A review of the effects of breastfeeding on respiratory infections, atopy, and childhood asthma

Managing Asthma During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period

Asthma is one of the most common chronic diseases in pregnancy and is associated with adverse perinatal outcomes. Asthma symptoms worsen in approximately 40% of women, and exacerbations requiring medical intervention occur in at least 20% of women. Factors associated with exacerbation and worsening asthma include multiparity, obesity, Black race, exacerbations before pregnancy, and poor asthma control. Exacerbations are associated with further increased risks for poor perinatal outcomes, including low birth weight, preterm birth, and small for gestational age (SGA) status, as well as an increase in the development of asthma in early childhood. Common medications used for asthma, including short-acting β-agonists and inhaled corticosteroids, are considered safe to use in pregnancy. Whereas guidelines generally suggest traditional step therapy for managing asthma in pregnancy, there are alternative models of care and management approaches that may be effective in pregnancy, but require more research. These include single-inhaler maintenance and reliever therapy, treatment adjustment with FeNO, treatable traits personalized medicine approaches, and telemedicine. Little is known about changes to asthma in the postpartum period. However, low adherence to medication and the potential effects of postpartum depression on asthma exacerbation risk warrant further research.

Early-immune development in asthma: A review of the literature

This review presents a comprehensive examination of the various factors contributing to the immunopathogenesis of asthma from the prenatal to preschool period. We focus on the contributions of genetic and environmental components as well as the role of the nasal and gut microbiome on immune development. Predisposing genetic factors, including inherited genes associated with increased susceptibility to asthma, are discussed alongside environmental factors such as respiratory viruses and pollutant exposure, which can trigger or exacerbate asthma symptoms. Furthermore, the intricate interplay between the nasal and gut microbiome and the immune system is explored, emphasizing their influence on allergic immune development and response to environmental stimuli. This body of literature underscores the necessity of a comprehensive approach to comprehend and manage asthma, as it emphasizes the interactions of multiple factors in immune development and disease progression.

Early-Life Nutrition in Preterm Infants and Risk of Respiratory Infections and Wheezing: A Scoping Review

INTRODUCTION

Preterm birth is a common early-life event that can lead to long-term consequences. The incidence of wheezing, asthma, and respiratory tract infections is higher in children born prematurely than in the general population. The purpose of this review was to synthesize the existing literature on the role of early-life nutrition in the later risk of respiratory morbidities.

METHODS

A scoping review of the literature was performed by searching three online databases. Inclusion criteria were: infants born <37 GWk, comparing human milk versus any other type of milk feeding formulation. Our primary outcomes were wheezing or asthma or respiratory tract infections after discharge. Two authors independently screened the results and extracted study characteristics using a predefined charting form.

RESULTS

Nine articles were included (eight cohort studies and one randomized trial). Four studies supported the protective effect of breastfeeding on wheezing or respiratory infections or both. Four studies did not confirm this association. One study confirmed the protective role of breastfeeding only on the subgroup of girls. There was a high heterogeneity among the included studies, in the type of milk feeding, outcomes, and age at follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

The current evidence is conflicting. The high heterogeneity and methodological flaws could have influenced the results of the studies. Carefully designed studies are required to define the role of early-life nutrition among preterm infants on their long-term respiratory outcomes.

Asthma in pregnancy - Management, maternal co-morbidities, and long-term health

Asthma is the most prevalent chronic disease in pregnancy, and as symptoms can change with pregnancy, and exacerbations of asthma are common, regular review of asthma symptoms, the provision of self-management education, and appropriate medication use are the hallmarks of management. Co-morbidities are also prevalent among pregnant women with asthma, with obesity, gestational diabetes, hypertension, rhinitis, depression, and anxiety, more common among women with asthma than women without asthma. Less is known about reflux, obstructive sleep apnoea and vocal cord dysfunction, along with nutritional deficiencies to iron and vitamin D. Maternal asthma impacts the offspring's long-term health, particularly in increasing the risk of early life wheeze and asthma in childhood. While breastfeeding may modify the risk of infant wheeze, less is known about the mechanisms involved. More research is needed to further understand the relationship between asthma in pregnancy and the risk of poor neurodevelopmental outcomes, such as autism.

Short-chain fatty acid acetate triggers antiviral response mediated by RIG-I in cells from infants with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis

Background

Gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty-acid (SFCA) acetate protects mice against RSV A2 strain infection by increasing interferon-β production and expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). However, the role of SFCA in RSV infection using strains isolated from patients is unknown.

Methods

We first used RSV clinical strains isolated from infants hospitalized with RSV bronchiolitis to investigate the effects of in vitro SCFA-acetate treatment of human pulmonary epithelial cells. We next examined whether SCFA-acetate treatment is beneficial in a mouse model of RSV infection using clinical isolates. We sought to investigate the relationship of gut microbiota and fecal acetate with disease severity among infants hospitalized with RSV bronchiolitis, and whether treating their respiratory epithelial cells with SCFA-acetate ex-vivo impacts viral load and ISG expression. We further treated epithelial cells from SARS-CoV-2 infected patients with SCFA-acetate.

Findings

In vitro pre-treatment of A549 cells with SCFA-acetate reduced RSV infection with clinical isolates and increased the expression of RIG-I and ISG15. Animals treated with SCFA-acetate intranasally recovered significantly faster, with reduction in the RSV clinical isolates viral load, and increased lung expression of IFNB1 and the RIG-I. Experiments in RIG-I knockout A549 cells demonstrated that the protection relies on RIG-I presence. Gut microbial profile was associated with bronchiolitis severity and with acetate in stool. Increased SCFA-acetate levels were associated with increasing oxygen saturation at admission, and shorter duration of fever. Ex-vivo treatment of patients’ respiratory cells with SCFA-acetate reduced RSV load and increased expression of ISGs OAS1 and ISG15, and virus recognition receptors MAVS and RIG-I, but not IFNB1. These SCFA-acetate effects were not found on cells from SARS-CoV-2 infected patients.

Interpretation

SCFA-acetate reduces the severity of RSV infection and RSV viral load through modulation of RIG-I expression.

Funding

FAPERGS (FAPERGS/MS/CNPq/SESRS no. 03/2017 - PPSUS 17/2551-0001380-8 and COVID-19 20/2551-0000258-6); CNPq 312504/2017-9; CAPES) - Finance Code 001.

Breastfeeding and respiratory, ear and gastro-intestinal infections, in children, under the age of one year, admitted through the paediatric emergency departments of five hospitals

BACKGROUND

Breastfeeding is a protective factor against respiratory and intestinal infections in developing countries. In developed countries, proof of this protection is more difficult to show. The objective of the study is to compare the proportion of children breastfed during their first year in groups of children with infectious pathologies supposedly prevented by breastfeeding and children free of these infectious pathologies.

METHOD

Questionnaires about diet, socio-demographic data and the motive for consultation were given to the parents upon arrival in the paediatric emergency departments of 5 hospitals located in Pays de Loire (France) in 2018 and 2019. Children with lower respiratory tract infections, acute gastroenteritis and acute otitis media were included in the case group (A), children admitted for other reasons were included in the same control group (B). Breastfeeding was classified as exclusive or partial.

