Motile detergent-extracted cells of Tetrahymena and Chlamydomonas

Composition, organization and mechanisms of the transition zone, a gate for the cilium

The cilium evolved to provide the ancestral eukaryote with the ability to move and sense its environment. Acquiring these functions required the compartmentalization of a dynein-based motility apparatus and signaling proteins within a discrete subcellular organelle contiguous with the cytosol. Here, we explore the potential molecular mechanisms for how the proximal-most region of the cilium, termed transition zone (TZ), acts as a diffusion barrier for both membrane and soluble proteins and helps to ensure ciliary autonomy and homeostasis. These include a unique complement and spatial organization of proteins that span from the microtubule-based axoneme to the ciliary membrane; a protein picket fence; a specialized lipid microdomain; differential membrane curvature and thickness; and lastly, a size-selective molecular sieve. In addition, the TZ must be permissive for, and functionally integrates with, ciliary trafficking systems (including intraflagellar transport) that cross the barrier and make the ciliary compartment dynamic. The quest to understand the TZ continues and promises to not only illuminate essential aspects of human cell signaling, physiology, and development, but also to unravel how TZ dysfunction contributes to ciliopathies that affect multiple organ systems, including eyes, kidney, and brain.

Biohybrid microswimmers against bacterial infections

Biohybrid microswimmers exploit the natural abilities of motile microorganisms e.g. in releasing cargo on-demand. However, using such engineered swarms to release antibiotics addressing bacterial infections has not yet been realized. Herein, a design strategy for biohybrid microswimmers is reported, which features the covalent attachment of antibiotics with a photo-cleavable linker to the algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii via two synthetic steps. This surface engineering does not rely on genetic manipulations, proceeds with high efficiency, and retains the viability or phototaxis of microalgae. Two different antibiotics have been separately utilized, which result in activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative strains. Guiding the biohybrid microswimmers by an external beacon, and on-demand delivery of the drugs by light with high spatial and temporal control, allowed for strong inhibition of bacterial growth. This efficient strategy could potentially allow for the selective treatment of bacterial infections by engineered algal microrobots with high precision in space and time. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Biological swimmers with innate sensing and actuation capabilities and integrated components have been widely investigated to create autonomous microsystems. The use of natural swimmers as cargo delivery systems presents an alternative strategy to transport therapeutics to the required locations with the difficult access by traditional strategies. Although the transfer of various therapeutic cargo has shown promising results, the utilization of microswimmers for the delivery of antimicrobials was barely covered. Therefore, we present biohybrid microalga-powered swimmers designed and engineered to carry antibiotic cargo against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Guided by an external beacon, these microhybrids deliver the antibiotic payload to the site of bacterial infection, with high spatial and temporal precision, released on-demand by an external trigger to inhibit bacterial growth.

Epiplasts: Membrane Skeletons and Epiplastin Proteins in Euglenids, Glaucophytes, Cryptophytes, Ciliates, Dinoflagellates, and Apicomplexans

Animals and amoebae assemble actin/spectrin-based plasma membrane skeletons, forming what is often called the cell cortex, whereas euglenids and alveolates (ciliates, dinoflagellates, and apicomplexans) have been shown to assemble a thin, viscoelastic, actin/spectrin-free membrane skeleton, here called the epiplast. Epiplasts include a class of proteins, here called the epiplastins, with a head/medial/tail domain organization, whose medial domains have been characterized in previous studies by their low-complexity amino acid composition. We have identified two additional features of the medial domains: a strong enrichment of acid/base amino acid dyads and a predicted β-strand/random coil secondary structure. These features have served to identify members in two additional unicellular eukaryotic radiations-the glaucophytes and cryptophytes-as well as additional members in the alveolates and euglenids. We have analyzed the amino acid composition and domain structure of 219 epiplastin sequences and have used quick-freeze deep-etch electron microscopy to visualize the epiplasts of glaucophytes and cryptophytes. We define epiplastins as proteins encoded in organisms that assemble epiplasts, but epiplastin-like proteins, of unknown function, are also encoded in Insecta, Basidiomycetes, and Caulobacter genomes. We discuss the diverse cellular traits that are supported by epiplasts and propose evolutionary scenarios that are consonant with their distribution in extant eukaryotes.IMPORTANCE Membrane skeletons associate with the inner surface of the plasma membrane to provide support for the fragile lipid bilayer and an elastic framework for the cell itself. Several radiations, including animals, organize such skeletons using actin/spectrin proteins, but four major radiations of eukaryotic unicellular organisms, including disease-causing parasites such as Plasmodium, have been known to construct an alternative and essential skeleton (the epiplast) using a class of proteins that we term epiplastins. We have identified epiplastins in two additional radiations and present images of their epiplasts using electron microscopy. We analyze the sequences and secondary structure of 219 epiplastins and present an in-depth overview and analysis of their known and posited roles in cellular organization and parasite infection. An understanding of epiplast assembly may suggest therapeutic approaches to combat infectious agents such as Plasmodium as well as approaches to the engineering of useful viscoelastic biofilms.

Intermediate filament protein evolution and protists

Metazoans evolved from a single protist lineage. While all eukaryotes share a conserved actin and tubulin-based cytoskeleton, it is commonly perceived that intermediate filaments (IFs), including lamin, vimentin or keratin among many others, are restricted to metazoans. Actin and tubulin proteins are conserved enough to be detectable across all eukaryotic genomes using standard phylogenetic methods, but IF proteins, in contrast, are notoriously difficult to identify by such means. Since the 1950s, dozens of cytoskeletal proteins in protists have been identified that seemingly do not belong to any of the IF families described for metazoans, yet, from a structural and functional perspective fit criteria that define metazoan IF proteins. Here, we briefly review IF protein discovery in metazoans and the implications this had for the definition of this protein family. We argue that the many cytoskeletal and filament-forming proteins of protists should be incorporated into a more comprehensive picture of IF evolution by aligning it with the recent identification of lamins across the phylogenetic diversity of eukaryotic supergroups. This then brings forth the question of how the diversity of IF proteins has unfolded. The evolution of IF proteins likely represents an example of convergent evolution, which, in combination with the speed with which these cytoskeletal proteins are evolving, generated their current diversity. IF proteins did not first emerge in metazoa, but in protists. Only the emergence of cytosolic IF proteins that appear to stem from a nuclear lamin is unique to animals and coincided with the emergence of true animal multicellularity.

