A specific role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase gamma. A regulation of autonomic Ca(2)+ oscillations in cardiac cells

Genetics of Neurogenic Orthostatic Hypotension in Parkinson’s Disease, Results from a Cross-Sectional In Silico Study

The genetic basis of Neurogenic Orthostatic Hypotension (NOH) in Parkinson’s disease (PD) has been inadequately explored. In a cross-sectional study, we examined the association between NOH and PD-related single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and mapped their effects on gene expression and metabolic and signaling pathways. Patients with PD, free from pathological conditions associated with OH, and not taking OH-associated medications were included. NOH was defined as per international guidelines. Logistic regression was used to relate SNPs to NOH. Linkage-disequilibrium analysis, expression quantitative trait loci, and enrichment analysis were used to assess the effects on gene expression and metabolic/signaling pathways. We included 304 PD patients in the study, 35 of whom had NOH (11.5%). NOH was more frequent in patients with SNPs in SNCA, TMEM175, FAM47E-STBD1, CCDC62, SCN3A, MIR4696, SH3GL2, and LZTS3/DDRGK1 and less frequent in those with SNPs in ITGA8, IP6K2, SIPA1L2, NDUFAF2. These SNPs affected gene expression associated with the significant hierarchical central structures of the autonomic nervous system. They influenced several metabolic/signaling pathways, most notably IP3/Ca++ signaling, the PKA-CREB pathway, and the metabolism of fatty acids. These findings provide new insights into the pathophysiology of NOH in PD and may provide targets for future therapies.

Comparative Analysis of BTK Inhibitors and Mechanisms Underlying Adverse Effects

The cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine kinase BTK plays an essential role for differentiation and survival of B-lineage cells and, hence, represents a suitable drug target. The number of BTK inhibitors (BTKis) in the clinic has increased considerably and currently amounts to at least 22. First-in-class was ibrutinib, an irreversible binder forming a covalent bond to a cysteine in the catalytic region of the kinase, for which we have identified 228 active trials listed at ClinicalTrials.gov. Next-generation inhibitors, acalabrutinib and zanubrutinib, are approved both in the United States and in Europe, and zanubrutinib also in China, while tirabrutinib is currently only registered in Japan. In most cases, these compounds have been used for the treatment of B-lymphocyte tumors. However, an increasing number of trials instead addresses autoimmunity and inflammation in multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, pemphigus and systemic lupus erythematosus with the use of either irreversibly binding inhibitors, e.g., evobrutinib and tolebrutinib, or reversibly binding inhibitors, like fenebrutinib. Adverse effects (AEs) have predominantly implicated inhibition of other kinases with a BTKi-binding cysteine in their catalytic domain. Analysis of the reported AEs suggests that ibrutinib-associated atrial fibrillation is caused by binding to ERBB2/HER2 and ERBB4/HER4. However, the binding pattern of BTKis to various additional kinases does not correlate with the common assumption that skin manifestations and diarrhoeas are off-target effects related to EGF receptor inhibition. Moreover, dermatological toxicities, diarrhoea, bleedings and invasive fungal infections often develop early after BTKi treatment initiation and subsequently subside. Conversely, cardiovascular AEs, like hypertension and various forms of heart disease, often persist.

Microglia Mediated Neuroinflammation: Focus on PI3K Modulation

Immune activation in the central nervous system involves mostly microglia in response to pathogen invasion or tissue damage, which react, promoting a self-limiting inflammatory response aimed to restore homeostasis. However, prolonged, uncontrolled inflammation may result in the production by microglia of neurotoxic factors that lead to the amplification of the disease state and tissue damage. In particular, specific inducers of inflammation associated with neurodegenerative diseases activate inflammatory processes that result in the production of a number of mediators and cytokines that enhance neurodegenerative processes. Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) constitute a family of enzymes regulating a wide range of activity, including signal transduction. Recent studies have focused attention on the intracellular role of PI3K and its contribution to neurodegenerative processes. This review illustrates and discusses recent findings about the role of this signaling pathway in the modulation of microglia neuroinflammatory responses linked to neurodegeneration. Finally, we discuss the modulation of PI3K as a potential therapeutic approach helpful for developing innovative therapeutic strategies in neurodegenerative diseases.

Protective Role of Complement C3 Against Cytokine-Mediated β-Cell Apoptosis

Type 1 diabetes is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by pancreatic islet inflammation and β-cell destruction by proinflammatory cytokines and other mediators. Based on RNA sequencing and protein-protein interaction analyses of human islets exposed to proinflammatory cytokines, we identified complement C3 as a hub for some of the effects of cytokines. The proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β plus interferon-γ increase C3 expression in rodent and human pancreatic β-cells, and C3 is detected by histology in and around the islets of diabetic patients. Surprisingly, C3 silencing exacerbates apoptosis under both basal condition and following exposure to cytokines, and it increases chemokine expression upon cytokine treatment. C3 exerts its prosurvival effects via AKT activation and c-Jun N-terminal kinase inhibition. Exogenously added C3 also protects against cytokine-induced β-cell death and partially rescues the deleterious effects of inhibition of endogenous C3. These data suggest that locally produced C3 is an important prosurvival mechanism in pancreatic β-cells under a proinflammatory assault.

A Perfect Storm: Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor-Associated Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia

BACKGROUND

Oral tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are becoming increasingly common in oncology practice due to ease of administration and patient preference. This class of medications is relatively unknown to emergency physicians.

CASE REPORT

Here we present a case of electrical storm (ES) thought to be associated with ibrutinib, a TKI. The ES was unabated despite antidysrhythmic therapy and electrical cardioversion, and was treated with supportive care, which eventually included the use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. This patient had no risk factors or apparent causes of recurrent ventricular tachycardia. WHY SHOULD AN EMERGENCY PHYSICIAN BE AWARE OF THIS?: ES has not previously been described with ibrutinib, but may be associated with off-target effects of the drug.

Effective PI3K modulators for improved therapy against malignant tumors and for neuroprotection of brain damage after tumor therapy (Review)

Due to the key role in various cellular processes including cell proliferation and cell survival on many cell types, dysregulation of the PI3K/AKT pathway represents a crucial step of the pathogenesis in many diseases. Furthermore, the tumor suppressor PTEN negatively regulates the PI3K/AKT pathway through its lipid phosphatase activity, which is recognized as one of the most frequently deleted and/or mutated genes in human cancer. Given the pervasive involvement of this pathway, the development of the molecules that modulate this PI3K/AKT signaling has been initiated in studies which focus on the extensive effective drug discovery. Consequently, the PI3K/AKT pathway appears to be an attractive pharmacological target both for cancer therapy and for neurological protection necessary after the therapy. A better understanding of the molecular relations could reveal new targets for treatment development. We review recent studies on the features of PI3K/AKT and PTEN, and their pleiotropic functions relevant to the signaling pathways involved in cancer progress and in neuronal damage by the therapy.