RESULTS

During the study period, 741 infants were included, of which 266 (35.9%) in group A. In this group, children were significantly less likely to have been breastfed at the time of admission than children in group B: for example, for children under 6 months, 23.3% were currently breastfed in group A, vs. 36.6% (weaned BF or formula diet) in group B [OR = 0.53 (0.34-0.82); p = 0.004]. Similar results were found at 9 and 12 months. After taking into account the age of the patients, the same results were confirmed with an aOR = 0.60 (0.38-0.94) (p = 0.02) at 6 months, but with when considering six variables six variables, aOR was not significative aOR = 0.65 (0.40-1.05); p = 0.08), meaning that factors such as the childcare out of home, socio-professional categories, and the pacifier decrease the protective effect of breastfeeding. Sensitivity analyses (age-matching, analysis by type of infection) showed the same protection effect provided by breastfeeding when it was pursued for at least 6 months and also that the protective effect of breastfeeding is especially true against gastro-enteritis.

CONCLUSION

Breastfeeding is a protective factor against respiratory, gastrointestinal and ear infections when pursued at least 6 months after birth. Other factors such as collective childcare, pacifiers and low parental professional status can reduce the protective effect of breastfeeding.

The Role of Breastfeeding on Respiratory Outcomes Later in Childhood

BACKGROUND

Breastfeeding is associated with a lower risk of wheezing in early childhood, but its effect later in childhood remains unclear. We investigated the association of breastfeeding and respiratory outcomes in children aged 11 years.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed an observational longitudinal study including 110 prepubertal children. Information about breastfeeding duration, wheezing and asthma was collected by questionnaires. At 11 years of age, we measured spirometry parameters, lung volumes, diffusing lung capacity, and fractional exhaled nitric oxide. We used logistic and linear regression models to examine the associations of breastfeeding duration with the odds of asthma and lung function measures. All multivariable analyses were adjusted for sex, smoking during pregnancy, gestational age at birth, twins, and mode of delivery (confounder model).

RESULTS

Breastfeeding duration was associated with FEV₁ z-score [β = 0.04, CI 95% (0.02-0.09)], FEF75 z-score [β = 0.06, CI 95% (0.03-0.09)] and FEV₁/FVC z-score [β = 0.03, CI 95% (0.00-0.07)], but not with diffusing lung capacity and fractional exhaled nitric oxide. No association of breastfeeding duration with preschool wheezing, ever asthma and current asthma was documented.

CONCLUSION

We showed that children breastfed for longer time presented higher FEV₁, FEV₁/FVC, and FEF75 z-score values at 11 years of age compared to children breastfed for shorter time, suggesting a protective effect of breastfeeding on airways, and not on lung parenchyma (lung volumes and alveolar capillary membrane) or allergic airway inflammation. The positive effect of breastfeeding duration on lung function lays the foundation to promote breastfeeding more and more as effective preventive measure.

Immune Response to Vaccination against COVID-19 in Breastfeeding Health Workers

Background: Initially, there were no data on the safety of COVID-19 vaccines in lactating women. The aim of our study was to evaluate the immune response to COVID-19 vaccinations in breastfeeding women. Methods: The study included 32 breastfeeding women who, regardless of the study, had decided to be vaccinated. Maternal serum and breast milk samples were simultaneously collected on days 8 ± 1, 22 ± 2, 29 ± 3, and 43 ± 4 after the first dose of the vaccine. The immune response was assessed by determining the presence of anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG and IgA. Results: The breast milk IgG level was detectable (6.50 ± 6.74, median 4.7, and maximum 34.2 BAU/mL) and highly correlated to serum IgG level (r_S 0.89; p < 0.001). The breast milk ratio of IgA to the cut-off value was higher in serum IgA-positive (4.18 ± 3.26, median 2.8, and maximum >10) than in serum IgA-negative women (0.56 ± 0.37, median 0.5, and maximum 1.6; p < 0.001). The highest concentrations of serum and breast milk antibodies were observed on day 29 ± 3 with a decrease on day 43 ± 4. Conclusion: The immune response to the vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 is strongest 7 ± 3 days after the second dose of the vaccine. Lactating mothers breastfeeding their children after vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 may transfer antibodies to their infant.

Breastfeeding and COVID-19: From Nutrition to Immunity

Breastfeeding not only provides the optimum source of nutrients for the neonate and its first strong shield against infection but also lays the foundation for somatic and psychological bonding between the mother and child. During the current COVID-19 pandemic, although the guidelines of the relevant international and national agencies recommend breastfeeding by SARS-CoV-2-infected mothers, considerable insecurity persists in daily clinical practice regarding the safety of the infants and the perceived advantages and disadvantages of discontinuation of breastfeeding. This is a systematic review of the currently available information regarding the transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2 through or while breastfeeding and the protection against infection that breast milk might provide. The accumulated body of knowledge regarding the role of breast milk in the development of the neonatal immune system and protection against infection by other respiratory viruses is discussed, with a focus on the anti-inflammatory role of the antibodies, microbes, and viruses provided to the infant in breast milk and its relevance to the case of SARS-CoV-2.

Long-term Breastfeeding in the Prevention of Allergic Rhinitis: Allergic Rhinitis Cohort Study for Kids (ARCO-Kids Study)

OBJECTIVES

There is a great deal of interest in the possibility that environmental factors may influence the risk of developing allergic rhinitis (AR) in early life. We investigated the simultaneous effects of mode of delivery and duration of breastfeeding on the development of AR in children.

METHODS

Data from 1,374 children participating in the Allergic Rhinitis Cohort Study for kids (ARCO-kids study) was analyzed. All subjects were divided into AR or non-allergic rhinitis (NAR) groups. Data on environmental factors, mode of delivery and duration of breastfeeding were collected using a questionnaire.

RESULTS

Compared with short-term breastfeeding (<6 months), long-term breastfeeding (≥12 months) was significantly associated with a lower prevalence of AR (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.54; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.34 to 0.88). Children in the AR group also had a higher cesarean delivery rate than those in the NAR group (39.1% vs. 32.8%, P=0.05). Regarding the combined effects of mode of delivery and duration of breastfeeding, long-term breastfeeding with a vaginal delivery strongly suppressed the development of AR, compared to short-term breastfeeding with a cesarean delivery (aOR, 0.47; 95% CI, 0.30 to 0.73).

CONCLUSION

Long-term breastfeeding (≥12 months) and a vaginal delivery are associated with a lower risk of developing childhood AR.

Immunoregulatory effect of human β-defensin 1 on neonatal cord blood monocyte-derived dendritic cells and T cells

The relationship between breastfeeding and infant health has been well elucidated in past decades. Our previous study has shown that human β-defensin 1 (hBD-1) in human breast milk plays a protective role in reducing the incidence of upper respiratory infection in infants younger than 6 months. In the present study, we aim to reveal the mechanism underlying the protective role of hBD-1 by focusing on its immunoregulatory function in neonates. Cord blood (CB) from newborns' umbilical cords, which can simulate many of the neonatal symptoms, was used to study the immunomodulatory role of hBD-1 in neonates in vitro. Our results showed that hBD-1 promotes the GM-CSF- and IL-4-driven differentiation of neonatal umbilical CB monocytes to immature dendritic cells (DCs) and the final maturation of CB monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs) induced by LPS but not inflammatory cytokine production. In addition, hBD-1 inhibits apoptosis in neonatal moDCs through CCR6, which might be a possible mechanism of the hBD-1-induced phenotypes in moDCs. Furthermore, we found that hBD-1 promotes the proliferation and activation, but not the maturation, of neonatal CB CD4 + T cells. These results extend the immunoregulatory effects of hBD-1 and provide a potential mechanism for the protective role of hBD-1 in early infants, which will inform the development of infant nutrition, novel vaccines and anti-infective strategies in the future.