Functional characterization of lethal P-loop mutations in Tetrahymena outer arm dynein (Dyh3p)

Mutational analyses of axonemal dyneins are useful for elucidating the molecular mechanism of ciliary motility. This study demonstrates a mutation system for characterizing lethal P-loop mutations in Tetrahymena outer arm dynein (Dyh3p). The viable DYH3-knockout (vKO-DYH3) cells isolated in this study enabled the examination of lethal mutations in P-loops 1 and 2. The P1 mutant dynein localized in the oral apparatus and the proximal region of the cilia, and the P2 mutant dynein localized only in the oral apparatus. Both results are different from the localization of wild-type Dyh3p. In addition, a co-precipitation assay showed that the P1 and P2 mutant dyneins did not dissociate from microtubules in ATP plus vanadate or in no-ATP conditions, in contrast to wild-type Dyh3p. This mutation system is useful for further molecular studies of axonemal dyneins and ciliary motility.

Motor domain-based motility system and motile properties of alpha heavy chain in Tetrahymena outer arm dynein

Axonemal dynein plays an essential role in ciliary motility, and impaired ciliary motility causes human diseases such as primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD). The motor domain of axonemal dynein powers ciliary motility and its function is regulated by several accessary proteins bound to the tail region. Therefore, to understand the essential properties of dynein motility, examining the motile properties of the motor domain without the tail is necessary. In this study, the functional motor domain of the alpha heavy chain in Tetrahymena outer arm dynein was purified, and its motile properties were examined using an in vitro motility system. The purified protein caused microtubules to glide at a velocity of 5.0μm/s with their minus-end trailing, and motility was inhibited in an ATP concentration-dependent manner, which is in contrast with kinesin1. This method could be applicable to other axonemal dyneins and will enable further molecular studies on diverse axonemal dyneins and ciliary motility.

Chemo-accumulation without changes in membrane potential in the microstome form of the ciliate Tetrahymena vorax

The swimming behaviour of ciliates is mainly determined by membrane potential and transmembrane fluxes. In a chemical gradient, swimming ciliates may approach or move away from the source. Based on experiments on Paramecium, it is generally assumed that chemical attractants and repellents affect the swimming behaviour of ciliates by specific changes in the membrane potential. We have examined whether there is a causal relationship between membrane potential and chemo-accumulation in the microstome form of the polymorphic ciliate Tetrahymena vorax. Effects of chemo-attractants on the membrane potential of Tetrahymena have not been previously reported. Microstome T. vorax cells aggregated close to a point source of l-cysteine and the complex meat hydrolysate proteose peptone. Chemo-accumulated cells displayed a significantly higher turning frequency than control cells at a similar cell density. A concentration of 20 mmol l(-1) l-cysteine did not evoke any detectable change in the membrane potential whereas 1% proteose peptone depolarised the cells by ∼12 mV. This is contrary to the current model, which predicts agents that induce a moderate depolarisation to be repellents. A solution of 1% proteose peptone contains 21 mmol(-1) Na(+). A solution of 21 mmol(-1) NaCl without organic compounds also caused ∼12 mV depolarisation but had no aggregating effect on the cells. Collectively, the electrophysiological and behavioural data indicate that chemo-accumulation in the microstome form of T. vorax is not governed obligatorily by the membrane potential. We thus suggest that the simple membrane potential model for chemokinesis in Paramecium may not be valid for T. vorax.

Detergent-extracted models for the study of cilia or flagella

Methods for using non-ionic detergents to produce demembranated and reactivated cilia and flagella are described in detail. Demembranated and reactivated cell models are useful as a research tool for studying motility function in flagella and cilia. When the plasma membrane is removed, the factors regulating motility can be studied under standardized experimental conditions that otherwise would be impossible. Practical insight is provided to understand the important factors in producing stable reactivated models. In addition, several useful variations of the method are presented for different types of mammalian and non-mammalian flagellar and ciliary systems.

Targeted gene disruption of dynein heavy chain 7 of Tetrahymena thermophila results in altered ciliary waveform and reduced swim speed

Tetrahymena thermophila swims by the coordinated beating of hundreds of cilia that cover its body. It has been proposed that the outer arm dyneins of the ciliary axoneme control beat frequency, whereas the inner arm dyneins control waveform. To test the role of one of these inner arms, dynein heavy chain 7 protein (Dyh7p), a knockout mutant was generated by targeted biolistic transformation of the vegetative macronucleus. Disruption of DYH7, the gene which encodes Dyh7p, was confirmed by PCR examination of both genomic and cDNA templates. Both intact and detergent extracted, reactivated cell model preparations of these mutants, which we call DYH7neo3, displayed swim speeds that were almost half that of wild-type cells. Although the DYH7neo3 mutants were slower than wild type, they were able to modulate their swim speed and show ciliary reversal in response to depolarizing stimuli. High-speed video microscopy of intact, free-swimming DYH7neo3 mutants revealed an irregular pattern of ciliary beat and waveform. The mutant cilia appeared to be engaging in less coordinated, swiveling movements in which the typical shape, periodicity and coordination seen in wild-type cilia were absent or disturbed. We propose that the axonemal inner arm dynein heavy chain 7 proteins contribute to the formation of normal ciliary waveform, which in turn governs the forward swimming velocity of these cells.

Dynein light chain family in Tetrahymena thermophila

Dyneins are large protein complexes that produce directed movement on microtubules. In situ, dyneins comprise combinations of heavy, intermediate, light-intermediate, and light chains. The light chains regulate the locations and activities of dyneins but their functions are not completely understood. We have searched the recently sequenced Tetrahymena thermophila macronuclear genome to describe the entire family of dynein light chains expressed in this organism. We identified fourteen genes encoding putative dynein light chains and seven genes encoding light chain-like proteins. RNA-directed PCR revealed that all 21 genes were expressed. Quantitative real time reverse transcription PCR showed that many of these genes were upregulated after deciliation, indicating that these proteins are present in cilia. Using the nomenclature developed in Chlamydomonas, Tetrahymena expresses two isoforms each of LC2, LC4, LC7, and Tctex1, three isoforms of p28, and six LC8/LC8-like isoforms. Tetrahymena also expresses two LC3-like genes. No Tetrahymena orthologue was found for Chlamydomonas LC5 or LC6. This study provides a complete description of the different genes and isoforms of the dynein light chains that are expressed in Tetrahymena, a model organism in which the targeted manipulation of genes is straightforward.