Targets for Ibrutinib Beyond B Cell Malignancies

Ibrutinib (Imbruvica^™) is an irreversible, potent inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK). Over the last few years, ibrutinib has developed from a promising drug candidate to being approved by FDA for the treatment of three B cell malignancies, a truly remarkable feat. Few, if any medicines are monospecific and ibrutinib is no exception; already during ibrutinib's initial characterization, it was found that it could bind also to other kinases. In this review, we discuss the implications of such interactions, which go beyond the selective effect on BTK in B cell malignancies. In certain cases, the outcome of ibrutinib treatment likely results from the combined inhibition of BTK and other kinases, causing additive or synergistic, effects. Conversely, there are also examples when the clinical outcome seems unrelated to inhibition of BTK. Thus, more specifically, adverse effects such as enhanced bleeding or arrhythmias could potentially be explained by different interactions. We also predict that during long‐term treatment bone homoeostasis might be affected due to the inhibition of osteoclasts. Moreover, the binding of ibrutinib to molecular targets other than BTK or effects on cells other than B cell‐derived malignancies could be beneficial and result in new indications for clinical applications.

An inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3)-IP3 receptor pathway is required for insulin-stimulated glucose transporter 4 translocation and glucose uptake in cardiomyocytes

Intracellular calcium levels ([Ca2+]i) and glucose uptake are central to cardiomyocyte physiology, yet connections between them have not been studied. We investigated whether insulin regulates [Ca2+]i in cultured cardiomyocytes, the participating mechanisms, and their influence on glucose uptake via SLC2 family of facilitative glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4). Primary neonatal rat cardiomyocytes were preloaded with the Ca2+ fluorescent dye fluo3-acetoxymethyl ester compound (AM) and visualized by confocal microscopy. Ca2+ transport pathways were selectively targeted by chemical and molecular inhibition. Glucose uptake was assessed using [3H]2-deoxyglucose, and surface GLUT4 levels were quantified in nonpermeabilized cardiomyocytes transfected with GLUT4-myc-enhanced green fluorescent protein. Insulin elicited a fast, two-component, transient increase in [Ca2+]i. Nifedipine and ryanodine prevented only the first component. The second one was reduced by inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3)-receptor-selective inhibitors (xestospongin C, 2 amino-ethoxydiphenylborate), by type 2 IP3 receptor knockdown via small interfering RNA or by transfected Gβγ peptidic inhibitor βARKct. Insulin-stimulated glucose uptake was prevented by bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetra-acetic acid-AM, 2-amino-ethoxydiphenylborate, and βARK-ct but not by nifedipine or ryanodine. Similarly, insulin-dependent exofacial exposure of GLUT4-myc-enhanced green fluorescent protein was inhibited by bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetra-acetic acid-AM and xestospongin C but not by nifedipine. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and Akt were also required for the second phase of Ca2+ release and GLUT4 translocation. Transfected dominant-negative phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase γ inhibited the latter. In conclusion, in primary neonatal cardiomyocytes, insulin induces an important component of Ca2+ release via IP3 receptor. This component signals to glucose uptake via GLUT4, revealing a so-far unrealized contribution of IP3-sensitive Ca2+ stores to insulin action. This pathway may influence cardiac metabolism in conditions yet to be explored in adult myocardium.

Bradykinin increases resensitization of purinergic receptor signaling in glioma cells

BACKGROUND

Purinergic receptor-mediated signaling plays an important role in the function of glial cells, including glial tumor cells. Bradykinin is also an important paracrine mediator which is highly expressed in brain tumors and may correlate with their pathological grade. Interaction between bradykinin and purinergic signaling may therefore be involved in the regulation of glial tumor cells.

RESULTS

We examined the effect of bradykinin on glial purinergic signaling in an immortalized glioma cell line. Confocal calcium imaging revealed that ATP evokes an increase in [Ca2+]i in the U87 human astrocytoma cell line. This response was reduced with repetitive application of ATP, likely due to receptor desensitization. However exposure to bradykinin increased the Ca2+ response to a second application of ATP, consistent with increased resensitization. The bradykinin effect on resensitization was similar in the absence of extracellular Ca2+ or in the presence of the PKC activator PMA, but was inhibited by the protein phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid and the PI3K inhibitor LY294002.

CONCLUSIONS

Modulation of protein phosphatases and the PI3K pathway may represent a mechanism by which bradykinin potentiates purinergic signaling in glial cells.

Stress signaling by Tec tyrosine kinase in the ischemic myocardium

Nonreceptor tyrosine kinases have an increasingly appreciated role in cardiac injury and protection. To investigate novel tasks for members of the Tec family of nonreceptor tyrosine kinases in cardiac phenotype, we examined the behavior of the Tec isoform in myocardial ischemic injury. Ischemia-reperfusion, but not cardiac protective agents, induced altered intracellular localization of Tec, highlighting distinct actions of this protein compared with other isoforms, such as Bmx, in the same model. Tec is abundantly expressed in cardiac myocytes and assumes a diffuse intracellular localization under basal conditions but is recruited to striated structures upon various stimuli, including ATP. To characterize Tec signaling targets in vivo, we performed an exhaustive proteomic analysis of Tec-binding partners. These experiments expand the role of the Tec family in the heart, identifying the Tec isoform as an ischemic injury-induced isoform, and map the subproteome of its interactors in isolated cells.

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase gamma regulates airway smooth muscle contraction by modulating calcium oscillations

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase gamma (PI3Kgamma) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of asthma, but its mechanism has been considered indirect, through release of inflammatory cell mediators. Because airway smooth muscle (ASM) contractile hyper-responsiveness plays a critical role in asthma, the aim of the present study was to determine whether PI3Kgamma can directly regulate contractility of ASM. Immunohistochemistry staining indicated expression of PI3Kgamma protein in ASM cells of mouse trachea and lung, which was confirmed by Western blot analysis in isolated mouse tracheal ASM cells. PI3Kgamma inhibitor II inhibited acetylcholine (ACh)-stimulated airway contraction of cultured precision-cut mouse lung slices in a dose-dependent manner with 75% inhibition at 10 muM. In contrast, inhibitors of PI3Kalpha, PI3Kbeta, or PI3Kdelta, at concentrations 40-fold higher than their reported IC(50) values for their primary targets, had no effect. It is noteworthy that airways in lung slices pretreated with PI3Kgamma inhibitor II still exhibited an ACh-induced initial contraction, but the sustained contraction was significantly reduced. Furthermore, the PI3Kgamma-selective inhibitor had a small inhibitory effect on the ACh-stimulated initial Ca(2+) transient in ASM cells of mouse lung slices or isolated mouse ASM cells but significantly attenuated the sustained Ca(2+) oscillations that are critical for sustained airway contraction. This report is the first to show that PI3Kgamma directly controls contractility of airways through regulation of Ca(2+) oscillations in ASM cells. Thus, in addition to effects on airway inflammation, PI3Kgamma inhibitors may also exert direct effects on the airway contraction that contribute to pathologic airway hyper-responsiveness.