Breastfeeding and the Developmental Origins of Asthma: Current Evidence, Possible Mechanisms, and Future Research Priorities

Breastfeeding has many established health benefits, but its impact on asthma development is uncertain. Breastfeeding appears to have a positive and dose-dependent impact on respiratory health, particularly during early childhood and in high-risk populations; however, the strength and causality of these associations are unclear. It is challenging to compare results across studies due to methodological differences and biological variation. Resolving these inconsistencies will require well-designed, prospective studies that accurately capture asthma diagnoses and infant feeding exposures (including breastfeeding duration, exclusivity, and method of feeding), account for key confounders, evaluate dose effects, and consider effect modification and reverse causality. Mechanistic studies examining human milk bioactives and their impact on lung health and asthma development are beginning to emerge, and these will be important in establishing the causality and mechanistic basis of the observed associations between breastfeeding and asthma. In this review, we summarize current evidence on this topic, identify possible reasons for disagreement across studies, discuss potential mechanisms for a causal association, and provide recommendations for future research.

High Temperature-Short Time Pasteurization Has a Lower Impact on the Antiviral Properties of Human Milk Than Holder Pasteurization

Holder pasteurization (62. 5°C for 30 min) is recommended by all international human milk bank guidelines to prevent infections potentially transmitted by donor human milk. A drawback is that it affects some human milk bioactive and nutritive components. Recently, High Temperature-Short Time (HTST) pasteurization has been reported to be a valuable alternative technology to increase the retention of some biological features of human milk. Nevertheless, to date, few data are available about the impact of pasteurization methods other than Holder on the antiviral activity of human milk. The present study was aimed at evaluating the antiviral activity of human milk against a panel of viral pathogens common in newborns and children (i.e., herpes simplex virus 1 and 2, cytomegalovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, rotavirus, and rhinovirus), and at assessing the effect of Holder and HTST pasteurization on milk's antiviral properties. The results indicate that human milk is endowed with antiviral activity against all viruses tested, although to a different extent. Unlike the Holder pasteurization, HTST preserved the inhibitory activity against cytomegalovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, rotavirus and herpes simplex virus type 2. By contrast, both methods reduced significantly the antiviral activities against rhinovirus and herpes simplex virus type 1. Unexpectedly, Holder pasteurization improved milk's anti-rotavirus activity. In conclusion, this study contributes to the definition of the pasteurization method that allows the best compromise between microbiological safety and biological quality of the donor human milk: HTST pasteurization preserved milk antiviral activity better than Holder.

BAP: Testing of a Breastfeeding History Questionnaire to Identify Mothers at Risk for Postpartum Formula Supplementation

Background: The objective of this study was to test a breastfeeding history questionnaire to predict inhospital formula supplementation.

Methods: A breastfeeding questionnaire named BAP, an abbreviation based on three questions, was conceptualized and implemented in clinical practice. Primary outcome was formula supplementation during the postpartum hospital stay.

Results: Multiparous women with BAP scores of 1 or less were over four times more likely to use formula during the postpartum hospital stay than women with BAP scores of 2 or greater (RR = 4.35, 95% CI [2.47, 7.65]; p < .001). Additionally, multiparous mothers with BAP scores of 1 or less were more likely to use formula than primiparous mothers (RR = 1.93, 95% CI [1.47, 2.52]; p < .001). The adjusted odds of formula use were eight times greater for women with the lower BAP score (aOR 8.04, 95% CI [3.10, 20.86]; p < .001).

Conclusions: The BAP tool can be used to identify multiparous women most at risk for early formula use, thereby allowing targeted referral to breastfeeding support services.

They Are What You Eat: Can Nutritional Factors during Gestation and Early Infancy Modulate the Neonatal Immune Response?

The ontogeny of the human immune system is sensitive to nutrition even in the very early embryo, with both deficiency and excess of macro- and micronutrients being potentially detrimental. Neonates are particularly vulnerable to infectious disease due to the immaturity of the immune system and modulation of nutritional immunity may play a role in this sensitivity. This review examines whether nutrition around the time of conception, throughout pregnancy, and in early neonatal life may impact on the developing infant immune system.

Duration of exclusive breastfeeding and wheezing in the first year of life: A longitudinal study

INTRODUCTION

Wheezing is the most common symptom associated with asthma in young children. There is a lack of well-designed prospective studies on the relationship of exclusive breastfeeding with wheezing in infants. This prospective cohort study investigated whether a relationship exists of exclusive breastfeeding with wheezing at 12 months of age.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A series of 1632 mother-infant pairs were sequentially recruited. Mothers were trained at hospital on breastfeeding practices and how to recognise wheezing. At hospital discharge they received a calendar-diary to record the date at stopping breastfeeding and at onset of wheezing. Data were collected by telephone interviews through 12 months post-delivery. Breastfeeding was in accordance with the World Health Organisation and wheezing with the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10-CM code R06.2).

RESULTS

At 12 months 1522 mother-infant pairs were participating. Breastfeeding started in 95.9% of them and was exclusive in 86.1%. The incidence of wheezing ever and recurrent wheezing at 12 months of age was 33.7% and 10.0%, respectively. Duration of exclusive breastfeeding was shorter in wheezing than non-wheezing infants (median 2.6 months vs. 4.1 months, P<0.001). After adjustment for confounders each month of exclusive breastfeeding reduced the risk of wheezing ever by 11% and of recurrent wheezing by 15%, at 12 months of age.

CONCLUSION

Longer duration of exclusive breastfeeding reduces the risk of wheezing throughout the first 12 months of life. These findings would be relevant to all healthcare operators and mothers, also to improve their awareness about the best feeding practices for the infant's health.

Duration and exclusiveness of breastfeeding and school-age lung function and asthma

BACKGROUND

Breastfeeding reduces the risk of asthma in early childhood, but it is not clear whether its effect on respiratory morbidity is still present in later childhood.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the associations of any breastfeeding, breastfeeding duration, and breastfeeding exclusiveness with lung function and asthma in school-aged children and whether associations were influenced by respiratory tract infections and maternal or child's atopic status.

METHODS

This study of 4,464 children was embedded in a population-based prospective cohort study. Information on breastfeeding was obtained by multiple questionnaires from birth until 1 year of age. At 10 years of age, lung function was measured by spirometry, and information on asthma was obtained by questionnaire. Adjusted linear and logistic regression models were used to examine the associations.

RESULTS

Shorter duration of breastfeeding was associated with a lower forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV₁) only (z score change, -0.01; 95% confidence interval [CI], -0.02 to -0.00) per month shorter breastfeeding, but not asthma. When categorized, breastfeeding for 2 to 4 months was associated with a lower forced vital capacity (FVC) (z score change, -0.11; 95% CI, -0.20 to -0.03) compared with breastfeeding for 6 months or longer. Nonexclusive breastfeeding for 4 months was associated with a lower FVC (z score change, -0.08; 95% CI, -0.16 to -0.01) compared with exclusive breastfeeding for 4 months. Results did not materially change after additional adjustment for lower respiratory tract infections and were not modified by maternal history of asthma or atopy, child's eczema, or inhalant allergic sensitization.

CONCLUSION

Shorter duration and nonexclusivity of breastfeeding were associated with a lower FEV₁ and FVC but not asthma at school-age.