Mutations in genes encoding inner arm dynein heavy chains inTetrahymena thermophila lead to axonemal hypersensitivity to Ca2+

Calcium-dependent ciliary reversals are seen in ciliated protozoans such as Tetrahymena in response to depolarizing stimuli, but the axonemal mechanisms responsible for this response are not well understood. The model is that the outer arm dyneins (OADs) control the beating frequency while the inner arm dyneins (IADs) regulate ciliary waveform. Since ciliary reversal is a type of waveform change, the model would predict that IAD mutations could affect ciliary reversal. We have used gene disruption techniques to generate several behavioral mutants of Tetrahymena with functional disruptions of various IADs. One such mutant, called KO-6, is missing I1 (the two-headed IAD) and is unable to show ciliary reversals in response to any stimuli due to a loss of axonemal Ca2+ sensitivity [Eur J Cell Biol 80 (2001) 486-497; Cell Motil Cytoskeleton 53 (2002) 281-288.]. In contrast, disruption of 3 one-headed IADs [Liu et al., Cell Motil Cytoskeleton 59 (2004), 201-214] produced mutants, which showed over-responsiveness in bioassays measuring either their depolarization-induced avoiding reactions (AR) in Na+ and Ba2+ solutions or their duration of backward swimming (continuous ciliary reversal or CCR) in K+ solutions. Detergent-extracted and reactivated mutants also showed increased probabilities of CCR at lower Ca2+ concentrations suggesting that the behavioral over-responsiveness of these three mutants in vivo is due to increased axonemal Ca2+ sensitivity. Our data suggest the possibility that the one-headed IADs and the two-headed IAD act antagonistically in vivo and that loss of any one of the one-headed IADs leads to behavioral over-responsiveness due to less resistance to I1-induced reversals.

Dephosphorylation of inner arm 1 is associated with ciliary reversals in Tetrahymena thermophila

In many organisms, depolarizing stimuli cause an increase in intraciliary Ca2+, which results in reversal of ciliary beat direction and backward swimming. The mechanism by which an increase in intraciliary Ca2+ causes ciliary reversal is not known. Here we show that Tetrahymena cells treated with okadaic acid or cantharidin to inhibit protein phosphatases do not swim backwards in response to depolarizing stimuli. We also show that both okadaic acid and cantharidin inhibit backward swimming in reactivated, extracted cell models treated with Ca2+. In contrast, treatment of whole cells or extracted cell models with protein kinase inhibitors has no effect on backward swimming. These results suggest that a component of the axonemal machinery is dephosphorylated during ciliary reversal. The phosphorylation state of inner arm dynein 1 (I1) was determined before and after cells were exposed to depolarizing conditions that induce ciliary reversal. An I1 intermediate chain is phosphorylated in forward swimming cells but is dephosphorylated in cells treated with a depolarizing stimulus. Our results suggest that dephosphorylation of Tetrahymena inner arm dynein 1 may be an essential part of the mechanism of ciliary reversal in response to increased intraciliary Ca2+.

Cloning, localization, and axonemal function of Tetrahymena centrin

Centrin, an EF hand Ca(2+) binding protein, has been cloned in Tetrahymena thermophila. It is a 167 amino acid protein of 19.4 kDa with a unique N-terminal region, coded by a single gene containing an 85-base pair intron. It has > 80% homology to other centrins and high homology to Tetrahymena EF hand proteins calmodulin, TCBP23, and TCBP25. Specific cellular localizations of the closely related Tetrahymena EF hand proteins are different from centrin. Centrin is localized to basal bodies, cortical fibers in oral apparatus and ciliary rootlets, the apical filament ring and to inner arm (14S) dynein (IAD) along the ciliary axoneme. The function of centrin in Ca(2+) control of IAD activity was explored using in vitro microtubule (MT) motility assays. Ca(2+) or the Ca(2+)-mimicking peptide CALP1, which binds EF hand proteins in the absence of Ca(2+), increased MT sliding velocity. Antibodies to centrin abrogated this increase. This is the first demonstration of a specific centrin function associated with axonemal dynein. It suggests that centrin is a key regulatory protein for Tetrahymena axonemal Ca(2+) responses, including ciliary reversal or chemotaxis.

Inner arm dynein 1 is essential for Ca++-dependent ciliary reversals in Tetrahymena thermophila

Cilia in many organisms undergo a phenomenon called ciliary reversal during which the cilia reverse the beat direction, and the cell swims backwards. Ciliary reversal is typically caused by a depolarizing stimulus that ultimately leads to a rise in intraciliary Ca++ levels. It is this increase in intraciliary Ca++ that triggers ciliary reversal. However, the mechanism by which an increase in intraciliary Ca++ causes ciliary reversal is not known. We have previously mutated the DYH6 gene of Tetrahymena thermophila by targeted gene knockout and shown that the knockout mutants (KO6 mutants) are missing inner arm dynein 1 (I1). In this study, we show that KO6 mutants do not swim backward in response to depolarizing stimuli. In addition to being unable to swim backwards, KO6 mutants swim forward at approximately one half the velocity of wild-type cells. However, the ciliary beat frequency in KO6 mutants is indistinguishable from that of wild-type cells, suggesting that the slow forward swimming of KO6 mutants is caused by an altered waveform rather than an altered beat frequency. Live KO6 cells are also able to increase and decrease their swim speeds in response to stimuli, suggesting that some aspects of their swim speed regulation mechanisms are intact. Detergent-permeabilized KO6 mutants fail to undergo Ca++-dependent ciliary reversals and do not show Ca++-dependent changes in swim speed after MgATP reactivation, indicating that the axonemal machinery required for these responses is insensitive to Ca++ in KO6 mutants. We conclude that Tetrahymena inner arm dynein 1 is not only an essential part of the Ca++-dependent ciliary reversal mechanism but it also may contribute to Ca++-dependent changes in swim speed and to the formation of normal waveform during forward swimming.

