Single-cell imaging of normal and malignant cell engraftment into optically clear prkdc-null SCID zebrafish

Compared to other NHEJ factors, DNA-PK protein and RNA levels are markedly increased in all higher primates, but not in prosimians or other mammals

The DNA dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) initiates non-homologous recombination (NHEJ), the predominate DNA double-strand break (DSBR) pathway in higher vertebrates. It has been known for decades that the enzymatic activity of DNA-PK [that requires its three component polypeptides, Ku70, Ku80 (that comprise the DNA-end binding Ku heterodimer), and the catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs)] is present in humans at 10-50 times the level observed in other mammals. Here, we show that the high level of DNA-PKcs protein expression appears evolutionarily in mammals between prosimians and higher primates. Moreover, the RNAs encoding the three component polypeptides of DNA-PK are present at similarly high levels in hominids, new-, and old-world monkeys, but expression of these RNAs in prosimians is ∼5-50 fold less, analogous to the levels observed in other non-primate species. This is reminiscent of the appearance of Alu repeats in primate genomes -- abundant in higher primates, but present at much lower density in prosimians. Alu repeats are well-known for their capacity to promote non-allelic homologous recombination (NAHR) a process known to be inhibited by DNA-PK. Nanopore sequence analyses of cultured cells proficient or deficient in DNA-PK revealed an increase of inter-chromosomal translocations caused by NAHR. Although the high levels of DNA-PK in primates may have many functions, we posit that high levels of DNA-PK may function to restrain deleterious NAHR events between Alu elements.

Organ specific microenvironmental MR1 expression in cutaneous melanoma

The microenvironment is an important regulator of intertumoral trafficking and activity of immune cells. Understanding how the immune system can be tailored to maintain anti-tumor killing responses in metastatic disease remains an important goal. Thus, immune mediated eradication of metastasis requires the consideration of organ specific microenvironmental cues. Using a xenograft model of melanoma metastasis in adult zebrafish, we perturbed the dynamic balance between the infiltrating immune cells in the metastatic setting using a suite of different transgenic zebrafish. We employed intravital imaging coupled with metabolism imaging (FLIM) to visualize and map the organ specific metabolism with near simultaneity in multiple metastatic lesions. Of all the MHC complexes examined for brain and skeletal metastases, we determined that there is an organ specific expression of mhc1uba (human ortholog, MR1) for both the melanoma cells and the resident and infiltrating immune cells. Specifically, immune clusters did not express mhc1uba in brain metastatic lesions in immune competent fish. Finally, the differential immune response drove organ specific metabolism where tumor glycolysis was increased in brain metastases compared to skeletal and parental lines as measured using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM). As MR1 belongs to the MHC class I molecules and is a target of immunotherapeutic drugs, we believe that our data presents an opportunity to understand the relationship between organ specific tumor metabolism and drug efficacy in the metastatic setting.

Transplantation-based screen identifies inducers of muscle progenitor cell engraftment across vertebrate species

Stem cell transplantation presents a potentially curative strategy for genetic disorders of skeletal muscle, but this approach is limited by the deleterious effects of cell expansion in vitro and consequent poor engraftment efficiency. In an effort to overcome this limitation, we sought to identify molecular signals that enhance the myogenic activity of cultured muscle progenitors. Here, we report the development and application of a cross-species small-molecule screening platform employing zebrafish and mice, which enables rapid, direct evaluation of the effects of chemical compounds on the engraftment of transplanted muscle precursor cells. Using this system, we screened a library of bioactive lipids to discriminate those that could increase myogenic engraftment in vivo in zebrafish and mice. This effort identified two lipids, lysophosphatidic acid and niflumic acid, both linked to the activation of intracellular calcium-ion flux, which showed conserved, dose-dependent, and synergistic effects in promoting muscle engraftment across these vertebrate species.

Zebrafish: A Relevant Genetic Model for Human Primary Immunodeficiency (PID) Disorders?

