main approaches are used to control viral infections, namely, vaccination, and biosecurity. Studies to analyze the antigenicity and immunogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidates are underway, and few vaccines may be available in the near future. In the current situation, the Human Biosecurity Emergency (HBE) may be the only way to cope effectively with the novel SARS-CoV-2 strain. Here, we summarize current knowledge on the origin of COVID-19 as well as its epidemiological relationship with humans and animals, genomic resemblance, immunopathogenesis, clinical-laboratory signs, diagnosis, control and prevention, and treatment. Moreover, we discuss the interventional effects of various nutrients on COVID-19 in detail. However, multiple possibilities are explored to fight COVID-19, and the greatest efforts targeted toward finding an effective vaccine in the near future. Furthermore, antioxidants, polyphenols, and flavonoids, both synthetic and natural, could play a crucial role in the fight against COVID-19.

SARS-CoV-2 infection in farmed minks, associated zoonotic concerns, and importance of the One Health approach during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has now affected over 72.5 million people worldwide, with nearly 1.6 million deaths reported globally as of December 17, 2020. SARS-CoV-2 has been implicated to have originated from bats and pangolins, and its intermediate animal hosts are being investigated. Crossing of the species barrier and exhibition of zoonosis have been reported in SARS-CoV-2 in farm (minks), domesticated (cats and dogs), and wild animals (tigers, puma, and lions). Recently, the rapid spread of SARS-CoV-2 infection was reported in mink farms, which led to the death of a myriad minks. The clinical and pathological findings of SARS-CoV-2 infection and the rapid animal-to-animal transmission in minks are almost similar to the findings observed in patients with COVID-19. Additionally, the rapid virus transmission among minks and the associated mutations resulted in a new mink-associated variant that was identified in both minks and humans, thereby providing evidence of mink-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2. The new mink-associated SARS-CoV-2 variant with a possible reduced sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies poses serious risks and is expected to have a direct effect on the diagnostic techniques, therapeutics, and vaccines that are currently under development. This article highlights the current evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in farmed minks, and provides an understanding of the pathogenesis of COVID-19 in minks and the associated zoonotic concerns of SARS-CoV-2 transmission from minks to humans with an emphasis on appropriate mitigation measures and on the necessity of adopting the One Health approach during the COVID-19 pandemic.

An Overview of SARS-CoV-2 and Animal Infection

A novel coronavirus has been reported as the causative pathogen of the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in Wuhan city, China in December 2019. Due to the rapid spread of the virus worldwide, it has been announced as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO). Hospitalized patients in Wuhan were associated with the Huanan seafood wholesale market where live animals, such as poultry, bats, snakes, frogs, rabbits, marmots, and hedgehogs are sold in that market which suggests a possible zoonotic infection. It was suggested that bat is the natural host of SARS-CoV-2, but the intermediate host is still unclear. It is essential to identify the potential intermediate host to interrupt the transmission chain of the virus. Pangolin is a highly suspected candidate as an intermediate host for SARS-CoV-2. Recently, SARS-CoV-2 infection has been reported in cats, dogs, tigers, and lions. More recently SARS-CoV-2 infection affected minks severely and zoonotic transfer with a variant SARS-CoV-2 strain evidenced in Denmark, Netherlands, USA, and Spain suggesting animal-to-human and animal-to-animal transmission within mink farms. Furthermore, experimental studies documented the susceptibility of different animal species to SARS-CoV-2, such as mice, golden hamsters, cats, ferrets, non-human primates, and treeshrews. It is also essential to know the possibility of infection for other animal species. This short review aims to provide an overview on the relation between severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and animals.

Biosafety Concerns During the Collection, Transportation, and Processing of COVID-19 Samples for Diagnosis

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which started in China, has created a panic among the general public and health care/laboratory workers. Thus far, there is no medication or vaccine to prevent and control the spread of COVID-19. As the virus is airborne and transmitted through droplets, there has been significant demand for face masks and other personal protective equipment to prevent the spread of infection. Health care and laboratory workers who come in close contact with infected people or material are at a high risk of infection. Therefore, robust biosafety measures are required at hospitals and laboratories to prevent the spread of COVID-19. Various diagnostic platforms including of serological, molecular and other advanced tools and techniques have been designed and developed for rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 and each has its own merits and demerits. Molecular assays such as real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) has been used worldwide for diagnosis of COVID-19. Samples such as nasal swabs or oropharyngeal swabs are used for rRT-PCR. Laboratory acquired infection has been a significant problem worldwide, which has gained importance during the current pandemic as the samples for rRT-PCR may contain intact virus with serious threat. COVID-19 can spread to workers during the sampling, transportation, processing, and disposal of tested samples. Here, we present an overview on advances in diagnosis of COVID-19 and details the issues associated with biosafety procedures and potential safety precautions to be followed during collection, transportation, and processing of COVID-19 samples for laboratory diagnosis so as to avoid virus infection.

An Introduction to SARS Coronavirus 2; Comparative Analysis with MERS and SARS Coronaviruses: A Brief Review

Since the 1970 the replication and pathogenesis mechanism of different coronaviruses have been studded.. In 2002-2003, SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus) in China emerged which resulted in 8098 cases and 774 deaths. About 10 years later in 2012, the MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus) spread in Middle Eastern countries and leads to infection in 2465 cases. In Dec 2019, another acute respiratory disease caused by a novel coronavirus named SARS-2 emerged in Wuhan, China. The virus is assumed to be mainly transmitted by respiratory droplets. Travels and communications leads to high prevalence of COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019) in the world, and currently in Iran. The current review was conducted to compare the virus structure, genome organization, virus life cycle, pathogenesis and prediction the future of COVID-19.