Analysis of cell vibration for assessing axonemal motility in Chlamydomonas

Flagellar mutants of Chlamydomonas have greatly contributed to our understanding of the function of axonemes and axonemal dyneins. An important step in studying mutants is to correlate the molecular and structural defects in the axoneme with motility. This is not always easy, however, partly because it is often necessary to quantify axonemal motility by measuring the cell's swimming velocity, the flagellar beat frequency, or flagellar waveform in a number of cells or axonemes. To skip this time-consuming step, a quick method for measuring the average flagellar beat frequency in a population of cells is developed based on fast Fourier transform (FFT) analysis of the vibration of cell bodies. This method yields the average beat frequency within 10-60 s and has been used as a powerful tool for identifying mutants lacking various dynein species. It is also particularly useful for studies analyzing detergent-extracted cell models under various reactivation conditions.

Calmodulin and Ca2+/calmodulin-binding proteins are involved in Tetrahymena thermophila phagocytosis

The ciliated protist, Tetrahymena thermophila, possesses one oral apparatus for phagocytosis, one of the most important cell functions, in the anterior cell cortex. The apparatus comprises four membrane structures which consist of ciliated and unciliated basal bodies, a cytostome where food is collected by oral ciliary motility, and a cytopharynx where food vacuoles are formed. The food vacuole is thought to be transported into the cytoplasm by a deep fiber which connects with the oral apparatus. Although a large number of studies have been done on the structure of the oral apparatus, the molecular mechanisms of phagocytosis in Tetrahymena thermophila are not well understood. In this study, using indirect immunofluorescence, we demonstrated that the deep fiber consisted of actin, CaM, and Ca2+/CaM-binding proteins, p85 and EF-1alpha, which are closely involved in cytokinesis. Moreover, we showed that CaM, p85, and EF-1alpha are colocalized in the cytostome and the cytopharynx of the oral apparatus. Next, we examined whether Ca2+/CaM signal regulates Tetrahymena thermophila phagocytosis, using Ca2+/CaM inhibitors chlorpromazine, trifluoperazine, N-(6-aminohexyl)-1-naphthalenesulfonamide, and N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulfonamide HCI. In Tetrahymena, it is known that Ca2+/CaM signal is closely involved in ciliary motility and cytokinesis. The results showed that one of the inhibitors, N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulfonamide HCl, inhibited the food vacuole formation rather than the ciliary motility, while the other three inhibitors effectively prevented the ciliary motility. Considering the colocalization of CaM, p85, and EF-1alpha to the cytopharynx, these results suggest that the Ca2+/CaM signal plays a pivotal role in Tetrahymena thermophila food vacuole formation.

Ca(2+)/calmodulin and p85 cooperatively regulate an initiation of cytokinesis in Tetrahymena

Tetrahymena p85 differs in mobility in two-dimensional SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis between wild-type and temperature-sensitive cell-division-arrest mutant cdaA1 cell extracts, and is localized to the presumptive division plane before the formation of the division furrow. The p85 contained three identical sequences which show homology to the calmodulin binding site of Ca(2+)/calmodulin dependent protein kinase Type II in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We found the p85 directly interacts with Tetrahymena calmodulin in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner, using a co-sedimentation assay. We next examined the localization of p85 and calmodulin during cytokinesis using indirect immunofluorescence. The results showed that both proteins colocalize in the division furrow. This is the first observation that calmodulin is localized in the division furrow. Moreover, the direct interaction between p85 and Ca(2+)/calmodulin was inhibited by Ca(2+)/calmodulin inhibitor N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulfonamide HCl. When the cells were treated with the drug just before the beginning of cytokinesis, the drug also inhibited the localization of p85 and calmodulin to the division plane, and the formation of the contractile ring and division furrow. Therefore, we propose that the Ca(2+)/calmodulin signal and its target protein p85 cooperatively regulate an initiation of cytokinesis and may be also concerned with the progression of cytokinesis in Tetrahymena.

A 210 kDa protein is located in a membrane-microtubule linker at the distal end of mature and nascent basal bodies

A monoclonal antibody raised against purified flagellar basal apparatuses from the green flagellate Spermatozopsis similis reacted with a protein of 210 kDa (p210) in western blots. The protein was partially cloned by immunoscreening of a cDNA library. The sequence encoded a novel protein rich in alanine (25%) and proline (20%), which contained regions similar to proteins of comparable amino acid composition such as extracellular matrix components or the membrane-cytoskeletal linker synapsin. Using a polyclonal antibody (anti-p210) raised against the C-terminal part of p210, it was shown that the protein was highly enriched in the basal apparatuses. Immunogold electron microscopy of isolated cytoskeletons or whole cells revealed that p210 was located in the flagellar transition region. The protein was part of the Y-shaped fibrous linkers between the doublet microtubules and the flagellar membrane, as indicated by statistical analysis of post-labeled sections using anti-centrin and anti-tubulin as controls. In premitotic cells p210 was located in a fibrous layer at the distal end of nascent basal bodies, which was perforated by the outgrowing axoneme. During deflagellation the protein remained at the basal body but we observed changes in its distribution, indicating that p210 partially moved to the tip of the basal body. p210 can be used as a marker to determine basal body position, orientation (parallel or antiparallel) and number in S. similis by indirect immunofluorescence. We suppose that p210 is involved in linking basal bodies to the plasma membrane, which is an important step during ciliogenesis.

Nucleotide specificity of the enzymatic and motile activities of dynein, kinesin, and heavy meromyosin

The substrate specificities of dynein, kinesin, and myosin substrate turnover activity and cytoskeletal filament-driven translocation were examined using 15 ATP analogues. The dyneins were more selective in their substrate utilization than bovine brain kinesin or muscle heavy meromyosin, and even different types of dyneins, such as 14S and 22S dynein from Tetrahymena cilia and the beta-heavy chain-containing particle from the outer-arm dynein of sea urchin flagella, could be distinguished by their substrate specificities. Although bovine brain kinesin and muscle heavy meromyosin both exhibited broad substrate specificities, kinesin-induced microtubule translocation varied over a 50-fold range in speed among the various substrates, whereas heavy meromyosin-induced actin translocation varied only by fourfold. With both kinesin and heavy meromyosin, the relative velocities of filament translocation did not correlate well with the relative filament-activated substrate turnover rates. Furthermore, some ATP analogues that did not support the filament translocation exhibited filament-activated substrate turnover rates. Filament-activated substrate turnover and power production, therefore, appear to become uncoupled with certain substrates. In conclusion, the substrate specificities and coupling to motility are distinct for different types of molecular motor proteins. Such nucleotide "fingerprints" of enzymatic activities of motor proteins may prove useful as a tool for identifying what type of motor is involved in powering a motility-related event that can be reconstituted in vitro.