Primary immunodeficiency (PID) disorders, also commonly referred to as inborn errors of immunity, are a heterogenous group of human genetic diseases characterized by defects in immune cell development and/or function. Since these disorders are generally uncommon and occur on a variable background profile of potential genetic and environmental modifiers, animal models are critical to provide mechanistic insights as well as to create platforms to underpin therapeutic development. This review aims to review the relevance of zebrafish as an alternative genetic model for PIDs. It provides an overview of the conservation of the zebrafish immune system and details specific examples of zebrafish models for a multitude of specific human PIDs across a range of distinct categories, including severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), combined immunodeficiency (CID), multi-system immunodeficiency, autoinflammatory disorders, neutropenia and defects in leucocyte mobility and respiratory burst. It also describes some of the diverse applications of these models, particularly in the fields of microbiology, immunology, regenerative biology and oncology.

A novel cuproptosis-related gene model predicts outcomes and treatment responses in pancreatic adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Cuproptosis is recently emerging as a hot spot in cancer research. However, its role in pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD) has not yet been clarified. This study aimed to explore the prognostic and therapeutic implications of cuproptosis-related genes in PAAD.

METHODS

Two hundred thirteen PAAD samples from the International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC) were split into training and validation sets in the ratio of 7:3. The Cox regression analyses generated a prognostic model using the ICGC cohort for training (n = 152) and validation (n = 61). The model was externally tested on the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) (n = 80) and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) datasets (n = 176). The clinical characteristics, molecular mechanisms, immune landscape, and treatment responses in model-defined subgroups were explored. The expression of an independent prognostic gene TSC22D2 was confirmed by public databases, real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), western blot (WB), and immunohistochemistry (IHC).

RESULTS

A prognostic model was established based on three cuproptosis-related genes (TSC22D2, C6orf136, PRKDC). Patients were stratified into high- and low-risk groups using the risk score based on this model. PAAD patients in the high-risk group had a worse prognosis. The risk score was statistically significantly correlated with most clinicopathological characteristics. The risk score based on this model was an independent predictor of overall survival (OS) (HR = 10.7, p < 0.001), and was utilized to create a scoring nomogram with excellent prognostic value. High-risk patients had a higher TP53 mutation rate and a superior response to multiple targeted therapies and chemotherapeutic drugs, but might obtain fewer benefits from immunotherapy. Moreover, elevated TSC22D2 expression was discovered to be an independent prognostic predictor for OS (p < 0.001). Data from public databases and our own experiments showed that TSC22D2 expression was significantly higher in pancreatic cancer tissues/cells compared to normal tissues/cells.

CONCLUSION

This novel model based on cuproptosis-related genes provided a robust biomarker for predicting the prognosis and treatment responses of PAAD. The potential roles and underlying mechanisms of TSC22D2 in PAAD need further explored.

Advancements in melanoma cancer metastasis models

Metastatic melanoma is a complex and deadly disease. Due to its complexity, the development of novel therapeutic strategies to inhibit metastatic melanoma remains an outstanding challenge. Our ability to study metastasis is advanced with the development of in vitro and in vivo models that better mimic the different steps of the metastatic cascade beginning from primary tumor initiation to final metastatic seeding. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of in vitro models, in vivo models, and in silico platforms to study the individual steps of melanoma metastasis. Furthermore, we highlight the advantages and limitations of each model and discuss the challenges of how to improve current models to enhance translation for melanoma cancer patients and future therapies.

Zebrafish Cancer Avatars: A Translational Platform for Analyzing Tumor Heterogeneity and Predicting Patient Outcomes

The increasing number of available anti-cancer drugs presents a challenge for oncologists, who must choose the most effective treatment for the patient. Precision cancer medicine relies on matching a drug with a tumor's molecular profile to optimize the therapeutic benefit. However, current precision medicine approaches do not fully account for intra-tumoral heterogeneity. Different mutation profiles and cell behaviors within a single heterogeneous tumor can significantly impact therapy response and patient outcomes. Patient-derived avatar models recapitulate a patient's tumor in an animal or dish and provide the means to functionally assess heterogeneity's impact on drug response. Mouse xenograft and organoid avatars are well-established, but the time required to generate these models is not practical for clinical decision-making. Zebrafish are emerging as a time-efficient and cost-effective cancer avatar model. In this review, we highlight recent developments in zebrafish cancer avatar models and discuss the unique features of zebrafish that make them ideal for the interrogation of cancer heterogeneity and as part of precision cancer medicine pipelines.