Breastfeeding and asthma outcomes at the age of 6 years: The Generation R Study

BACKGROUND

Breastfeeding is associated with a lower risk of asthma symptoms in early childhood, but its effect at older ages remains unclear. We examined the associations of duration and exclusiveness of breastfeeding with asthma outcomes in children aged 6 years, and whether these associations were explained by atopic or infectious mechanisms.

METHODS

We performed a population-based prospective cohort study among 5675 children. Information about breastfeeding was collected by questionnaires. At age 6 years, we measured interrupter resistance (Rint) and fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO). Information about wheezing patterns (early (≤3 years only), late (>3 years only), persistent (≤3 and >3 years)), and current asthma at 6 years was derived from repeated questionnaires.

RESULTS

Compared to children who were ever breastfed, those who were never breastfed had lower FeNO levels (sympercent (95% CI): -16.0 (-24.5, -7.5)) and increased risks of late and persistent wheezing (OR(95% CI): 1.69 (1.06, 2.69) and 1.44 (1.00, 2.07), respectively). Shorter duration of breastfeeding was associated with early wheezing and current asthma (1.40 (1.14, 1.73) and 2.19 (1.29, 3.71), respectively). Less exclusive breastfeeding was associated with early wheezing (1.28 (1.08, 1.53)). Breastfeeding duration and exclusiveness were not associated with FeNO or Rint. The associations were not explained by inhalant allergies, partly by lower respiratory tract infections in early life, and to a lesser extent by lower respiratory tract infections in later life.

CONCLUSIONS

Breastfeeding patterns may influence wheezing and asthma in childhood, which seems to be partly explained by infectious mechanisms.

Increased risk of allergic rhinitis among children delivered by cesarean section: a cross-sectional study nested in a birth cohort

BACKGROUND

Few studies have evaluated the association between delivery by cesarean section (CS) and asthma, allergic rhinitis and chronic rhinitis and whether this association is different in children with and without a family history of asthma. This study aims to investigate whether children born by CS have a higher chance to develop asthma, allergic rhinitis and chronic rhinitis and to evaluate the influence of parental history of asthma on these associations.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study of 672 children nested in a birth cohort evaluated at 6-years of age. Asthma and chronic/allergic rhinitis were identified by means of the mother's responses to the ISAAC questionnaire. The association between CS, asthma, chronic rhinitis and allergic rhinitis was evaluated by multivariable logistic regression. The evidence of effect modification of parental history of asthma on the association CS and outcomes was examined by introducing interactions terms in the logistic regression models adjusting for confounders.

RESULTS

Asthma was not associated with birth by CS irrespective of parental history of asthma (odds ratio (OR) 1.03; 95 % CI 0.61-1.74). Chronic rhinitis and allergic rhinitis were both significantly associated with birth by CS but only in the subgroup of children with by parental history of asthma (OR 1.56; 95 % CI 1.04-2.34) and (OR 1.60; 95 % CI 1.01-2.55) respectively, after adjustment for confounders. The parental history of asthma was a effect modifier in the association between CS, chronic rhinitis and allergic rhinitis (p for effect modification = 0.10 and 0.02, respectively).

CONCLUSION

CS increases the risk of chronic rhinitis and allergic rhinitis in children at 6 years of age with parental history of asthma. Health professionals must be alerted with regard to the increased risk of allergic rhinitis and made aware this is another reason to avoid unnecessary CS.

Specificity and Effector Functions of Human RSV-Specific IgG from Bovine Milk

BACKGROUND

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection is the second most important cause of death in the first year of life, and early RSV infections are associated with the development of asthma. Breastfeeding and serum IgG have been shown to protect against RSV infection. Yet, many infants depend on bovine milk-based nutrition, which at present lacks intact immunoglobulins.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether IgG purified from bovine milk (bIgG) can modulate immune responses against human RSV.

METHODS

ELISAs were performed to analyse binding of bIgG to human respiratory pathogens. bIgG or hRSV was coated to plates to assess dose-dependent binding of bIgG to human Fcγ receptors (FcγR) or bIgG-mediated binding of myeloid cells to hRSV respectively. S. Epidermidis and RSV were used to test bIgG-mediated binding and internalisation of pathogens by myeloid cells. Finally, the ability of bIgG to neutralise infection of HEp2 cells by hRSV was evaluated.

RESULTS

bIgG recognised human RSV, influenza haemagglutinin and Haemophilus influenza. bIgG bound to FcγRII on neutrophils, monocytes and macrophages, but not to FcγRI and FcγRIII, and could bind simultaneously to hRSV and human FcγRII on neutrophils. In addition, human neutrophils and dendritic cells internalised pathogens that were opsonised with bIgG. Finally, bIgG could prevent infection of HEp2 cells by hRSV.

CONCLUSIONS

The data presented here show that bIgG binds to hRSV and other human respiratory pathogens and induces effector functions through binding to human FcγRII on phagocytes. Thus bovine IgG may contribute to immune protection against RSV.

Breast-feeding and hospitalization for asthma in early childhood: a nationwide longitudinal survey in Japan

OBJECTIVE

Whether or not breast-feeding is protective against asthma among children is still controversial. Therefore, we examined the effects of breast-feeding on hospitalization for asthma in early childhood.

DESIGN

Secondary data analyses of a nationwide longitudinal survey of children in Japan ongoing since 2001, with results collected from 2001 to 2004. We used logistic regression models to evaluate the associations of breast-feeding with hospitalization for asthma in children between the ages of 6 and 42 months, adjusting for children's factors (sex, day-care attendance and presence of older siblings) and maternal factors (educational attainment and smoking habit). Setting All over Japan.

SUBJECTS

Term singleton children with information on feeding practices during infancy (n 43367).

RESULTS

After adjusting for maternal factors and children's factors, exclusive breast-feeding at 6-7 months of age was associated with decreased risk of hospitalization for asthma in children. The adjusted odds ratio was 0.77 (95% CI 0.56, 1.06). One-month longer duration of breast-feeding was associated with a 4% decreased risk of hospitalization for asthma (OR = 0.96; 95% CI 0.92, 0.99).

CONCLUSIONS

The protective effects of breast-feeding on hospitalization for asthma were observed in children between the ages of 6 and 42 months.

Perinatal risk factors for wheezing phenotypes in the first 8 years of life

BACKGROUND

A novel data-driven approach was used to identify wheezing phenotypes in pre-schoolchildren aged 0-8 years, in the Prevention and Incidence of Asthma and Mite Allergy (PIAMA) birth cohort. Five phenotypes were identified: never/infrequent wheeze, transient early wheeze, intermediate onset wheeze, persistent wheeze and late onset wheeze. It is unknown which perinatal risk factors drive development of these phenotypes.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to assess associations of perinatal factors with wheezing phenotypes and to identify possible targets for prevention.

METHODS

In the PIAMA study (n = 3963), perinatal factors were collected at 3 months, and wheezing was assessed annually until the age of 8 years. Associations between perinatal risk factors and the five wheezing phenotypes were assessed using weighted multinomial logistic regression models. Odds ratios were adjusted for confounding variables and calculated with 'never/infrequent wheeze' as reference category.

RESULTS

Complete data were available for 2728 children. Risk factors for transient early wheeze (n = 455) were male gender, maternal and paternal allergy, low maternal age, high maternal body mass index, short pregnancy duration, smoking during pregnancy, presence of older siblings and day-care attendance. Risk factors for persistent wheeze (n = 83) were male gender, maternal and paternal allergy, and not receiving breastfeeding for at least 12 weeks. Intermediate onset wheeze (n = 98) was associated with a lower birth weight and late onset wheeze (n = 45) with maternal allergy.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

We identified different risk factors for specific childhood wheezing phenotypes. Some of these are modifiable, such as maternal age and body mass index, smoking, day-care attendance and breastfeeding, and may be important targets for prevention programmes.