Tetrahymena 14-nm filament-forming protein has citrate synthase activity

The Tetrahymena 14-nm filament-forming protein (49K protein) is a structural protein involved in oral morphogenesis and in pronuclear behavior during conjugation. Cloning the 49K protein gene from a Tetrahymena thermophila cDNA library, we found that its primary structure exhibits a high sequence identity (51.5%) with porcine heart citrate synthase and retains functional domains. The 49K protein actually possesses citrate synthase activity, and is detected in mitochondria. These results suggest that the 49K protein has dual functions as both a respiratory enzyme and a structural protein in the cytoskeleton.

Phosphorothioate analogs of ATP as the substrates of dynein and ciliary or flagellar movement

The phosphorothioate analog of ATP has a sulfur atom replacing a non-bridging oxygen atom of the triphosphate moiety of ATP. Due to the tetrahedral nature of the phosphorus atom, stereoisomers are known to exist, designated as the Sp and Rp isomers. We have reported [Shimizu & Furusawa (1986) Biochemistry 25, 5787] on the hydrolytic activity of the 22S dynein from Tetrahymena cilia towards the phosphorothioate analogs of ATP. In this paper, we extend our study and report on the microtubule-dynein dissociation by these analogs and on their ability to support sea urchin flagellar dynein enzymatic activity as well as ciliary or flagellar motility. It has been shown that the microtubule--22S-dynein complex is dissociated by the binding of ATP to the dynein enzymatic sites [Porter & Johnson (1983) J. Biol. Chem. 258, 6575]. We studied the dissociation by adenosine 5'-[alpha-thio]triphosphate (ATP[alpha S]), Sp or Rp, by light-scattering stopped-flow methods. The dissociation by (Sp)ATP[alpha S] was rapid and the rate of the light-scattering change by (Sp)ATP[alpha S] was a hyperbolic function of the nucleotide concentration, indicating that dissociation was a two-step process. On the other hand, (Rp)ATP[alpha S] up to 2 mM induced only slow and partial dissociation of the complex, while, in the presence of vanadate, it induced complete dissociation with a slightly higher rate (0.5 s-1). The adenosine 5'-[beta-thio]triphosphate (ATP[beta S]) isomers did not induce dissociation. The hydrolytic activity of the outer arm dynein from sea urchin sperm flagella towards these analogs was similar to that of 22S dynein. The ratios of Vmax (nmol.mg protein-1.min-1)/apparent Km (microM) of this dynein were 400-720, 53, 9.7, 0.62 and 0.028 for ATP, ATP[alpha S] (Sp or Rp), ATP[beta S] (Sp or Rp), respectively, in the presence of Mg2+ as the supporting cation. This dynein exhibited the same stereospecificity at beta phosphate as the 22S dynein or myosin. The detergent models of Tetrahymena or sea urchin spermatozoa were reactivated only by ATP or (Sp)ATP[alpha S] while other analogs were ineffective. The maximal beat frequency of the cilia or flagella reactivated by (Sp)ATP[alpha S] was one-quarter to one-half of that produced by ATP reactivation.

Basal body/centriolar DNA: molecular genetic studies in Chlamydomonas

In Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, mutations on an unusual linkage group, the uni linkage group (ULG), affect structure and function of basal bodies. The ULG shows Mendelian segregation, but its genetic map is circular. Molecular cloning of fragments of the ULG was accomplished by taking advantage of restriction fragment length polymorphisms generated by crosses to Chlamydomonas smithii. These clones were used as probes to determine the size and form of the ULG chromosome; it is a 6-9 megabase linear molecule. Use of the probes for in situ DNA hybridization in cells localized the ULG chromosome to basal bodies.

Centrin-mediated microtubule severing during flagellar excision in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Chlamydomonas cells excise their flagella in response to a variety of experimental conditions (e.g., extremes of temperature or pH, alcohol or detergent treatment, and mechanical shear). Here, we show that flagellar excision is an active process whereby microtubules are severed at select sites within the transition zone. The transition zone is located between the flagellar axoneme and the basal body; it is characterized by a pair of central cylinders that have an H shape when viewed in longitudinal section. Both central cylinders are connected to the A tubule of each microtubule doublet of the transition zone by fibers (approximately 5 nm diam). When viewed in cross section, these fibers are seen to form a distinctive stellate pattern characteristic of the transition zone (Manton, I. 1964. J. R. Microsc. Soc. 82:279-285; Ringo. D. L. 1967. J. Cell Biol. 33:543-571). We demonstrate that at the time of flagellar excision these fibers contract and displace the microtubule doublets of the axoneme inward. We believe that the resulting shear force and torsional load act to sever the axonemal microtubules immediately distal to the central cylinder. Structural alterations of the transition zone during flagellar excision occur both in living cells and detergent-extracted cell models, and are dependent on the presence of calcium (greater than or equal to 10(-6) M). Immunolocalization using monoclonal antibodies against the calcium-binding protein centrin demonstrate the presence of centrin in the fiber-based stellate structure of the transition zone of wild-type cells. Examination of the flagellar autotomy mutant, fa-1, which fails to excise its flagella (Lewin, R., and C. Burrascano. 1983. Experientia. 39:1397-1398), demonstrates that the fa-1 lacks the ability to completely contract the fibers of the stellate structure. We conclude that flagellar excision in Chlamydomonas involves microtubule severing that is mediated by the action of calcium-sensitive contractile fibers of the transition zone. These observations have led us to question whether microtubule severing may be a more general phenomenon than previously suspected and to suggest that microtubule severing may contribute to the dynamic behavior of cytoplasmic microtubules in other cells.