The application of zebrafish patient-derived xenograft tumor models in the development of antitumor agents

The cost of antitumor drug development is enormous, yet the clinical outcomes are less than satisfactory. Therefore, it is of great importance to develop effective drug screening methods that enable accurate, rapid, and high-throughput discovery of lead compounds in the process of preclinical antitumor drug research. An effective solution is to use the patient-derived xenograft (PDX) tumor animal models, which are applicable for the elucidation of tumor pathogenesis and the preclinical testing of novel antitumor compounds. As a promising screening model organism, zebrafish has been widely applied in the construction of the PDX tumor model and the discovery of antineoplastic agents. Herein, we systematically survey the recent cutting-edge advances in zebrafish PDX models (zPDX) for studies of pathogenesis mechanisms and drug screening. In addition, the techniques used in the construction of zPDX are summarized. The advantages and limitations of the zPDX are also discussed in detail. Finally, the prospects of zPDX in drug discovery, translational medicine, and clinical precision medicine treatment are well presented.

Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cell Identification and Transplantation in Zebrafish

The zebrafish as a model organism is well known for its versatile genetics, rapid development, and straightforward live imaging. It is an excellent model to study hematopoiesis because of its highly conserved ontogeny and gene regulatory networks. Recently developed highly specific transgenic reporter lines have allowed direct imaging and tracking of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) in live zebrafish. These reporter lines can also be used for fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) of HSPCs. Similar to mammalian models, HSPCs can be transplanted to reconstitute the entire hematopoietic system of zebrafish recipients. However, the zebrafish provides unique advantages to study HSPC biology, such as transplants into embryos and high-throughput chemical screening. This chapter will outline the methods needed to identify, isolate, and transplant HSPCs in zebrafish.

Zebrafish Model of Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) Due to JAK3 Mutation

JAK3 is principally activated by members of the interleukin-2 receptor family and plays an essential role in lymphoid development, with inactivating JAK3 mutations causing autosomal-recessive severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). This study aimed to generate an equivalent zebrafish model of SCID and to characterize the model across the life-course. Genome editing of zebrafish jak3 created mutants similar to those observed in human SCID. Homozygous jak3 mutants showed reduced embryonic T lymphopoiesis that continued through the larval stage and into adulthood, with B cell maturation and adult NK cells also reduced and neutrophils impacted. Mutant fish were susceptible to lymphoid leukemia. This model has many of the hallmarks of human SCID resulting from inactivating JAK3 mutations and will be useful for a variety of pre-clinical applications.

One Host-Multiple Applications: Zebrafish (Danio rerio) as Promising Model for Studying Human Cancers and Pathogenic Diseases

In recent years, zebrafish (ZF) has been increasingly applied as a model in human disease studies, with a particular focus on cancer. A number of advantages make it an attractive alternative for mice widely used so far. Due to the many advantages of zebrafish, modifications can be based on different mechanisms and the induction of human disease can take different forms depending on the research goal. Genetic manipulation, tumor transplantation, or injection of the pathogen are only a few examples of using ZF as a model. Most of the studies are conducted in order to understand the disease mechanism, monitor disease progression, test new or alternative therapies, and select the best treatment. The transplantation of cancer cells derived from patients enables the development of personalized medicine. To better mimic a patient's body environment, immune-deficient models (SCID) have been developed. A lower immune response is mostly generated by genetic manipulation but also by irradiation or dexamethasone treatment. For many studies, using SCID provides a better chance to avoid cancer cell rejection. In this review, we describe the main directions of using ZF in research, explain why and how zebrafish can be used as a model, what kind of limitations will be met and how to overcome them. We collected recent achievements in this field, indicating promising perspectives for the future.