Specific aspects of modern life for people with multiple sclerosis: considerations for the practitioner

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, debilitating, neurodegenerative disease that has a high impact on patients' quality of life. Individuals are often diagnosed in early adulthood and are faced with the difficulty of managing their lifestyle within the context of this chronic illness. Here we review factors that influence the disease course and the challenges that might be encountered when managing patients with MS. The majority of diagnosed patients are women of childbearing age, making pregnancy-related issues a key concern. MS typically stabilizes during pregnancy and evidence suggests that the disease has no impact on the risk of complications or outcomes. However, the effect of disease-modifying therapies on outcomes is less clear, and discontinuation of treatment prior to pregnancy or when breastfeeding is recommended. Awareness of genetic risk factors is important for patients planning a family, as several genes increase the risk of MS. Further aspects that require consideration include infections, vaccinations, environmental factors, surgery and the emergence of osteoporosis. Vaccinations are generally not a risk factor for MS and may be beneficial in terms of protection against infection and reducing the number of relapses. Environmental factors such as vitamin D deficiency, low exposure to sunlight, smoking and Epstein-Barr virus infection can all negatively influence the disease course. Furthermore, osteoporosis is generally higher in patients with MS than the general population, and the risk is increased by the environmental and genetic factors associated with the disease; bone mineral density should be assessed and smoking cessation and correction of serum vitamin D levels are recommended. Finally, as patients with MS are typically young, they are at low risk of surgery-related complications, although they should be carefully monitored postoperatively. Awareness of, and planning around, these factors may minimize the impact of the disease on patients' lifestyle.

Prevalence and risk factors associated with wheezing in the first year of life

OBJECTIVE

to investigate the prevalence and risk factors associated with wheezing in infants in the first year of life.

METHODS

this was a cross-sectional study, in which a validated questionnaire (Estudio Internacional de Sibilancias en Lactantes--International Study of Wheezing in Infants--EISL) was applied to parents of infants aged between 12 and 15 months treated in 26 of 85 primary health care units in the period between 2006 and 2007. The dependent variable, wheezing, was defined using the following standards: occasional (up to two episodes of wheezing) and recurrent (three or more episodes of wheezing). The independent variables were shown using frequency distribution to compare the groups. Measures of association were based on odds ratio (OR) with a confidence interval of 95% (95% CI), using bivariate analysis, followed by multivariate analysis (adjusted OR [aOR]).

RESULTS

a total of 1,029 (37.7%) infants had wheezing episodes in the first 12 months of life; of these, 16.2% had recurrent wheezing. Risk factors for wheezing were family history of asthma (OR=2.12; 95% CI: 1.76-2.54) and six or more episodes of colds (OR=2.38; 95% CI: 1.91-2.97) and pneumonia (OR=3.02; 95% CI: 2.43-3.76). For recurrent wheezing, risk factors were: familial asthma (aOR=1.73; 95% CI 1.22-2.46); early onset wheezing (aOR=1.83; 95% CI: 1.75-3.75); nocturnal symptoms (aOR=2.56; 95% CI: 1.75-3.75), and more than six colds (aOR=2.07; 95% CI 1.43- .00).

CONCLUSION

the main risk factors associated with wheezing in Fortaleza were respiratory infections and family history of asthma. Knowing the risk factors for this disease should be a priority for public health, in order to develop control and treatment strategies.

Is breast truly best? Estimating the effects of breastfeeding on long-term child health and wellbeing in the United States using sibling comparisons

Breastfeeding rates in the U.S. are socially patterned. Previous research has documented startling racial and socioeconomic disparities in infant feeding practices. However, much of the empirical evidence regarding the effects of breastfeeding on long-term child health and wellbeing does not adequately address the high degree of selection into breastfeeding. To address this important shortcoming, we employ sibling comparisons in conjunction with 25 years of panel data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) to approximate a natural experiment and more accurately estimate what a particular child's outcome would be if he/she had been differently fed during infancy. Results from standard multiple regression models suggest that children aged 4 to 14 who were breast- as opposed to bottle-fed did significantly better on 10 of the 11 outcomes studied. Once we restrict analyses to siblings and incorporate within-family fixed effects, estimates of the association between breastfeeding and all but one indicator of child health and wellbeing dramatically decrease and fail to maintain statistical significance. Our results suggest that much of the beneficial long-term effects typically attributed to breastfeeding, per se, may primarily be due to selection pressures into infant feeding practices along key demographic characteristics such as race and socioeconomic status.

Breastfeeding is associated with decreased pneumonia incidence among HIV-exposed, uninfected Kenyan infants

OBJECTIVE

HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) infants have higher infectious disease morbidity and mortality than unexposed infants. We determined the incidence and risk factors for pneumonia, a leading cause of infant mortality worldwide, in a cohort of HEU infants. Identifying predictors of pneumonia among HEU infants may enable early identification of those at highest risk.

DESIGN

A retrospective cohort of HEU infants participating in a Kenyan perinatal HIV study, enrolled between 1999 and 2002.

METHODS

Infants were followed monthly from birth to 12 months. Incidence of pneumonia diagnosed at monthly study visits, sick-child visits or by means of averbal autopsy was estimated with a 14-day window for new episodes. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to identify predictors of first pneumonia occurrence.

RESULTS

Among 388 HEU infants with 328 person-years of follow-up, the incidence of pneumonia was 900/1000 child-years [95% confidence interval (CI) 800-1000]. Maternal HIV viral load at 32 weeks' gestation [hazard ratio 1.2 (1.0-1.5) per log10 difference] and being underweight (weight-for-age Z-score <-2) at the previous visit [hazard ratio 1.8 (1.1-2.8)] were associated with increased risk of pneumonia. Breastfed infants had a 47% lower risk of pneumonia than those never breastfed [hazard ratio 0.53 (0.39-0.73)], independent of infant growth, maternal viral load and maternal CD4%. Breastfeeding was also associated with a 74% lower risk of pneumonia-related hospitalization [hazard ratio 0.26 (0.13-0.53)].

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of pneumonia in this cohort of HEU infants was high. Our observations suggest that maternal viral suppression and breastfeeding may reduce the burden of pneumonia among HEU infants.

Pregnancy and multiple sclerosis

The relapse rate of multiple sclerosis (MS) is typically reduced during late pregnancy but increases in the postpartum period. The reasons for the increased postpartum activity are not entirely clear, but factors such as the abrupt decrease in oestrogen levels immediately after the delivery and the loss of the immunosuppressive state of pregnancy are likely of importance. There is a general view that MS does not affect the course or outcome of pregnancy.

Breastfeeding and lung function at school age: does maternal asthma modify the effect?

RATIONALE

The evidence for an effect of breastfeeding on lung function is conflicting, in particular whether the effect is modified by maternal asthma.

OBJECTIVES

To explore the association between breastfeeding and school-age lung function.

METHODS

In the Leicestershire Cohort Studies we assessed duration of breastfeeding (not breastfed, ≤3 months, 4-6 months, and >6 months), other exposures, and respiratory symptoms by repeated questionnaires. Post-bronchodilator FVC, FEV(1), peak expiratory flow (PEF), forced midexpiratory flow (FEF(50)), and skin prick tests were measured at age 12 years. We performed multivariable linear regression and tested potential causal pathways (N = 1,458).