Ultrastructure and motion analysis of permeabilized Paramecium capable of motility and regulation of motility

Structural and behavioral features of intact and permeabilized Paramecium tetraurelia have been defined as a basis for study of Ca2+ control of ciliary reversal. Motion analysis of living paramecia shows that all the cells in a population swim forward with gently curving spirals at speeds averaging 369 +/- 19 microns/second. Ciliary reversal occurs in 10% of the cell population per second. Living paramecia, quick-fixed for scanning electron microscopy (SEM), show metachronal waves and an effective stroke obliquely toward the posterior end of the cell. Upon treatment with Triton X-100, swimming ceases and both scanning and transmission electron microscopy reveal cilia that uniformly project perpendicularly from the cell surface. Thin sections of these cells indicate that the ciliary, cell, and outer alveolar membranes are greatly disrupted or entirely missing and that the cytoplasm is also disrupted. These permeabilized paramecia can be reactivated and are capable of motility and regulation of motility. Motion analysis of cells reactivated with Mg2+ and ATP in low Ca2+ buffer (pCa greater than 7) shows that 71% swim forward in straight or curved paths at speeds averaging 221 +/- 20 microns/second. When these cells are quick-fixed for SEM the metachronal wave patterns of living, forward swimming cells reappear. Motion analysis of permeabilized cells reactivated in high Ca2+ buffers (pCa 5.5) shows that 94% swim backward in tight spirals at a velocity averaging 156 +/- 7 microns/second. SEM reveals a metachronal wave pattern with an effective stroke toward the anterior region. Although the permeabilized cells do not reverse spontaneously, the pCa response is preserved and the Ca2+ switch remains intact. The ciliary axonemes are largely exposed to the external environment. Therefore, the behavioral responses of these permeabilized cells depend on interaction of Ca2+ with molecules that remain bound to the axonemes throughout the extraction and reactivation procedures.

Evidence for a functional membrane barrier in the transition zone between the flagellum and cell body of Chlamydomonas eugametos gametes

Evidence is presented which supports the concept of a functional membrane barrier in the transition zone at the base of each flagellum of Chlamydomonas eugametos gametes. This makes it unlikely that agglutination factors present on the surface of the cell body can diffuse or be transported to the flagellar membrane. The evidence is as follows: 1) The glycoprotein composition of the flagellar membrane is very different to that of the cell-body plasma membrane. 2) The flagella of gametes treated with cycloheximide, tunicamycin or α, α'-dipyridyl become non-agglutinable but the source of agglutination factors on the cell body is not affected. 3) Even under natural conditions when the flagella are non-agglutinable, for example in vis-à-vis pairs or in appropriate cell strains that are non-agglutinable in the dark, the cell bodies maintain the normal complement of active agglutinins. 4) When flagella of living cells are labeled with antibodies bound to fluorescein, the label does not diffuse onto the cell-body surface. 5) When gametes fuse to form vis-à-vis pairs, the original mating-type-specific antigenicity of each cell body is slowly lost (probably due to the antigens diffusing over both cell bodies), while the specific antigenicity of the flagellar surface is maintained. Even when the flagella of vis-à-vis pairs are regenerated from cell bodies with mixed antigenicity, the antigenicity of the flagella remains matingtype-specific. 6) Evidence is presented for the existence of a pool of agglutination factors within the cell bodies but not on the outer surface of the cells.

Regulation of ciliary motility by membrane potential in Paramecium: a role for cyclic AMP

The membrane potential of Paramecium controls the frequency and direction of the ciliary beat, thus determining the cell's swimming behavior. Stimuli that hyperpolarize the membrane potential increase the ciliary beat frequency and therefore increase forward swimming speed. We have observed that 1) drugs that elevate intracellular cyclic AMP increased swimming speed 2-3-fold, 2) hyperpolarizing the membrane potential by manipulation of extracellular cations (e.g., K+) induced both a transient increase in, and a higher sustained level of cyclic AMP compared to the control, and 3) the swimming speed of detergent-permeabilized cells in MgATP was stimulated 2-fold by the addition of cyclic AMP. Our results suggest that the membrane potential can regulate intracellular cAMP in Paramecium and that control of swimming speed by membrane potential may in part be mediated by cAMP.

Isolation of cilia from porcine tracheal epithelium and extraction of dynein arms

Milligram amounts of mammalian ciliary axonemes were isolated from porcine tracheas. These were reactivated upon addition of ATP, indicating intact functional capability with a mean beat frequency at 37 degrees C of 8.2 Hz. Electron microscopy showed typical ultrastructure of the isolated demembranated axonemes. Electrophoresis into polyacrylamide gradient gels containing sodium dodecyl sulfate revealed reproducible protein profiles from ten different tracheal preparations. Four major protein bands were observed in the 300-330 K molecular weight region, as well as tubulin at 51-54K. Extraction of the isolated tracheal axonemes with 0.6M KCl removed the outer dynein arms seen in electron microscopic cross-section of axonemes, preferentially solubilized two of the high molecular weight proteins at 320 and 330 K, and resulted in a three- to four-fold increase in ATPase specific activity. Sedimentation of the dialyzed salt extract on a 5-30% sucrose density gradient and subsequent fractionation yielded two peaks of ATPase activity. The faster migrating, 19S major ATPase peak correlated with the 320 and 330 K proteins, and two other proteins at 81 and 67 K. The slower sedimenting, 12S minor ATPase peak corresponded to a 308 K protein and two smaller proteins at 33 and 48 K. Thus, the outer dynein arm of tracheal cilia appeared to be associated with at least two high molecular weight proteins. These results demonstrate that adequate quantities of functionally intact axonemes can be reproducibly isolated from porcine tracheas, allowing further fractionation and analysis of mammalian cilia.

A deep-etching study of the guinea pig tracheal cilium with special reference to the ciliary transitional region

The fine structure of the cilium was examined by freeze-fracture-etch studies. In the interior of the transitional region, three types of plate structures were clearly observed. While the terminal plate contained fine fibrillar linkers suspending the central core plates from its peripheral doublet microtubules, two other types of plates had no suspending linkers. At the upper level of transitional region, one of the central microtubules elongated deeper than the other in the space surrounded by ring structure. Axosome-like structure was not observed in our replicas. Central vesicle of the basal body was also suspended by fine fibrillar linkers from peripheral triplets. Though membrane particles of ciliary necklace were recognized on protoplasmic and external fracture faces, and the external surface, particle arrays were not observed on protoplasmic surface. Instead, Y-shaped, cross bridges, one end of which attached to the doublet microtubules, merged in the circular ridge structure at opposite ends. This circular ridge structure at the necklace region may play a role as an anchoring site of both membrane particles of the necklace and cross bridges from peripheral doublet microtubules.