Functional Drug Screening in the Era of Precision Medicine

The focus of precision medicine is providing the right treatment to each unique patient. This scientific movement has incited monumental advances in oncology including the approval of effective, targeted agnostic therapies. Yet, precision oncology has focused largely on genomics in the treatment decision making process, and several recent clinical trials demonstrate that genomics is not the only variable to be considered. Drug screening in three dimensional (3D) models, including patient derived organoids, organs on a chip, xenografts, and 3D-bioprinted models provide a functional medicine perspective and necessary complement to genomic testing. In this review, we discuss the practicality of various 3D drug screening models and each model's ability to capture the patient's tumor microenvironment. We highlight the potential for enhancing precision medicine that personalized functional drug testing holds in combination with genomic testing and emerging mathematical models.

The Zebrafish model in dermatology: an update for clinicians

Recently, the zebrafish has been established as one of the most important model organisms for medical research. Several studies have proved that there is a high level of similarity between human and zebrafish genomes, which encourages the use of zebrafish as a model for understanding human genetic disorders, including cancer. Interestingly, zebrafish skin shows several similarities to human skin, suggesting that this model organism is particularly suitable for the study of neoplastic and inflammatory skin disorders. This paper appraises the specific characteristics of zebrafish skin and describes the major applications of the zebrafish model in dermatological research.

In Vivo Modeling of Human Breast Cancer Using Cell Line and Patient-Derived Xenografts

Historically, human breast cancer has been modeled largely in vitro using long-established cell lines primarily in two-dimensional culture, but also in three-dimensional cultures of varying cellular and molecular complexities. A subset of cell line models has also been used in vivo as cell line-derived xenografts (CDX). While outstanding for conducting detailed molecular analysis of regulatory mechanisms that may function in vivo, results of drug response studies using long-established cell lines have largely failed to translate clinically. In an attempt to address this shortcoming, many laboratories have succeeded in developing clinically annotated patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models of human cancers, including breast, in a variety of host systems. While immunocompromised mice are the predominant host, the immunocompromised rat and pig, zebrafish, as well as the chicken egg chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) have also emerged as potential host platforms to help address perceived shortcomings of immunocompromised mice. With any modeling platform, the two main issues to be resolved are criteria for "credentialing" the models as valid models to represent human cancer, and utility with respect to the ability to generate clinically relevant translational research data. Such data are beginning to emerge, particularly with the activities of PDX consortia such as the NCI PDXNet Program, EuroPDX, and the International Breast Cancer Consortium, as well as a host of pharmaceutical companies and contract research organizations (CRO). This review focuses primarily on these important aspects of PDX-related research, with a focus on breast cancer.

Patient-Derived Xenograft: A More Standard "Avatar" Model in Preclinical Studies of Gastric Cancer

Despite advances in diagnosis and treatment, gastric cancer remains the third most common cause of cancer-related death in humans. The establishment of relevant animal models of gastric cancer is critical for further research. Due to the complexity of the tumor microenvironment and the genetic heterogeneity of gastric cancer, the commonly used preclinical animal models fail to adequately represent clinically relevant models of gastric cancer. However, patient-derived models are able to replicate as much of the original inter-tumoral and intra-tumoral heterogeneity of gastric cancer as possible, reflecting the cellular interactions of the tumor microenvironment. In addition to implanting patient tissues or primary cells into immunodeficient mouse hosts for culture, the advent of alternative hosts such as humanized mouse hosts, zebrafish hosts, and in vitro culture modalities has also facilitated the advancement of gastric cancer research. This review highlights the current status, characteristics, interfering factors, and applications of patient-derived models that have emerged as more valuable preclinical tools for studying the progression and metastasis of gastric cancer.

Inflammatory response in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells triggered by activating SHP2 mutations evokes blood defects

Gain-of-function mutations in the protein-tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 are the most frequently occurring mutations in sporadic juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML) and JMML-like myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN) associated with Noonan syndrome (NS). Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) are the disease propagating cells of JMML. Here, we explored transcriptomes of HSPCs with SHP2 mutations derived from JMML patients and a novel NS zebrafish model. In addition to major NS traits, CRISPR/Cas9 knock-in Shp2D61G mutant zebrafish recapitulated a JMML-like MPN phenotype, including myeloid lineage hyperproliferation, ex vivo growth of myeloid colonies, and in vivo transplantability of HSPCs. Single-cell mRNA sequencing of HSPCs from Shp2D61G zebrafish embryos and bulk sequencing of HSPCs from JMML patients revealed an overlapping inflammatory gene expression pattern. Strikingly, an anti-inflammatory agent rescued JMML-like MPN in Shp2D61G zebrafish embryos. Our results indicate that a common inflammatory response was triggered in the HSPCs from sporadic JMML patients and syndromic NS zebrafish, which potentiated MPN and may represent a future target for JMML therapies.