Functional characterization of cardiomyocytes derived from murine induced pluripotent stem cells in vitro

Several types of terminally differentiated somatic cells can be reprogrammed into a pluripotent state by ectopic expression of Klf4, Oct3/4, Sox2, and c-Myc. Such induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells have great potential to serve as an autologous source of cells for tissue repair. In the process of developing iPS-cell-based therapies, the major goal is to determine whether differentiated cells derived from iPS cells, such as cardiomyocytes (CMs), have the same functional properties as their physiological in vivo counterparts. Therefore, we differentiated murine iPS cells to CMs in vitro and characterized them by RT-PCR, immunocytochemistry, and electrophysiology. As key markers of cardiac lineages, transcripts for Nkx2.5, alphaMHC, Mlc2v, and cTnT could be identified. Immunocytochemical stainings revealed the presence of organized sarcomeric actinin but the absence of mature atrial natriuretic factor. We examined characteristics and developmental changes of action potentials, as well as functional hormonal regulation and sensitivity to channel blockers. In addition, we determined expression patterns and functionality of cardiac-specific voltage-gated Na+, Ca2+, and K+ channels at early and late differentiation stages and compared them with CMs derived from murine embryonic stem cells (ESCs) as well as with fetal CMs. We conclude that iPS cells give rise to functional CMs in vitro, with established hormonal regulation pathways and functionally expressed cardiac ion channels; CMs generated from iPS cells have a ventricular phenotype; and cardiac development of iPS cells is delayed compared with maturation of native fetal CMs and of ESC-derived CMs. This difference may reflect the incomplete reprogramming of iPS cells and should be critically considered in further studies to clarify the suitability of the iPS model for regenerative medicine of heart disorders.

Class I PI3K in oncogenic cellular transformation

Class I phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) is a dimeric enzyme, consisting of a catalytic and a regulatory subunit. The catalytic subunit occurs in four isoforms designated as p110 alpha, p110 beta, p110 gamma and p110 delta. These isoforms combine with several regulatory subunits; for p110 alpha, beta and delta, the standard regulatory subunit is p85, for p110 gamma, it is p101. PI3Ks play important roles in human cancer. PIK3CA, the gene encoding p110 alpha, is mutated frequently in common cancers, including carcinoma of the breast, prostate, colon and endometrium. Eighty percent of these mutations are represented by one of the three amino-acid substitutions in the helical or kinase domains of the enzyme. The mutant p110 alpha shows a gain of function in enzymatic and signaling activity and is oncogenic in cell culture and in animal model systems. Structural and genetic data suggest that the mutations affect regulatory inter- and intramolecular interactions and support the conclusion that there are at least two molecular mechanisms for the gain of function in p110 alpha. One of these mechanisms operates largely independently of binding to p85, the other abolishes the requirement for an interaction with Ras. The non-alpha isoforms of p110 do not show cancer-specific mutations. However, they are often differentially expressed in cancer and, in contrast to p110 alpha, wild-type non-alpha isoforms of p110 are oncogenic when overexpressed in cell culture. The isoforms of p110 have become promising drug targets. Isoform-selective inhibitors have been identified. Inhibitors that target exclusively the cancer-specific mutants of p110 alpha constitute an important goal and challenge for current drug development.

A novel signaling pathway of ADP-ribosyl cyclase activation by angiotensin II in adult rat cardiomyocytes

ADP-ribosyl cyclase (ADPR-cyclase) produces a Ca(2+)-mobilizing second messenger, cADP-ribose (cADPR), from NAD(+). In this study, we investigated the molecular basis of ADPR-cyclase activation in the ANG II signaling pathway and cellular responses in adult rat cardiomyocytes. The results showed that ANG II generated biphasic intracellular Ca(2+) concentration increases that include a rapid transient Ca(2+) elevation via inositol trisphosphate (IP(3)) receptor and sustained Ca(2+) rise via the activation of L-type Ca(2+) channel and opening of ryanodine receptor. ANG II-induced sustained Ca(2+) rise was blocked by a cADPR antagonistic analog, 8-bromo-cADPR, indicating that sustained Ca(2+) rise is mediated by cADPR. Supporting the notion, ADPR-cyclase activity and cADPR production by ANG II were increased in a time-dependent manner. Application of pharmacological inhibitors and immunological analyses revealed that cADPR formation was activated by sequential activation of Src, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase)/protein kinase B (Akt), phospholipase C (PLC)-gamma1, and IP(3)-mediated Ca(2+) signal. Inhibitors of these signaling molecules not only completely abolished the ANG II-induced Ca(2+) signals but also inhibited cADPR formation. Application of the cADPR antagonist and inhibitors of upstream signaling molecules of ADPR-cyclase inhibited ANG II-stimulated hypertrophic responses, which include nuclear translocation of Ca(2+)/calcineurin-dependent nuclear factor of activated T cells 3, protein expression of transforming growth factor-beta1, and incorporation of [(3)H]leucine in cardiomyocytes. Taken together, these findings suggest that activation of ADPR-cyclase by ANG II entails a novel signaling pathway involving sequential activation of Src, PI 3-kinase/Akt, and PLC-gamma1/IP(3) and that the activation of ADPR-cyclase can lead to cardiac hypertrophy.

Oncogenic signaling of class I PI3K isoforms

The catalytic subunits of class I PI3Ks comprise four isoforms: p110alpha, p110beta, p110delta and p110gamma. Cancer-specific gain-of-function mutations in p110alpha have been identified in various malignancies. Cancer-specific mutations in the non-alpha isoforms of class I PI3K have not yet been identified, however overexpression of either wild-type p110beta, p110gamma or p110delta is sufficient to induce cellular transformation in chicken embryo fibroblasts. The mechanism whereby these non-alpha isoforms of class I mediate oncogenic signals is unknown. Here we show that potently transforming class I isoforms signal via Akt/mTOR, inhibit GSK3beta and cause degradation of FoxO1. A functional Erk pathway is required for p110gamma and p110beta transformation but not for transformation by p110delta or the H1047R mutant of p110alpha. Transformation and signaling by p110gamma and p110beta are sensitive to loss of interaction with Ras, which acts as a membrane anchor. Mutations in the C2 domain of p110delta reduce transformation, most likely by interfering with membrane association. Several small molecule inhibitors potently and specifically inhibit the oncogenic signaling and transformation of each of the class I PI3K, and, when used in combination with MEK inhibitors, can additively reduce the transformation induced by p110beta and p110gamma.

Intracellular Ca2+ oscillations, a potential pacemaking mechanism in early embryonic heart cells

Early (E9.5-E11.5) embryonic heart cells beat spontaneously, even though the adult pacemaking mechanisms are not yet fully established. Here we show that in isolated murine early embryonic cardiomyocytes periodic oscillations of cytosolic Ca(2+) occur and that these induce contractions. The Ca(2+) oscillations originate from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and are dependent on the IP(3) and the ryanodine receptor. The Ca(2+) oscillations activate the Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchanger, giving rise to subthreshold depolarizations of the membrane potential and/or action potentials. Although early embryonic heart cells are voltage-independent Ca(2+) oscillators, the generation of action potentials provides synchronization of the electrical and mechanical signals. Thus, Ca(2+) oscillations pace early embryonic heart cells and the ensuing activation of the Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchanger evokes small membrane depolarizations or action potentials.