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

In the entire sample, FEF(50) was higher by 130 and 164 ml in children breastfed for 4 to 6 months and longer than 6 months, respectively, compared with those not breastfed (P = 0.048 and 0.041), with larger effects if the mother had asthma. FVC and FEV(1) were associated with breastfeeding only in children of mothers with asthma (P for interaction, 0.018 and 0.008): FVC was increased by 123 and 164 ml for those breastfed 4 to 6 months or longer than 6 months, respectively (P = 0.177 and 0.040) and FEV(1) was increased by 148 and 167 ml, respectively (P = 0.050 and 0.016). Results were unchanged after adjustment for respiratory infections in infancy and asthma and atopy in the child.

CONCLUSIONS

In this cohort, breastfeeding for more than 4 months was associated with increased FEF(50) and, in children of mothers with asthma, with increased FEV(1) and FVC. It seems that the effect is not mediated via avoidance of early infections or atopy but rather through a direct effect on lung growth.

Breastfeeding and body composition in children: will there ever be conclusive empirical evidence for a protective effect against overweight?

An increased prevalence of childhood overweight has been observed worldwide over the past decades, which indicates the need for strategies to prevent obesity. There is some evidence that risk of obesity is primed by exposures early in life. Among other factors, breastfeeding has been hypothesized as a potential priming factor against overweight. Although the properties of human milk suggest possible mechanisms for a protective effect of breastfeeding compared with formula feeding with respect to later overweight, empirical evidence is more difficult to establish. This article reviews the available epidemiologic literature on this topic. Several observational studies have shown evidence for a small protective effect with respect to overweight in childhood. Three meta-analyses reported significant protective effects of breastfeeding against overweight in later life, whereas another meta-analysis showed no effect of breastfeeding on mean body mass index (BMI) after adjustment for confounding factors. These seemingly inconsistent results might potentially be explained by different effects of breastfeeding in normal-weight compared with overweight children. Evidence from interventional studies is limited. A randomized trial failed to confirm an effect of a breastfeeding promotion on children's BMI, but this trial lacked statistical power because rates of breastfeeding were relatively similar in the intervention and control groups. In conclusion, protective priming effects of breastfeeding on later overweight appear to be possible but are difficult to prove. Although observational studies have to deal with confounding issues, interventional studies on breastfeeding promotion may lack power.

Functional metagenomic investigations of the human intestinal microbiota

The human intestinal microbiota encode multiple critical functions impacting human health, including metabolism of dietary substrate, prevention of pathogen invasion, immune system modulation, and provision of a reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes accessible to pathogens. The complexity of this microbial community, its recalcitrance to standard cultivation, and the immense diversity of its encoded genes has necessitated the development of novel molecular, microbiological, and genomic tools. Functional metagenomics is one such culture-independent technique, used for decades to study environmental microorganisms, but relatively recently applied to the study of the human commensal microbiota. Metagenomic functional screens characterize the functional capacity of a microbial community, independent of identity to known genes, by subjecting the metagenome to functional assays in a genetically tractable host. Here we highlight recent work applying this technique to study the functional diversity of the intestinal microbiota, and discuss how an approach combining high-throughput sequencing, cultivation, and metagenomic functional screens can improve our understanding of interactions between this complex community and its human host.

Early life patterns of common infection: a latent class analysis

Early life infection has been implicated in the aetiology of many chronic diseases, most often through proxy measures. Data on ten infectious symptoms were collected by parental questionnaire when children were 6 months old as part of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, United Kingdom. A latent class analysis was used to identify patterns of infection and their relationship to five factors commonly used as proxies: sex, other children in the home, maternal smoking, breastfeeding and maternal education. A total of 10,032 singleton children were included in the analysis. Five classes were identified with differing infectious disease patterns and children were assigned to the class for which they had a highest probability of membership based on their infectious symptom profile: ‘general infection’ (n = 1,252, 12.5%), ‘gastrointestinal’ (n = 1,902, 19.0%), ‘mild respiratory’ (n = 3,560, 35.5%), ‘colds/ear ache’ (n = 462, 4.6%) and ‘healthy’ (n = 2,856, 28.5%). Females had a reduced risk of being in all infectious classes, other children in the home were associated with an increased risk of being in the ‘general infection’, ‘mild respiratory’ or ‘colds/ear ache’ class. Breastfeeding reduced the risk of being in the ‘general infection’ and ‘gastrointestinal’ classes whereas maternal smoking increased the risk of membership. Higher maternal education was associated with an increased risk of being in the ‘mild respiratory’ group. Other children in the home had the greatest association with infectious class membership. Latent class analysis provided a flexible method of investigating the relationship between multiple symptoms and demographic and lifestyle factors.

Chronic disease and infant nutrition: is it significant to public health?

OBJECTIVE

To assess the public health significance of premature weaning of infants from breast milk on later-life risk of chronic illness.

DESIGN

A review and summary of recent meta-analyses of studies linking premature weaning from breast milk with later-life chronic disease risk is presented followed by an estimation of the approximate exposure in a developed Western country, based on historical breast-feeding prevalence data for Australia since 1927. The population-attributable proportion of chronic disease associated with current patterns of artificial feeding in infancy is estimated.

RESULTS

After adjustment for major confounding variables, current research suggests that the risks of chronic disease are 30-200 % higher in those who were not breast-fed compared to those who were breast-fed in infancy. Exposure to premature weaning ranges from 20 % to 90 % in post-World War II age cohorts. Overall, the attributable proportion of chronic disease in the population is estimated at 6-24 % for a 30 % exposure to premature weaning.

CONCLUSIONS

Breast-feeding is of public health significance in preventing chronic disease. There is a small but consistent effect of premature weaning from breast milk in increasing later-life chronic disease risk. Risk exposure in the Australian population is substantial. Approximately 90 % of current 35-45-year-olds were weaned from breast-feeding by 6 months of age. Encouraging greater duration and exclusivity of breast-feeding is a potential avenue for reducing future chronic disease burden and health system costs.

Risk for asthma in offspring of asthmatic mothers versus fathers: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Many human epidemiologic studies demonstrate that maternal asthma confers greater risk of asthma to offspring than does paternal disease. However, a handful have shown the opposite. Given this disparity, a meta-analysis is necessary to determine the veracity and magnitude of the "maternal effect."

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We screened the medical literature from 1966 to 2009 and performed a meta-analysis to compare the effect of maternal asthma vs. paternal asthma on offspring asthma susceptibility. Aggregating data from 33 studies, the odds ratio for asthma in children of asthmatic mothers compared with non-asthmatic mothers was significantly increased at 3.04 (95% confidence interval: 2.59-3.56). The corresponding odds ratio for asthma in children of asthmatic fathers was increased at 2.44 (2.14-2.79). When comparing the odds ratios, maternal asthma conferred greater risk of disease than did paternal asthma (3.04 vs. 2.44, p = 0.037). When analyzing the studies in which asthma was diagnosed by a physician the odds ratios were attenuated and no significant differences were observed (2.85 vs. 2.48, N = 18, p = 0.37). Similarly, no significant differences were observed between maternal and paternal odds ratios when analyzing the studies in which the patient population was 5 years or older (3.15 vs. 2.60, p = 0.14). However, in all cases the trend remained the same, that maternal asthma was a greater risk factor for asthma than paternal.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

The results show that maternal asthma increases offspring disease risk to a greater extent than paternal disease.