Bioluminescent Zebrafish Transplantation Model for Drug Discovery

In the last decade, zebrafish have accompanied the mouse as a robust animal model for cancer research. The possibility of screening small-molecule inhibitors in a large number of zebrafish embryos makes this model particularly valuable. However, the dynamic visualization of fluorescently labeled tumor cells needs to be complemented by a more sensitive, easy, and rapid mode for evaluating tumor growth in vivo to enable high-throughput screening of clinically relevant drugs. In this study we proposed and validated a pre-clinical screening model for drug discovery by utilizing bioluminescence as our readout for the determination of transplanted cancer cell growth and inhibition in zebrafish embryos. For this purpose, we used NanoLuc luciferase, which ensured rapid cancer cell growth quantification in vivo with high sensitivity and low background when compared to conventional fluorescence measurements. This allowed us large-scale evaluation of in vivo drug responses of 180 kinase inhibitors in zebrafish. Our bioluminescent screening platform could facilitate identification of new small-molecules for targeted cancer therapy as well as for drug repurposing.

Patient-Derived Xenotransplant of CNS Neoplasms in Zebrafish: A Systematic Review

Glioblastoma and neuroblastoma are the most common central nervous system malignant tumors in adult and pediatric populations. Both are associated with poor survival. These tumors are highly heterogeneous, having complex interactions among different cells within the tumor and with the tumor microenvironment. One of the main challenges in the neuro-oncology field is achieving optimal conditions to evaluate a tumor’s molecular genotype and phenotype. In this respect, the zebrafish biological model is becoming an excellent alternative for studying carcinogenic processes and discovering new treatments. This review aimed to describe the results of xenotransplantation of patient-derived CNS tumors in zebrafish models. The reviewed studies show that it is possible to maintain glioblastoma and neuroblastoma primary cell cultures and transplant the cells into zebrafish embryos. The zebrafish is a suitable biological model for understanding tumor progression and the effects of different treatments. This model offers new perspectives in providing personalized care and improving outcomes for patients living with central nervous system tumors.

Zebrafish Xenograft Model to Study Human Cancer

The zebrafish, Danio rerio, has been an important animal model for cancer research over the last decade. The capability of a high-throughput screen in zebrafish and a wide range of pharmacologically active compounds elicit physiological responses in zebrafish embryos comparable to those in mammalian systems, making zebrafish ideal for identifying clinically relevant drug targets and compounds that regulate tumor progression. The zebrafish model is suitable for patient-derived xenograft (pdx) and large-scale screening of lead compounds against specific malignancies. This established vertebrate model has many advantages, including fast response time, cost efficiency for drug testing, efficient manipulation of the host microenvironment by genetic tools, suitable for small molecule drug screening in high-throughput setting, easy maintenance, transparency for easy observation, high fecundity, and rapid generation time. The zebrafish model is a good alternative in vivo model to mammals for robust testing of drug candidates for cancer therapy.

Zebrafish disease models in drug discovery: from preclinical modelling to clinical trials

Numerous drug treatments that have recently entered the clinic or clinical trials have their genesis in zebrafish. Zebrafish are well established for their contribution to developmental biology and have now emerged as a powerful preclinical model for human disease, as their disease characteristics, aetiology and progression, and molecular mechanisms are clinically relevant and highly conserved. Zebrafish respond to small molecules and drug treatments at physiologically relevant dose ranges and, when combined with cell-specific or tissue-specific reporters and gene editing technologies, drug activity can be studied at single-cell resolution within the complexity of a whole animal, across tissues and over an extended timescale. These features enable high-throughput and high-content phenotypic drug screening, repurposing of available drugs for personalized and compassionate use, and even the development of new drug classes. Often, drugs and drug leads explored in zebrafish have an inter-organ mechanism of action and would otherwise not be identified through targeted screening approaches. Here, we discuss how zebrafish is an important model for drug discovery, the process of how these discoveries emerge and future opportunities for maximizing zebrafish potential in medical discoveries.