Flagellar morphology in stumpy-flagella mutants of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Sixteen new mutants of the biflagellate green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with either stumpy-flagella or no flagella at all were examined by electron microscopy. Four of the mutants were found to carry short bulbous flagella containing amorphous electron-dense material which may represent unassembled flagellar protein. Basal bodies of normal ultrastructure were present in all mutants. Dikaryon dominance tests indicated that the stumpy mutations were recessive to wild-type in all cases tested. Stumpy mutations also conferred a measure of detergent resistance to Chlamydomonas, apparently by affecting the detergent-solubility of the flagellar membrane.

The substructure of isolated and in situ outer dynein arms of sea urchin sperm flagella

Outer-arm dynein from the sperm of the sea urchin S. purpuratus was adsorbed to mica flakes and visualized by the quick-freeze, deep-etch technique. Replicas reveal particles comprised of two globular heads joined by two irregularly shaped stems which make contact along their length. One head is pear-shaped (18.5 X 12.5 nm) and the other is spherical (14.5-nm diam). The stems are decorated by a complex of bead-like subunits. The same two-headed protein is found in the 21S dynein-1 fraction of sucrose gradients. The beta-heavy chain/intermediate chain 1 (beta/IC-1) dynein subfraction, produced by low-salt dialysis and zonal centrifugation of the high-salt-extracted dynein-1, contains only single-headed molecules with single stems. These heads are predominantly pear-shaped (18.5 X 12.5 nm). Since 21S dynein-1 contains two heavy chains (alpha and beta), and the beta/IC-1 subfraction is comprised of only the beta-heavy chain (Tang et al., 1982, J. Biol. Chem. 257: 508-515), we conclude that each head is formed by a heavy chain, that the pear-shaped head contains the beta-heavy chain, and that the spherical head contains the alpha-heavy chain. The in situ outer dynein arms of demembranated sperm were also studied by the quick-freeze, deep-etch method. When frozen in reactivation buffer devoid of ATP, each arm consists of a large globular head that attaches to the A-microtubule by distally skewed subunits and attaches to the B-microtubule by a slender stalk. In ATP, this head shifts its orientation such that it can be seen to be constructed from two globular domains. We offer possible correlates between the in situ and the in vitro images, and we compare the structure of sea-urchin dynein with dynein previously described from Chlamydomonas and Tetrahymena.

Organic anions stabilize the reactivated motility of sperm flagella and the latency of dynein 1 ATPase activity

Substitution of any of a variety of organic anions, including acetate, propionate, lactate, gluconate, and succinate, for chloride in the reactivation medium improves the motility of demembranated sperm of Tripneustes gratilla. At the optimum concentration of 0.20 N, all of these anions improve the duration of motility, with lactate and gluconate being the best. The Michaelis constant for beat frequency (Kmf) is lower (0.11-0.14 mM at 22 degrees C) in most of the organic anions than it is in Cl- (0.20 mM), and the minimum ATP concentration required to support oscillatory beating is reduced from 10 microM in chloride to 2 microM in acetate, which together indicate a greater affinity of the axonemal ATPase for MgATP2- in the organic anions media. The maximal beat frequency, fmax, is as high as 42 Hz in 0.2 N succinate compared to 31 Hz in Cl-, whereas the mean bend angle averages 2.8 rad in acetate compared to 2.4 rad in Cl-; these values give a calculated average velocity of tubule sliding of approximately 15 micron/s in acetate and succinate, which is approximately 30% greater than the value of 11 micron/s observed in chloride. The reactivated sperm are sixfold more sensitive to vanadate inhibition in 0.2 M acetate than they are in 0.15 M Cl-. The specific ATPase activity of soluble dynein 1, which increases more than 15-fold between 0 and 1.0 N Cl-, undergoes only a twofold activation over the same range of organic anion concentration, and, like the reactivated motility, is up to 50-fold more sensitive to vanadate. This greater apparent mechanochemical efficiency and the increased sensitivity to vanadate inhibition in the organic anions suggest that they, unlike chloride, do not promote the spontaneous dissociation of ADP and PO4(3-) from the dynein-ADP-PO4 kinetic intermediate in the dynein crossbridge cycle. The use of organic anion media may lead to significant improvements in reactivation of other motile and transport systems.

Substructure of inner dynein arms, radial spokes, and the central pair/projection complex of cilia and flagella

The substructure of the components of the axoneme interior--the inner dynein arms, the radial spokes, and the central pair/projection complex--was analyzed for Chlamydomonas. Tetrahymena, Strongelocentrotus, and Mnemiopsis using the quick-freeze, deep-etch technique. The inner arms are shown to resemble the outer arms in overall molecular organization, but they are disposed differently on the microtubule and have two distinct morphologies--dyads with two heads and triads with three. The dyads associate with spokes S3 and S2; the triads associate with S1. The spokes form a three-start right-handed helix with a 288-nm rise; the central pair makes a shallow left-handed twist. The spoke heads are shown to be made up of four major subunits; two bind to the spoke shaft and two bind to a pair of central-sheath projections.

Control of germ cell nuclear behaviour at fertilization by Tetrahymena intermediate filament protein

Intermediate filament protein [relative molecular mass (Mr) 49,000 (49K)] from the ciliated protozoan Tetrahymena has been shown to resemble intermediate filament proteins from mammalian cells in several respects, and to have a possible role in the oral morphogenesis preceding binary fission in Tetrahymena. Here, based on immunofluorescence localization of the 49K protein in Tetrahymena during the early stages of conjugation, we suggest that the protein is involved in some nuclear events, such as the production of four haploid nuclei by prezygotic divisions (meiosis), selection of one of the four meiotic products, formation of the gametic pronucleus by the mitotic division of the selected meiotic product, transfer of the gametic pronucleus across a cell-cell junction, and zygote formation by pronuclear fusion.