Identification of a unique co-operative phosphoinositide 3-kinase signaling mechanism regulating integrin alpha IIb beta 3 adhesive function in platelets

Phosphoinositide (PI) 3-kinases play an important role in regulating the adhesive function of a variety of cell types through affinity modulation of integrins. Two type I PI 3-kinase isoforms (p110 beta and p110 gamma) have been implicated in G(i)-dependent integrin alpha(IIb)beta(3) regulation in platelets, however, the mechanisms by which they coordinate their signaling function remains unknown. By employing isoform-selective PI 3-kinase inhibitors and knock-out mouse models we have identified a unique mechanism of PI 3-kinase signaling co-operativity in platelets. We demonstrate that p110 beta is primarily responsible for G(i)-dependent phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate (PI(3,4)P(2)) production in ADP-stimulated platelets and is linked to the activation of Rap1b and AKT. In contrast, defective integrin alpha(IIb)beta(3) activation in p110 gamma(-/-) platelets was not associated with alterations in the levels of PI(3,4)P(2) or active Rap1b/AKT. Analysis of the effects of active site pharmacological inhibitors confirmed that p110 gamma principally regulated integrin alpha(IIb)beta(3) activation through a non-catalytic signaling mechanism. Inhibition of the kinase function of PI 3-kinases, combined with deletion of p110 gamma, led to a major reduction in integrin alpha(IIb)beta(3) activation, resulting in a profound defect in platelet aggregation, hemostatic plug formation, and arterial thrombosis. These studies demonstrate a kinase-independent signaling function for p110 gamma in platelets. Moreover, they demonstrate that the combined catalytic and non-catalytic signaling function of p110 beta and p110 gamma is critical for P2Y(12)/G(i)-dependent integrin alpha(IIb)beta(3) regulation. These findings have potentially important implications for the rationale design of novel antiplatelet therapies targeting PI 3-kinase signaling pathways.

The developing cardiac myocyte: maturation of excitability and excitation-contraction coupling

The study of cardiac myocyte (CM) differentiation, development, and maturation is of interest for several compelling reasons. First, mechanisms of development are of fundamental biological interest. Second, congenital malformation of the heart may be related to CM dysfunction during embryonic/fetal development. Third, adult myocardium in a variety of diseased states re-expresses a fetal-like gene program. Fourth, the mature heart cannot readily regenerate itself. Thus, cell replacement therapy is an emerging treatment paradigm. Among the obstacles for the realization of cell replacement therapy is our incomplete understanding of the function during CM maturation. This is crucial in the potential use of embryonic stem (ES) cell-derived CMs as a cell source. Although much progress has been realized with mouse ES-CMs, our understanding of human counterparts is scant. Here we discuss key molecular underpinnings of excitability and excitation-contraction coupling in developing mouse heart. We focus on the Ca channel multimeric complex and Ca handling. We compare mouse embryonic physiology to that previously described in mouse ES-CMs and draw parallels and highlight distinctions to human ES-CMs. During mouse embryonic and fetal maturation, the L-type Ca channel current (I(Ca,L)) predominates, but embryonic/fetal I(Ca,L) has distinct properties from mature I(Ca,L). In addition T-type Ca current (I(Ca,T)) present in the fetus is not present in the adult. It is neither ethical nor practical to experiment with live human embryonic/fetal CMs for I(Ca) and Ca handling studies, but we can draw inferences from human heart cell function based on studies of human ES-CMs, using the parallels noted between mouse embryonic heart cells and mouse ES-CMs.

Activation of Ca2+-dependent signaling by TLR2

Upon contact with airway epithelial cells, bacterial products activate Ca(2+) fluxes that are required for induction of NF-kappaB-dependent gene expression. TLR2 is apically displayed on airway cells, making it a likely transducer linking bacterial stimuli and kinases that affect Ca(2+) release. Using biochemical and genetic approaches, we demonstrate that TLR2 ligands stimulate release of Ca(2+) from intracellular stores by activating TLR2 phosphorylation by c-Src, and recruiting PI3K and phospholipase Cgamma to affect Ca(2+) release through inositol (1,4,5) trisphosphate receptors. In the absence of TLR2, murine macrophages as well as airway cells do not generate Ca(2+) fluxes or induce proinflammatory signaling. Thus, Ca(2+) participates as a second messenger in TLR2-dependent signaling and provides another target to modulate proinflammatory responses to bacterial infection.

New roles for Galpha and RGS proteins: communication continues despite pulling sisters apart

Large G protein alpha subunits and their attendant regulators of G-protein signaling (RGS) proteins control both intercellular signaling and asymmetric cell divisions by distinct pathways. The classical pathway, found throughout higher eukaryotic organisms, mediates intercellular communication via hormone binding to G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Recent studies have led to the discovery of GPCR-independent activation of Galpha subunits by the guanine nucleotide exchange factor RIC-8 in both asymmetric cell division and synaptic vesicle priming in metazoan organisms. Protein-protein interactions and protein function in each pathway are driven through the cycle of GTP binding and hydrolysis by the Galpha subunit. This review builds a conceptual framework for understanding RIC-8-mediated pathways by comparison with the mechanism of classical G-protein activation and inhibition in GPCR signaling.

Cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release and load are enhanced by subcellular cAMP elevations in PI3Kgamma-deficient mice

We recently showed that phosphoinositide-3-kinase-gamma-deficient (PI3Kgamma-/-) mice have increased cardiac contractility without changes in heart size compared with control mice (ie, PI3Kgamma+/+ or PI3Kgamma+/-). In this study, we show that PI3Kgamma-/- cardiomyocytes have elevated Ca2+ transient amplitudes with abbreviated decay kinetics compared with control under field-stimulation and voltage-clamp conditions. When Ca2+ transients were eliminated with high Ca2+ buffering, L-type Ca2+ currents (I(Ca,L)), K+ currents, and action potential duration (APD) were not different between the groups, whereas, in the presence of Ca2+ transients, Ca2+-dependent phase of I(Ca,L) inactivation was abbreviated and APD at 90% repolarization was prolonged in PI3Kgamma-/- mice. Excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) gain, sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ load, and SR Ca(2+) release fluxes measured as Ca2+ spikes, were also increased in PI3Kgamma-/- cardiomyocytes without detectable changes in Ca2+ spikes kinetics. The cAMP inhibitor Rp-cAMP eliminated enhanced ECC and SR Ca2+ load in PI3Kgamma-/- without effects in control myocytes. On the other hand, the beta-adrenergic receptor agonist isoproterenol increased I(Ca,L) and Ca2+ transient equally by approximately 2-fold in both PI3Kgamma-/- and PI3Kgamma+/- cardiomyocytes. Our results establish that PI3Kgamma reduces cardiac contractility in a highly compartmentalized manner by inhibiting cAMP-mediated SR Ca2+ loading without directly affecting other major modulators of ECC, such as AP and I(Ca,L).