Exploring the association between severe respiratory syncytial virus infection and asthma: a registry-based twin study

RATIONALE

Severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection is associated with asthma but the nature of this association is imperfectly understood.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the nature of the association between severe RSV infection and asthma in a population-based sample of twins.

METHODS

Data on hospitalization due to RSV infection was gathered for all twins born in Denmark between 1994 and 2000 (8,280 pairs) and linked to information on asthma obtained from hospital discharge registries and parent-completed questionnaires. Genetic variance components models and direction of causation models were fitted to the observed data.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

RSV hospitalization and asthma were positively associated (r = 0.43), and genetic determinants for the two disorders overlapped completely. Modeling the direction of causation between RSV hospitalization and asthma showed that a model in which asthma "causes" RSV hospitalization fitted the data significantly better (P = 0.39 for deterioration in model fit) than a model in which RSV hospitalization "causes" asthma (P < 0.001 for deterioration in model fit), even when sex, birth weight, and maternal smoking during pregnancy were accounted for.

CONCLUSIONS

RSV infection that is severe enough to warrant hospitalization does not cause asthma but is an indicator of the genetic predisposition to asthma.

Fast food consumption counters the protective effect of breastfeeding on asthma in children?

BACKGROUND

Fast food consumption and childhood asthma have rapidly increased in recent decades. During the same period there has been an increased rate of prolonged breastfeeding.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate if fast food consumption was associated with asthma in children, and if the proposed protective effect of breastfeeding on asthma was altered by fast food consumption.

METHODS

This case-control study included 246 children with allergist-diagnosed asthma and 477 non-asthmatic controls at age 8-10 years. Information on fast food consumption and exclusive breastfeeding was obtained from questionnaire data. The association between asthma and fast food consumption was evaluated. Asthma in relation to exclusive breastfeeding was also evaluated, taking into account fast food consumption as a modifying factor.

RESULTS

Children with asthma were more likely to consume fast food than children without asthma [crude odds ratio (OR) 1.70, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.23-2.34]. In comparison to prolonged exclusive breastfeeding (> or =12 weeks), asthma was positively associated with short-term exclusive breastfeeding (<12 weeks) in children who never or occasionally consumed fast food (crude OR 1.84, 95% CI 1.09-3.11), but not in children who frequently consumed fast food (crude OR 1.07, 95% CI 0.72-1.61). The P-value for this interaction (0.109) was borderline. Children with high fast food consumption who were exclusively breastfed <12 weeks as infants, had greater than a twofold risk of asthma compared with infants who had been exclusively breastfed for a longer time period and who did not become high consumers of fast food in later childhood. These findings were not affected after final adjustment of confounders and covariates.

CONCLUSION

Fast food consumption is associated with asthma in children and potentially counteracts the protective effect of prolonged breastfeeding on asthma. This may explain the paradoxical phenomenon of parallel increased rates of prolonged breastfeeding and asthma in children. 556-561.

Early Interventions in Allergic Diseases

Atopy has been defined as the genetic predisposition to develop IgE antibody responses to a variety of common environmental allergens. Clinically, atopy is expressed by asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and atopic dermatitis. It has been recognized that the “atopic march” evolves from food allergy and atopic dermatitis in the first 2 years of life, followed by asthma and allergic rhinitis. Over the past 30 years, the prevalence of allergies and asthma has increased significantly in developed countries, and asthma is one of the most common chronic diseases in children. Evidence indicates that environmental factors acting early in life, including respiratory viral infections, exposure to pets and microbial products, day-care attendance, breast feeding, and exposure to allergens, tobacco smoke and other pollutants, are key events for establishment of sensitization and development of chronic, persistent symptoms of allergic diseases [1]. It is thought that gene—environment interactions play a crucial role in these processes. Therefore, attempts to successfully prevent development of allergic diseases should be a priority.

At present, there are no genetic markers for atopy or asthma which could be used routinely in clinical practice and family history of atopy has been used to identify children genetically at-risk of developing allergic diseases. These children from high-risk families have been the focus of most of the intervention studies.

A longitudinal analysis on the association between antibiotic use, intestinal microflora, and wheezing during the first year of life

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between the intestinal flora at the age of three weeks and wheezing during the first year of life in a prospective birth cohort study.

METHODS

The Asthma and Allergy study is a prospective birth cohort study. A total of 154 children were recruited through maternity clinics. Selection criteria were vaginal delivery at term and uncomplicated perinatal period. Questionnaires were collected with data on the parents, including demography, smoking, and asthma. Data of the child on demographic factors, respiratory symptoms, and risk factors for asthma were collected at the ages of 3 weeks and 6 and 12 months. A fecal sample was collected at 3 weeks of age.

RESULTS

The frequency of wheezing averaged on 11.8%, 18.4%, and 23.5% at the three time points. In univariate analyses, increasing total concentration of anerobic bacteria were associated with increased odds of wheezing. Furthermore, several trends were observed between wheezing and Bifidobacterium and Clostridium. A final model showed a significant association between wheezing during the first year of life and antibiotic use, total concentration of anerobic bacteria, while increasing concentrations of Clostridium were protective of wheezing.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated an association between antibiotics, anerobic bacteria, and wheezing during the first year of life. The effect of antibiotics was probably due to reverse causation. Since Clostridium was protective of wheezing, other anerobic bacteria are probably responsible for the increased risk of wheezing, which remains to be demonstrated.

Breastfeeding and allergies: time for a change in paradigm?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review examines recent studies of the relationships between breastfeeding and the epidemiology of allergic diseases, especially atopic dermatitis in infants and asthma in early and later childhood.

RECENT FINDINGS

Results from observational birth cohort studies, case-control studies, and one cluster randomized intervention trial have generally failed to demonstrate a protective effect of breastfeeding on outcomes of atopic dermatitis, allergic sensitization, wheezing, or asthma. Difficulties in interpretation relate to the absence of nonbreastfed control or reference groups in some studies, meaning outcomes can only be compared between different durations of breastfeeding. Studies with a nonbreastfed control group suggest there is an increased risk for atopy and asthma associated with breastfeeding and that prolonged breastfeeding may eventually reduce this increased risk. The family history, sex of the child, and the presence of other risk factors for allergy and asthma also influence the outcome.

SUMMARY

Although breastfeeding is strongly recommended for its multiple benefits on child health, most recent studies do not confirm the 'conventional wisdom' that breastfeeding is protective against allergy and asthma. Early reduction in childhood wheezing may reflect protection from viral infections, but allergies and asthma at later ages may be increased.

Risk factors of childhood asthma in Sao Jose do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil

BACKGROUND

Epidemiological studies have shown increased prevalence of asthma over the last decades and a considerable variation in these rates between different countries, mainly developed. Changes in lifestyle of different populations could explain the increasing prevalence of asthma and its different rates in different communities.

OBJECTIVES

A case-control study was conducted to investigate some risks factors associated to asthma in schoolchildren in São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.

CASUISTIC AND METHODS

A total of 3793 self-administered written questionnaire (WQ) was filled in by parents of 6-7-year-old schoolchildren, applying the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) protocol. Additionally, was added a supplementary WQ evaluating risk factors: gender, personal history of rhinitis and atopic eczema, familial history of atopy, older siblings, day care, breastfeeding, and exposure to pets and to cigarette smoking. Children whose parents responded affirmatively to question 'Has your child had wheezing in the past 12 monthsquest;' were identified as having current asthma.