DNA-Dependent Protein Kinase Catalytic Subunit: The Sensor for DNA Double-Strand Breaks Structurally and Functionally Related to Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated

The DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) is composed of a DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs) and Ku70/Ku80 heterodimer. DNA-PK is thought to act as the “sensor” for DNA double-stranded breaks (DSB), which are considered the most deleterious type of DNA damage. In particular, DNA-PKcs and Ku are shown to be essential for DSB repair through nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ). The phenotypes of animals and human individuals with defective DNA-PKcs or Ku functions indicate their essential roles in these developments, especially in neuronal and immune systems. DNA-PKcs are structurally related to Ataxia–telangiectasia mutated (ATM), which is also implicated in the cellular responses to DSBs. DNA-PKcs and ATM constitute the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-like kinases (PIKKs) family with several other molecules. Here, we review the accumulated knowledge on the functions of DNA-PKcs, mainly based on the phenotypes of DNA-PKcs-deficient cells in animals and human individuals, and also discuss its relationship with ATM in the maintenance of genomic stability.

Zebrafish Models for the Safety and Therapeutic Testing of Nanoparticles with a Focus on Macrophages

New nanoparticles and biomaterials are increasingly being used in biomedical research for drug delivery, diagnostic applications, or vaccines, and they are also present in numerous commercial products, in the environment and workplaces. Thus, the evaluation of the safety and possible therapeutic application of these nanomaterials has become of foremost importance for the proper progress of nanotechnology. Due to economical and ethical issues, in vitro and in vivo methods are encouraged for the testing of new compounds and/or nanoparticles, however in vivo models are still needed. In this scenario, zebrafish (Danio rerio) has demonstrated potential for toxicological and pharmacological screenings. Zebrafish presents an innate immune system, from early developmental stages, with conserved macrophage phenotypes and functions with respect to humans. This fact, combined with the transparency of zebrafish, the availability of models with fluorescently labelled macrophages, as well as a broad variety of disease models offers great possibilities for the testing of new nanoparticles. Thus, with a particular focus on macrophage-nanoparticle interaction in vivo, here, we review the studies using zebrafish for toxicological and biodistribution testing of nanoparticles, and also the possibilities for their preclinical evaluation in various diseases, including cancer and autoimmune, neuroinflammatory, and infectious diseases.

A novel conditioning-free hematopoietic stem cell transplantation model in zebrafish

Transplantation is the most common assay for measuring the in vivo functionality of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Although various HSC transplantation strategies have been developed in zebrafish, they are underutilized because of challenges related to immune matching and preconditioning toxicity. To circumvent these limitations, we developed a simple and robust transplantation model using HSC-deficient hosts. Homozygous runx1W84X mutants are devoid of definitive hematopoietic cells, including HSCs and adaptive immune cells; thus, they require no preconditioning regimen for transplantation. Marrow cell transplantation into runx1-mutant zebrafish 2 days after fertilization significantly improved their survival to adulthood and resulted in robust, multilineage, long-lasting, serially repopulating engraftment. Furthermore, we demonstrated that engraftment into runx1 homozygous mutants was significantly higher than into runx1 heterozygotes, demonstrating that the improved transplantation success is attributable to the empty HSC niche in mutants and not just the embryonic environment. Competitive transplantation of marrow cells into runx1 mutants revealed a stem cell frequency similar to that of murine marrow cells, which demonstrates the utility of this model for quantifying HSC function. The streamlined approach and robustness of this assay will help broaden its feasibility for future high-throughput transplantation experiments in zebrafish and will enable further novel discoveries in the biology of HSCs.