Involvement of uracil nucleotides in protection of cardiomyocytes from hypoxic stress

Cardiomyocytes express one or more subtypes of P2 receptors for extracellular nucleotides. P2 purinoceptors, which are activated by nucleotides, are classified as P2X or P2Y: P2X receptors are ligand-gated intrinsic ion channels, and P2Y receptors are G protein-coupled receptors. Extracellular pyrimidine and purine nucleotides are released from the heart during hypoxia. Although the cardioprotective effects of purines acting via purinoceptors were studied intensively, the physiological role of uracil nucleotide-responsive P2Y2, P2Y4, P2Y6, and P2Y14 receptors is still unclear, especially in the cardiovascular system. This study revealed that uridine-5'-triphosphate (UTP) protected cultured rat cardiomyocytes during hypoxia and explored the UTP signaling pathway leading to this cardioprotection. We found that UTP, but not UDP or uridine, significantly reduced cardiomyocyte death induced by hypoxia. Incubation with UTP for 1 h, before exposure to hypoxic conditions, protected the cells 24 h later. The cardioprotective effect of UTP was reduced in the presence of the P2 antagonist suramin. In addition, UTP caused a transient increase of [Ca2+]i in cardiomyocytes. Pyridoxal-5'-phosphate-6-azophenyl-2,4-disulfonate (PPADS) or Reactive blue 2 (RB-2), other antagonists of P2 receptors, abolished the [Ca2+]i elevation caused by UTP. We used various inhibitors of the Ca2+ signaling pathway to show that UTP elevated levels of [Ca2+]i, originating from intracellular sources, via activation of phospholipase C and the IP3 receptor. Interestingly, these inhibitors of the Ca2+ signaling pathway did not prevent the immediate protective effect caused by UTP. Although mitochondrial KATP channels are involved in other preconditioning mediator pathways, the involvement of these channels in the cardioprotective effect induced by UTP was ruled out, because 5-hydroxydecanoic acid (5-HD), a specific inhibitor of these channels, did not prevent the protection.

Protection from angiotensin II-mediated vasculotoxic and hypertensive response in mice lacking PI3Kgamma

Hypertension affects nearly 20% of the population in Western countries and strongly increases the risk for cardiovascular diseases. In the pathogenesis of hypertension, the vasoactive peptide of the renin-angiotensin system, angiotensin II and its G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs), play a crucial role by eliciting reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mediating vessel contractility. Here we show that mice lacking the GPCR-activated phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)γ are protected from hypertension that is induced by administration of angiotensin II in vivo. PI3Kγ was found to play a role in angiotensin II–evoked smooth muscle contraction in two crucial, distinct signaling pathways. In response to angiotensin II, PI3Kγ was required for the activation of Rac and the subsequent triggering of ROS production. Conversely, PI3Kγ was necessary to activate protein kinase B/Akt, which, in turn, enhanced L-type Ca²⁺ channel–mediated extracellular Ca²⁺ entry. These data indicate that PI3Kγ is a key transducer of the intracellular signals that are evoked by angiotensin II and suggest that blocking PI3Kγ function might be exploited to improve therapeutic intervention on hypertension.

Initiation of embryonic cardiac pacemaker activity by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-dependent calcium signaling

In the adult, the heart rate is driven by spontaneous and repetitive depolarizations of pacemaker cells to generate a firing of action potentials propagating along the conduction system and spreading into the ventricles. In the early embryo before E9.5, the pacemaker ionic channel responsible for the spontaneous depolarization of cells is not yet functional. Thus the mechanisms that initiate early heart rhythm during cardiogenesis are puzzling. In the absence of a functional pacemaker ionic channel, the oscillatory nature of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3)-induced intracellular Ca2+ signaling could provide an alternative pacemaking mechanism. To test this hypothesis, we have engineered pacemaker cells from embryonic stem (ES) cells, a model that faithfully recapitulates early stages of heart development. We show that InsP3-dependent shuttle of free Ca2+ in and out of the endoplasmic reticulum is essential for a proper generation of pacemaker activity during early cardiogenesis and fetal life.

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase gamma controls autonomic regulation of the mouse heart through Gi-independent downregulation of cAMP level

Cardiac beta-adrenergic and the muscarinic receptors control contractility and heart rate by triggering multiple signaling events involving downstream targets like the phosphoinositide 3-kinase gamma (PI3Kgamma). We thus investigated whether the lack of PI3Kgamma could play a role in the autonomic regulation of the mouse heart. Contractility and ICaL of mutant cardiac preparations appeared increased in basal conditions and after beta-adrenergic stimulation. However, basal and beta-adrenergic stimulated heart rate were normal. Conversely, muscarinic inhibition of heart rate was reduced without alteration of the Gbetagamma-dependent stimulation of IK,ACh current. In addition, muscarinic-mediated anti-adrenergic effect on papillary muscle contractility and ICaL was significantly depressed. Consistently, cAMP level of PI3Kgamma-null ventricles was always higher than wild-type controls. Thus, PI3Kgamma controls the cardiac function by reducing cAMP concentration independently of Gi-mediated signaling.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulates Ca2+ signaling in pancreatic acinar cells through inhibition of sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase

Calcium is a key mediator of hormone-induced enzyme secretion in pancreatic acinar cells. At the same time, abnormal Ca(2+) responses are associated with pancreatitis. We have recently shown that inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase) by LY-294002 and wortmannin, as well as genetic deletion of PI3-kinase-gamma, regulates Ca(2+) responses and the Ca(2+)-sensitive trypsinogen activation in pancreatic acinar cells. The present study sought to determine the mechanisms of PI3-kinase involvement in Ca(2+) responses induced in these cells by CCK and carbachol. The PI3-kinase inhibitors inhibited both Ca(2+) influx and mobilization from intracellular stores induced by stimulation of acini with physiological and pathological concentrations of CCK, as well as with carbachol. PI3-kinase inhibition facilitated the decay of cytosolic free Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) oscillations observed in individual acinar cells. The PI3-kinase inhibitors decreased neither CCK-induced inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P(3)] production nor Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-induced Ca(2+) mobilization, suggesting that the effect of PI3-kinase inhibition is not through Ins(1,4,5)P(3) or Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptors. PI3-kinase inhibition did not affect Ca(2+) mobilization induced by thapsigargin, a specific inhibitor of sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA). Moreover, SERCA blockade with thapsigargin abolished the effects of pharmacological and genetic PI3-kinase inhibition on [Ca(2+)](i) signals, suggesting SERCA as a downstream target of PI3-kinase. Both pharmacological PI3-kinase inhibition and genetic deletion of PI3-kinase-gamma increased the amount of Ca(2+) in intracellular stores during CCK stimulation. Finally, addition of the PI3-kinase product phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate to permeabilized acini significantly attenuated Ca(2+) reloading into the endoplasmic reticulum. The results indicate that PI3-kinase regulates Ca(2+) signaling in pancreatic acinar cells through its inhibitory effect on SERCA.