Bending patterns of Chlamydomonas flagella: II. Calcium effects on reactivated Chlamydomonas flagella

Ca2+ has profound effects on the movement of cilia and eukaryotic flagella, including those of Chlamydomonas. Two clear changes seen in Chlamydomonas flagella with changes in Ca2+ are beat frequency and symmetry. Photographic and computer assisted analysis of flagellar bending patterns on a uniflagellate mutant of Chlamydomonas have been used to examine details of the effects of Ca2+ on the movement of ATP-reactivated, demembranated flagella. In addition to the forward mode bending pattern seen at low Ca2+ concentrations (10(-9)M), which has a frequency of about 50 Hz and the reverse mode bending pattern seen at high Ca2+ concentrations (10(-4)M) with a frequency around 70 Hz, we carefully examined bending patterns in the intermediate Ca2+ concentration range of 1-6.5 X 10(-6)M. In this intermediate range, the bending patterns have significantly reduced asymmetry and slightly increased frequency, compared to the motility observed at low Ca2+ concentrations. These observations indicate that changes in these two parameters of motion do not occur in parallel and suggest that the effects of Ca2+ may be a multicomponent process. Physiologically, these changes in the beat pattern at intermediate Ca2+ may signal either 1) the beginning stages of transition to the symmetrical, high-frequency beating seen at high Ca2+, or 2) a more normal forward mode motility for the trans flagellum as suggested by Kamiya and Witman [1984]. No large amplitude bending patterns associated with transitions between forward and reverse mode beating in intact cells were seen at the intermediate Ca2+ concentrations.

Live and reactivated motility in the 9+0 flagellum of Anguilla sperm

The sperm flagella of the eel, Anguilla anguilla, are capable of vigorous motion in spite of having an axoneme with reduced structure that lacks the outer dynein arms, radial spokes and spoke heads, the two central tubules and the central tubule projections that are all part of the standard "9+2" axoneme. These sperm progress forward rapidly as a result of the propagation of helicoidal waves distally along the flagellum. Their flagellar beat frequencies are high, 93 Hz at 21 degrees C, and they roll at a frequency of about 19 Hz. Eel sperm could be demembranated with Nonidet P-40 and reactivated with MgATP2- in 0.22 M K acetate at pH 8.1. The reactivated motility closely resembles that of the live sperm, with a beat frequency of 69 Hz, but the demembranated flagella are unusually fragile, and commonly disintegrate by a combination of splitting, coiling, and sliding within a few minutes. Little reactivation is obtained if acetate is replaced by Cl- in the reactivating medium. The Michaelis constant for beat frequency (0.2 mM) is similar to that obtained for several "9+2" flagella. These sperm, however, appear to lack the mechanism by which Ca2+ regulates waveform. Our results indicate that eel sperm flagella, which at rest are straight, are induced to bend helicoidally by ATP, as the result of sliding between tubules that is blocked at both the base and tip of the organelle. The flagellar waveform consists of a series of planar bends separated by short regions of right-handed twist, which give it an overall left-handed helicoidal form.

Structural comparison of purified dynein proteins with in situ dynein arms

Using the quick-freeze deep-etch technique, we describe the structure of outerarm dynein proteins from Chlamydomonas and Tetrahymena after adsorption to a mica surface, after high-salt dissociation, and after glutaraldehyde fixation, and compare these images to the configuration of outer arms bound to microtubules. After adsorption to mica, the extracted dyneins from both organisms look like three-headed "bouquets", as reported for Tetrahymena by Johnson & Wall (1983b). High magnification images demonstrate that each head carries a slender "stalk" and a long "stem", and that small subunits decorate the stems and create a "flowerpot" domain at the base of the bouquet. Exposure to high salt induces this trimer to dissociate into a two-headed species and a single-headed species; it also stimulates the decorative elements to dissociate from the stems. Dynein is thus constructed on the same general plan as myosin, with large globular heads, narrow stems and additional small subunits that associate with the stems. The splayed-out image of the bouquet appears to be a distortion arising during adsorption to mica since, after brief glutaraldehyde fixation, the three heads remain closely associated as vertices of a triangular unit. In situ, the three heads also adopt this trigonal configuration. Two of the three are visible from the exterior of the axoneme and constitute the bilobed rigor head we described previously (Goodenough & Heuser, 1982). The third head faces the interior of the axoneme where, we propose, it forms the "hook" of the outer arm as seen in thin section. We further propose that the decorative elements associated with the stem coalesce to form the two outer-arm "feet" seen in situ, and that at least one of the in vitro stalks is equivalent to the in situ stalk, which extends from the head to the B microtubule. Deep-etch images of stretched axonemes, partially extracted axonemes, and dynein-decorated brain microtubules indicate that each outer arm, as traditionally viewed, is a hybrid of two dynein molecules: its two feet derive from one molecule, whereas its trigonal head derives from the molecule located distally. The resultant overlapping configuration creates the diagonal "linkers" seen in situ, which correspond to the in vitro stems. Thus, a row of dynein arms is essentially a dynein polymer that extends from the tip to the base of a doublet microtubule, each head riding on its neighbor's feet like a row of circus elephants.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Submicromolar levels of calcium control the balance of beating between the two flagella in demembranated models of Chlamydomonas

When detergent-extracted, demembranated cell models of Chlamydomonas were resuspended in reactivation solutions containing less than 10(-8) M Ca++, many models initially swam in helical paths similar to those of intact cells; others swam in circles against the surface of the slide or coverslip. With increasing time after reactivation, fewer models swam in helices and more swam in circles. This transition from helical to circular swimming was the result of a progressive inactivation of one of the axonemes; in the extreme case, one axoneme was completely inactive whereas the other beat with a normal waveform. At these low Ca++ concentrations, the inactivated axoneme was the trans-axoneme (the one farthest from the eyespot) in 70-100% of the models. At 10(-7) or 10(-6) M Ca++, cell models also proceeded from helical to circular swimming as a result of inactivation of one of the axonemes; however, under these conditions the cis-axoneme was usually the one that was inactivated. At 10(-8) M Ca++, most cells continued helical swimming, indicating that both axonemes were remaining relatively active. The progressive, Ca++-dependent inactivation of the trans- or cis-axoneme was reversed by switching the cell models to higher or lower Ca++ concentrations, respectively. A similar reversible, selective inactivation of the trans-flagellum occurred in intact cells swimming in medium containing 0.5 mM EGTA and no added Ca++. The results show that there are functional differences between the two axonemes of Chlamydomonas. The differential responses of the axonemes to submicromolar concentrations of Ca++ may form the basis for phototactic turning.