RESULTS

The prevalence of current asthma was 18.3%. In multivariate analysis the following risk factors were associated with asthma: rhinitis (OR = 10.6; 95% CI = 8.27-13.56), atopic eczema (OR = 1.54; 95% CI = 1.00-2.35), father with asthma (OR = 3.49; 95% CI = 1.83-6.67), mother with asthma (OR = 1.84; 95% CI = 1.11-3.05), current exposure to pets (OR = 1.83; 95% CI = 1.45-2.32) and passive tobacco smoking exposure (OR = 1.43; 95% CI = 1.12-1.83).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that genetic background, environmental factors and the presence of co-morbidities such as rhinitis and atopic eczema are associated to the genesis of asthma in Brazilian schoolchildren.

Positive effect of NICU admission on breastfeeding of preterm US infants in 2000 to 2003

OBJECTIVE

We hypothesized that neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) admission reduces breastfeeding in a recent population of US infants, adjusting for confounding factors.

STUDY DESIGN

Using pregnancy risk assessment monitoring system data from 27 states for the years 2000 to 2003, we determined the relationship between breastfeeding and gestational age (GA) stratified by NICU status. We fitted a proportional odds model for breastfeeding duration as a function of NICU status adjusted for other covariates. SAS 9.1.3 and SUDAAN 9.0 were used for the weighted analyses.

RESULT

In total 138 359 surveys, including 29 940 NICU-admitted infants, were analyzed. A total of 73% of mothers of nonadmitted infants initiated breastfeeding vs 70% of mothers of NICU-admitted infants. Mothers of GA <38 weeks NICU-admitted infants were 34% more likely to initiate breastfeeding and 21% more likely to breastfeed for 4 weeks than were mothers of nonadmitted preterm infants (P<0.001). However, mothers of term NICU-admitted infants were less likely to initiate and continue breastfeeding to 4 weeks than were mothers of term nonadmitted infants (P<0.001). Adjusting for GA, race, maternal age, maternal education, mode of delivery and Medicaid status, NICU admission was associated with increasing duration of breastfeeding (OR 1.10, CI 1.03, 1.17). Compared with mothers of term infants, mothers of <32-week infants were 40% more likely to continue breastfeeding for 4 weeks, mothers of 32 to 34 week infants were 13% less likely to continue and mothers of 35-37 week infants were 22% less likely to continue for at least 4 weeks (P<0.001).

CONCLUSION

NICU admission is now a positive influence on breastfeeding continuation, improving the overall likelihood by 10%. Mothers of preterm NICU-admitted infants were more likely than mothers of nonadmitted infants to continue breastfeeding for 4 weeks, while mothers of term NICU-admitted infants were less likely to continue. Breastfeeding support should be enhanced for term and late preterm infants.

Neonatal circumcision: effects on breastfeeding and outcomes associated with breastfeeding

AIM

There have been recurrent claims made that neonatal circumcision disrupts the development and maintenance of breastfeeding in infants. The aim of the current study was to use a longitudinal birth cohort study to examine the associations between neonatal circumcision status and both breastfeeding outcomes, and health and cognitive ability outcomes associated with breastfeeding.

METHOD

Data were obtained from the Christchurch Health and Development Study, a longitudinal study of over 1000 individuals born in Christchurch New Zealand in mid 1977. Data were obtained for male cohort members (n = 635) on circumcision status, breastfeeding outcomes, health outcomes in infancy and cognitive ability outcomes later in life.

RESULTS

Circumcision status was not significantly associated (P > 0.05) with breastfeeding outcomes in infancy, even following adjustment for covariate factors, including maternal age, family socio-economic status, ethnicity and birthweight. Also, circumcision status was not significantly associated (P > 0.05) with health in infancy and cognitive ability outcomes in later childhood, even after adjustment for covariate factors.

CONCLUSIONS

There was no evidence of an association between neonatal circumcision status and breastfeeding outcomes, or between circumcision status and health and cognitive ability outcomes associated with breastfeeding, and the findings do not support the view that neonatal circumcision disrupts breastfeeding.

Immunomodulatory constituents of human milk change in response to infant bronchiolitis

Although epidemiological evidence is generally supportive of a causal association between respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) bronchiolitis during infancy and the development of persistent wheeze/asthma, if not allergy, the mechanism by which this occurs and an explanation for why all children do not succumb remains to be elucidated. Breast feeding has been found to confer a protective effect against respiratory infections such as RSV bronchiolitis and allergy; however, again there is little direct evidence and no clear mechanism. In this study, we examined whether human milk immunomodulatory factors (cells, cytokines) change in response to clinically diagnosed, severe bronchiolitis in the recipient breast-fed infant. We examined milk from 36 breast feeding mothers of infants hospitalized with bronchiolitis and compared them with milk from 63 mothers of postpartum age-matched healthy controls. Milks from mothers of infants hospitalized with bronchiolitis had significantly greater numbers of viable cells when compared with the milks obtained from mothers of healthy infants (1.3 +/- 0.4 vs. 0.3 +/- 0.03 x 10(6) cells/ml, mean +/- s.e.m.; p < or = 0.001). Further, the cells obtained from the mothers of infants hospitalized with bronchiolitis were found to produce a skewed cytokine profile ex vivo in response to stimulation by live RSV but not when cultured with a non-specific mitogen (concanavalin A). This study provides preliminary evidence for an immunological link between mothers and their breast-fed infants during severe respiratory infections as well as a possible contributing factor to the development of persistent wheeze in these infants.

The frequency of wheezing phenotypes and risk factors for persistence in aegean region of Turkey

The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of wheezing and evaluate the risk factors for its persistence in children. Survey data was collected on 725 children aged 17 years or below. The mean age was 8.94 +/- 5.16 years; 22.1% of them were reported to have had a wheezing episode at any point in their lives. A wheezing episode was reported in 18.1% of children 3 years of age or younger and persisted in 51% of these subjects; 69.6% of ever wheezers had late onset wheezing. Persistence was significantly common in males. Perinatal disease, lack of breast feeding, and low income were significant risk factors for persistence. In summary, breast feeding, perinatal disease, and income status may be significant risk factors influencing wheezing peristence and consequent asthma.

Allergic disorders in African countries: linking immunology to accurate phenotype

Identification and characterization of risk and protective factors for allergy is important for developing strategies for prevention or treatment. The prevalence of allergy is clearly higher in affluent countries than in developing countries like, e.g. Africa. Especially in urban areas of developing countries, allergy is however on the increase. In Africa, we have the unique opportunity to investigate risk and protective factors and the influence of urbanization and westernization, i.e. almost to take a look at Europe, Australia or the USA as they were before their allergy epidemics. Moreover, migrants from developing to affluent countries experiencing an increased burden of allergy provide new insights into risk and protective factors. Allergen exposure, diet and infections are the major exogenous influences playing a role as risk and protective factors. Depending on the nature, timing, chronicity and level of exposure, each of them can promote or inhibit allergy. Perhaps with the exception of infections, availability of data from Africa on their role in the development of allergy is limited. Detailed epidemiological studies in rural and urban Africa combined with basic immunological research are needed to unravel mechanisms of increase in allergy and of protection. The maturation of the immune system at young age under influence of exogenous factors results in differences in T-cell-skewing (Th1/Th2/Treg) and humoral responses. It is essential to perform studies from a 'non-Eurocentric' angle (e.g. local allergens, locally validated questionnaires and diagnostic procedures). Such studies will provide the affluent countries with new leads to combat the allergy epidemic and more importantly help prevent it in Africa.