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase regulates excitation-contraction coupling in neonatal cardiomyocytes

The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY-294002 decreased steady-state contraction in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (NRVM). To determine whether the effect on steady-state contraction could be due to decreased intracellular Ca2+content, Ca2+content was assessed with fluorescent plate reader analysis by using the caffeine-releasable Ca2+stores as an index of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+content. Caffeine-releasable Ca2+content was diminished in a dose-dependent manner with LY-294002, suggesting that the decrease in steady-state contraction was due to diminished intracellular Ca2+content. Activation of the L-type Ca2+channel by BAY K 8644 was attenuated by LY-294002, suggesting the effect of LY-294002 is to reduce Ca2+influx at this channel. To investigate whether additional proteins involved in excitation-contraction (EC) coupling are likewise regulated by PI3K activity, the effects of compounds acting at sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA2a), the ryanodine receptor, and the Na/Ca exchanger (NCX) were compared with LY-294002. Inhibition of SERCA2a by thapsigargin increased basal Ca2+levels in contrast to LY-294002, indicating that SERCA2a activity is sustained in the presence of LY-294002. Ryanodine decreased SR Ca2+content. The additive effect with coadministration of LY-294002 could be attributed to a decrease in Ca2+influx at the L-type Ca2+channel. The NCX inhibitor Ni2+was used to investigate whether the decrease in intracellular Ca2+content with LY-294002 could be due to inhibition of the NCX reverse-mode activity. The minimal effect of LY-294002 with Ni2+suggests that the primary effect of LY-294002 on EC coupling occurs through inhibition of PI3K-mediated L-type Ca2+channel activity.

Phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase gamma regulates key pathologic responses to cholecystokinin in pancreatic acinar cells

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Early events in the pancreatic acinar cell critical for development of pancreatitis include activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B), abnormal Ca(2+) responses, and trypsinogen activation. Mechanisms underlying these responses, which can be studied in isolated pancreatic acini stimulated with supraphysiologic doses of cholecystokinin (CCK-8), remain poorly understood. We here report that these responses are regulated by phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) gamma.

METHODS

To inactivate PI3K, we used mice deficient in the catalytic PI3K gamma subunit p110 gamma as well as the PI3K inhibitors LY294002 and wortmannin. We measured Ca(2+) responses by using Fura-2, NF-kappa B-binding activity by electromobility shift assay, I kappa B degradation by Western blotting, and trypsinogen activation by fluorogenic assay.

RESULTS

CCK-induced intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization, Ca(2+) influx, trypsinogen, and NF-kappa B activation were all diminished in pancreatic acini isolated from p110 gamma(-/-) mice. Both in mouse and rat acini, these responses were inhibited by the PI3K inhibitors. The Ca(2+) signal and trypsinogen activation were similarly reduced in acini isolated from p110 gamma(-/-) and p110 gamma(+/-) mice compared with wild-type mice. By contrast, NF-kappa B activation was inhibited in p110 gamma(-/-) acini but not in p110 gamma(+/-) acini. These differences indicate that the mechanism of NF-kappa B regulation by PI3K gamma differs from those for the Ca(2+) and trypsinogen responses. CCK-induced responses in p110 gamma(-/-) acini were all further inhibited by LY294002, indicating the involvement of other PI3K isoform(s), in addition to PI3K gamma.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that key pathologic responses of the pancreatic acinar cell are regulated by PI3K gamma and suggest an important role for this PI3K isoform in pancreatitis.

Insulin-like growth factor-1 induces an inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-dependent increase in nuclear and cytosolic calcium in cultured rat cardiac myocytes

In the heart, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is a pro-hypertrophic and anti-apoptotic peptide. In cultured rat cardiomyocytes, IGF-1 induced a fast and transient increase in Ca(2+)(i) levels apparent both in the nucleus and cytosol, releasing this ion from intracellular stores through an inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3))-dependent signaling pathway. Intracellular IP(3) levels increased after IGF-1 stimulation in both the presence and absence of extracellular Ca(2+). A different spatial distribution of IP(3) receptor isoforms in cardiomyocytes was found. Ryanodine did not prevent the IGF-1-induced increase of Ca(2+)(i) levels but inhibited the basal and spontaneous Ca(2+)(i) oscillations observed when cardiac myocytes were incubated in Ca(2+)-containing resting media. Spatial analysis of fluorescence images of IGF-1-stimulated cardiomyocytes incubated in Ca(2+)-containing resting media showed an early increase in Ca(2+)(i), initially localized in the nucleus. Calcium imaging suggested that part of the Ca(2+) released by stimulation with IGF-1 was initially contained in the perinuclear region. The IGF-1-induced increase on Ca(2+)(i) levels was prevented by 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid-AM, thapsigargin, xestospongin C, 2-aminoethoxy diphenyl borate, U-73122, pertussis toxin, and betaARKct (a peptide inhibitor of Gbetagamma signaling). Pertussis toxin also prevented the IGF-1-dependent IP(3) mass increase. Genistein treatment largely decreased the IGF-1-induced changes in both Ca(2+)(i) and IP(3). LY29402 (but not PD98059) also prevented the IGF-1-dependent Ca(2+)(i) increase. Both pertussis toxin and U73122 prevented the IGF-1-dependent induction of both ERKs and protein kinase B. We conclude that IGF-1 increases Ca(2+)(i) levels in cultured cardiac myocytes through a Gbetagamma subunit of a pertussis toxin-sensitive G protein-PI3K-phospholipase C signaling pathway that involves participation of IP(3).

A dual role of the GTPase Rac in cardiac differentiation of stem cells

The function of the GTPase Rac1, a molecular switch transducing intracellular signals from growth factors, in differentiation of a specific cell type during early embryogenesis has not been investigated. To address the question, we used embryonic stem (ES) cells differentiated into cardiomyocytes, a model that faithfully recapitulates early stages of cardiogenesis. Overexpression in ES cells of a constitutively active Rac (RacV12) but not of an active mutant (RacL61D38), which does not activate the NADPH oxydase generating ROS, prevented MEF2C expression and severely compromised cardiac cell differentiation. This resulted in poor expression of ventricular myosin light chain 2 (MLC2v) and its lack of insertion into sarcomeres. Thus ES-derived cardiomyocytes featured impaired myofibrillogenesis and contractility. Overexpression of MEF2C or addition of catalase in the culture medium rescued the phenotype of racV12 cells. In contrast, RacV12 specifically expressed in ES-derived ventricular cells improved the propensity of cardioblasts to differentiate into beating cardiomyocytes. This was attributed to both a facilitation of myofibrillogenesis and a prolongation in their proliferation. The dominant negative mutant RacN17 early or lately expressed in ES-derived cells prevented myofibrillogenesis and in turn beating of cardiomyocytes. We thus suggest a stage-dependent function of the GTPase during early embryogenesis.

Characterization of maleimide-activated Ca2+ entry in neutrophils

N-Ethylmaleimide (NEM), a thio-alkylating agent, concentration-dependently stimulated the elevation of [Ca(2+)](i) in rat neutrophils in the presence of external Ca(2+). This effect was not observed in Ca(2+)-free medium and was abrogated by dithiothreitol pretreatment. The application of NEM after cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) stimulated the store-emptying activation of Ca(2+) entry. Unlike CPA-induced cation entry, NEM showed poor uptake of Ba(2+) and Sr(2+) and did not induce Mn(2+) influx. NEM diminished CPA-induced Mn(2+) influx, an effect that was blocked by dithiothreitol. Both Ni(2+) and La(3+) attenuated the elevation of [Ca(2+)](i) in response to NEM; however, greater resistance was observed to Ni(2+) inhibition of NEM-induced Ca(2+) influx than inhibition of store-operated Ca(2+) entry. Both cis-N-(2-phenylcyclopentyl)azacyclotridec-1-en-2-amine (MDL-12,330A) and 1-[beta-[3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propoxy]-4-methoxyphenethyl]-1H-imidazole (SKF-96365), Ca(2+) channel blockers, and calyculin A, an inhibitor of protein serine/threonine phosphatases 1/2, diminished the NEM-induced Ca(2+) entry. Treatment of cells with genistein, a general tyrosine kinase inhibitor, or with wortmannin and 2-(4-morpholinyl)-8-phenyl-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (LY294002), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors, had no appreciable inhibitory effects on the action of NEM. However, 2-aminoethyldiphenyl borate, an inositol trisphosphate receptor antagonist, enhanced rather than inhibited the [Ca(2+)](i) change in response to NEM. These results indicate that NEM stimulates Ca(2+) entry and regulates Ca(2+) signaling through direct thiol oxidation, bypassing the cellular signal transduction pathway. The NEM-regulated Ca(2+) signal demonstrates characteristics that distinguish it from the store-emptying operation in neutrophils, and therefore represents two distinct modes of Ca(2+) regulation.

Ca2+ oscillations in melanotropes of Xenopus laevis: their generation, propagation, and function

The melanotrope cell of the amphibian Xenopus laevis is a neuroendocrine transducer that converts neuronal input concerning the color of background into an endocrine output, the release of alpha-melanophore-stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH). The cell displays intracellular Ca(2+) oscillations that are thought to be the driving force for secretion as well as for the expression of genes important to the process of background adaptation. Here we review the functioning of the Xenopus melanotrope cell, with emphasis on the role of Ca(2+) oscillations in signal transduction in this cell. We start by giving a general overview of the evolution of Ca(2+) as an intracellular messenger molecule. This is followed by an examination of the melanotrope as a neuroendocrine integrator cell. Then, the evidence that Ca(2+) oscillations drive the secretion of alpha-MSH is reviewed, followed by a similar analysis of the evidence that the same oscillations regulate the expression of proopiomelanocortin (POMC), the precursor protein for alpha-MSH. Finally, the possible importance of the pattern of Ca(2+) signaling to melanotrope cell function is considered.

Calcium receptor-induced serotonin secretion by parafollicular cells: role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent signal transduction pathways

Elevation of extracellular Ca2+ (increase[Ca2+]e) stimulates the Ca2+ receptor (CaR) to induce secretion of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) from the calcium-sensing parafollicular (PF) cells. The CaR has been reported to couple to Galpha(q) with subsequent activation of protein kinase C-gamma (PKCgamma). We have identified a parallel transduction pathway in primary cultures of sheep PF cells by using a combinatorial approach in which we expressed adenoviral-encoded dominant-negative signaling proteins and performed in vitro kinase assays. The role of the CaR was established by expression of a dominant-negative CaR that eliminated calcium-induced 5-HT secretion but not secretion in response to KCl or phorbol esters. The calcium-induced secretion was inhibited by a dominant-negative p85 regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K). PI3-K activity was also assayed using isoform-specific antibodies. The activity of p85/p110beta (PI3-Kbeta) immunocomplexes was elevated by increase[Ca2+]e and activated by Gbetagamma subunits. In addition, secretion of 5-HT was antagonized by the expression of a minigene encoding a peptide scavenger of Gbetagamma subunits (C-terminal fragment peptide of bovine beta-adrenergic receptor kinase). One target of PI3-K activity is phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1 (PDK1), which in turn activated PKCzeta. Expression of a dominant-negative PKCzeta in PF cells reduced 5-HT secretion. Together, these observations establish that increase[Ca2+]e evokes 5-HT secretion from PF cells by stimulating both Galpha(q)- and Gbetagamma-signaling pathways downstream of the CaR. The betagamma cascade subsequently activates PI3-Kbeta-dependent signaling that is coupled to PDK1 and the downstream effector PKCzeta, and results in an increase in 5-HT release.

Calcium receptor-induced serotonin secretion by parafollicular cells: role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent signal transduction pathways

Elevation of extracellular Ca2+ (increase[Ca2+]e) stimulates the Ca2+ receptor (CaR) to induce secretion of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) from the calcium-sensing parafollicular (PF) cells. The CaR has been reported to couple to Galpha(q) with subsequent activation of protein kinase C-gamma (PKCgamma). We have identified a parallel transduction pathway in primary cultures of sheep PF cells by using a combinatorial approach in which we expressed adenoviral-encoded dominant-negative signaling proteins and performed in vitro kinase assays. The role of the CaR was established by expression of a dominant-negative CaR that eliminated calcium-induced 5-HT secretion but not secretion in response to KCl or phorbol esters. The calcium-induced secretion was inhibited by a dominant-negative p85 regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K). PI3-K activity was also assayed using isoform-specific antibodies. The activity of p85/p110beta (PI3-Kbeta) immunocomplexes was elevated by increase[Ca2+]e and activated by Gbetagamma subunits. In addition, secretion of 5-HT was antagonized by the expression of a minigene encoding a peptide scavenger of Gbetagamma subunits (C-terminal fragment peptide of bovine beta-adrenergic receptor kinase). One target of PI3-K activity is phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1 (PDK1), which in turn activated PKCzeta. Expression of a dominant-negative PKCzeta in PF cells reduced 5-HT secretion. Together, these observations establish that increase[Ca2+]e evokes 5-HT secretion from PF cells by stimulating both Galpha(q)- and Gbetagamma-signaling pathways downstream of the CaR. The betagamma cascade subsequently activates PI3-Kbeta-dependent signaling that is coupled to PDK1 and the downstream effector PKCzeta, and results in an increase in 5-HT release.

Calreticulin reveals a critical Ca(2+) checkpoint in cardiac myofibrillogenesis

Calreticulin (crt) is an ubiquitously expressed and multifunctional Ca(2+)-binding protein that regulates diverse vital cell functions, including Ca(2+) storage in the ER and protein folding. Calreticulin deficiency in mice is lethal in utero due to defects in heart development and function. Herein, we used crt(-/-) embryonic stem (ES) cells differentiated in vitro into cardiac cells to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying heart failure of knockout embryos. After 8 d of differentiation, beating areas were prominent in ES-derived wild-type (wt) embryoid bodies (EBs), but not in ES-derived crt(-/-) EBs, despite normal expression levels of cardiac transcription factors. Crt(-/-) EBs exhibited a severe decrease in expression and a lack of phosphorylation of ventricular myosin light chain 2 (MLC2v), resulting in an impaired organization of myofibrils. Crt(-/-) phenotype could be recreated in wt cells by chelating extracellular or cytoplasmic Ca(2+) with EGTA or BAPTA, or by inhibiting Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinases (CaMKs). An imposed ionomycin-triggered cystolic-free Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](c)) elevation restored the expression, phosphorylation, and insertion of MLC2v into sarcomeric structures and in turn the myofibrillogenesis. The transcription factor myocyte enhancer factor C2 failed to accumulate into nuclei of crt(-/-) cardiac cells in the absence of ionomycin-triggered [Ca(2+)](c) increase. We conclude that the absence of calreticulin interferes with myofibril formation. Most importantly, calreticulin deficiency revealed the importance of a Ca(2+)-dependent checkpoint critical for early events during cardiac myofibrillogenesis.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate and isoform-specific activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase beta. Evidence for divergence and convergence of receptor-regulated endothelial nitric-oxide synthase signaling pathways

Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is a platelet-derived sphingolipid that elicits diverse biological responses, including angiogenesis, via the activation of G protein-coupled EDG receptors. S1P activates the endothelial isoform of nitric-oxide synthase (eNOS), associated with eNOS phosphorylation at Ser-1179, a site phosphorylated by protein kinase Akt. We explored the proximal signaling pathways that mediate Akt activation and eNOS regulation by S1P/EDG receptors. Akt is regulated by the lipid kinase phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-K). We found that bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEC) express both alpha and beta isoforms of PI3-K, while lacking the gamma isoform. S1P treatment led to the rapid and isoform-specific activation of PI3-Kbeta in BAEC. PI3-Kbeta can be regulated by G protein betagamma subunits (Gbetagamma). The overexpression of a peptide inhibitor of Gbetagamma attenuated S1P-induced eNOS enzyme activation, as well as S1P-induced phosphorylation of eNOS and Akt. In contrast, bradykinin, a classical eNOS agonist, neither activated any PI3-K isoform nor induced eNOS phosphorylation at Ser-1179, despite activating eNOS in BAEC. Vascular endothelial growth factor activated both PI3-Kalpha and PI3-Kbeta via tyrosine kinase pathways and promoted eNOS phosphorylation that was unaffected by Gbetagamma inhibition. These findings indicate that PI3-Kbeta (regulated by Gbetagamma) may represent a novel molecular locus for eNOS activation by EDG receptors in vascular endothelial cells. These studies also indicate that different eNOS agonists activate distinct signaling pathways that diverge proximally following receptor activation but converge distally to activate eNOS.

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase inhibition in cancer treatment

Over the past ten years, our knowledge of the integral role that the phospho-inositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) and their 3'-phosphorylated lipid products (3'-phosphorylated phosphoinositides; 3P-PIs) play in the mediation of signal transduction, cytoskeletal rearrangements and membrane trafficking has expanded considerably. They are now known to be involved in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, mobility, proliferation and survival and hence they have become a potential target for the control of the growth and spread of cancer cells. More recently, the correlation of the multiplicity of isomers (both catalytic and regulatory) within the different classes of the PI3Ks with their functional relevance has become possible. This, combined with our further understanding of the protein recognition patterns for their different 3P-PIs and the newly-described pathways in the control of the levels of these by dephosphorylation, has provided new aspects and areas for interference in these multiple PI3K signalling pathways. However, in the search for effective, non-toxic, drugs for use in the treatment of cancers, these individual targets for PI3K inhibition need to be further correlated with the specific in vivo effects on cell survival, invasivity and metastatic potential. Here, the range of PI3K inhibition targets are discussed in the light of recent experimental findings, with a view to the exploitation of their specificities in new approaches to effective cancer treatments based on PI3K activity inhibition.

Dr Leonard Arthur: his trial and its implications

Oscillatory growth of pollen tubes has been correlated with oscillatory influxes of the cations Ca(2+), H(+), and K(+). Using an ion-specific vibrating probe, a new circuit was identified that involves oscillatory efflux of the anion Cl(-) at the apex and steady influx along the tube starting at 12 mum distal to the tip. This spatial coupling of influx and efflux sites predicts that a vectorial flux of Cl(-) ion traverses the apical region. The Cl(-) channel blockers 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS) and 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid completely inhibited tobacco pollen tube growth at 80 and 20 muM, respectively. Cl(-) channel blockers also induced increases in apical cell volume. The apical 50 mum of untreated pollen tubes had a mean cell volume of 3905 +/- 75 mum(3). DIDS at 80 muM caused a rapid and lethal cell volume increase to 6206 +/- 171 mum(3), which is at the point of cell bursting at the apex. DIDS was further demonstrated to disrupt Cl(-) efflux from the apex, indicating that Cl(-) flux correlates with pollen tube growth and cell volume status. The signal encoded by inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate [Ins(3,4,5,6)P(4)] antagonized pollen tube growth, induced cell volume increases, and disrupted Cl(-) efflux. Ins(3,4,5,6)P(4) decreased the mean growth rate by 85%, increased the cell volume to 5997 +/- 148 mum(3), and disrupted normal Cl(-) efflux oscillations. These effects were specific for Ins(3,4,5,6)P(4) and were not mimicked by either Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4) or Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P(5). Growth correlation analysis demonstrated that cycles of Cl(-) efflux were coupled to and temporally in phase with cycles of growth. A role for Cl(-) flux in the dynamic cellular events during growth is assessed. Differential interference contrast microscopy and kymographic analysis of individual growth cycles revealed that vesicles can advance transiently to within 2 to 4 mum of the apex during the phase of maximally increasing Cl(-) efflux, which temporally overlaps the phase of cell elongation during the growth cycle. In summary, these investigations indicate that Cl(-) ion dynamics are an important component in the network of events that regulate pollen tube homeostasis and growth.

Dr Leonard Arthur: his trial and its implications

Oscillatory growth of pollen tubes has been correlated with oscillatory influxes of the cations Ca(2+), H(+), and K(+). Using an ion-specific vibrating probe, a new circuit was identified that involves oscillatory efflux of the anion Cl(-) at the apex and steady influx along the tube starting at 12 mum distal to the tip. This spatial coupling of influx and efflux sites predicts that a vectorial flux of Cl(-) ion traverses the apical region. The Cl(-) channel blockers 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS) and 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid completely inhibited tobacco pollen tube growth at 80 and 20 muM, respectively. Cl(-) channel blockers also induced increases in apical cell volume. The apical 50 mum of untreated pollen tubes had a mean cell volume of 3905 +/- 75 mum(3). DIDS at 80 muM caused a rapid and lethal cell volume increase to 6206 +/- 171 mum(3), which is at the point of cell bursting at the apex. DIDS was further demonstrated to disrupt Cl(-) efflux from the apex, indicating that Cl(-) flux correlates with pollen tube growth and cell volume status. The signal encoded by inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate [Ins(3,4,5,6)P(4)] antagonized pollen tube growth, induced cell volume increases, and disrupted Cl(-) efflux. Ins(3,4,5,6)P(4) decreased the mean growth rate by 85%, increased the cell volume to 5997 +/- 148 mum(3), and disrupted normal Cl(-) efflux oscillations. These effects were specific for Ins(3,4,5,6)P(4) and were not mimicked by either Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4) or Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P(5). Growth correlation analysis demonstrated that cycles of Cl(-) efflux were coupled to and temporally in phase with cycles of growth. A role for Cl(-) flux in the dynamic cellular events during growth is assessed. Differential interference contrast microscopy and kymographic analysis of individual growth cycles revealed that vesicles can advance transiently to within 2 to 4 mum of the apex during the phase of maximally increasing Cl(-) efflux, which temporally overlaps the phase of cell elongation during the growth cycle. In summary, these investigations indicate that Cl(-) ion dynamics are an important component in the network of events that regulate pollen tube homeostasis and growth.