The Zebrafish Xenograft Models for Investigating Cancer and Cancer Therapeutics

Simple Summary

The identification and development of new anti-cancer drugs requires extensive testing in animal models to establish safety and efficacy of drug candidates. The transplantation of human tumor tissue into mouse (tumor xenografts) is commonly used to study cancer progression and to test potential drugs for their anti-cancer activity. Mouse models do not afford the ability to test a large number of drug candidates quickly as it takes several weeks to conduct these experiments. In contrast, tumor xenograft studies in zebrafish provide an efficient platform for rapid testing of safety and efficacy in less than two weeks.

Abstract

In order to develop new cancer therapeutics, rapid, reliable, and relevant biological models are required to screen and validate drug candidates for both efficacy and safety. In recent years, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) has emerged as an excellent model organism suited for these goals. Larval fish or immunocompromised adult fish are used to engraft human cancer cells and serve as a platform for screening potential drug candidates. With zebrafish sharing ~80% of disease-related orthologous genes with humans, they provide a low cost, high-throughput alternative to mouse xenografts that is relevant to human biology. In this review, we provide background on the methods and utility of zebrafish xenograft models in cancer research.

Targeted therapy of human leukemia xenografts in immunodeficient zebrafish

Personalized medicine holds tremendous promise for improving safety and efficacy of drug therapies by optimizing treatment regimens. Rapidly developed patient-derived xenografts (pdx) could be a helpful tool for analyzing the effect of drugs against an individual's tumor by growing the tumor in an immunodeficient animal. Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mice enable efficient in vivo expansion of vital tumor cells and generation of personalized xenografts. However, they are not amenable to large-scale rapid screening, which is critical in identifying new compounds from large compound libraries. The development of a zebrafish model suitable for pdx could facilitate large-scale screening of drugs targeted against specific malignancies. Here, we describe a novel strategy for establishing a zebrafish model for drug testing in leukemia xenografts. We used chronic myelogenous leukemia and acute myeloid leukemia for xenotransplantation into SCID zebrafish to evaluate drug screening protocols. We showed the in vivo efficacy of the ABL inhibitor imatinib, MEK inhibitor U0126, cytarabine, azacitidine and arsenic trioxide. We performed corresponding in vitro studies, demonstrating that combination of MEK- and FLT3-inhibitors exhibit an enhanced effect in vitro. We further evaluated the feasibility of zebrafish for transplantation of primary human hematopoietic cells that can survive at 15 day-post-fertilization. Our results provide critical insights to guide development of high-throughput platforms for evaluating leukemia.

New tools for 'ZEBRA-FISHING'

Zebrafish has been established as a classical model for developmental studies, yet in the past years, with the explosion of novel technological methods, the use of zebrafish as a model has expanded. One of the prominent fields that took advantage of zebrafish as a model organism early on is hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell generation from hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs). In zebrafish, HSPCs are born early during development in the aorta-gonad-mesonephros region and then translocate to the caudal hematopoietic tissue, where they expand and finally take residence in the kidney marrow. This journey is tightly regulated at multiple levels from extracellular signals to chromatin. In order to delineate the mechanistic underpinnings of this process, next-generation sequencing techniques could be an important ally. Here, we describe genome-wide approaches that have been undertaken to delineate zebrafish hematopoiesis.

Benefits of Zebrafish Xenograft Models in Cancer Research

As a promising in vivo tool for cancer research, zebrafish have been widely applied in various tumor studies. The zebrafish xenograft model is a low-cost, high-throughput tool for cancer research that can be established quickly and requires only a small sample size, which makes it favorite among researchers. Zebrafish patient-derived xenograft (zPDX) models provide promising evidence for short-term clinical treatment. In this review, we discuss the characteristics and advantages of zebrafish, such as their transparent and translucent features, the use of vascular fluorescence imaging, the establishment of metastatic and intracranial orthotopic models, individual pharmacokinetics measurements, and tumor microenvironment. Furthermore, we introduce how these characteristics and advantages are applied other in tumor studies. Finally, we discuss the future direction of the use of zebrafish in tumor studies and provide new ideas for the application of it.

Studying the Tumor Microenvironment in Zebrafish

The tumor microenvironment significantly contributes to tumor initiation, progression, neo-angiogenesis, and metastasis, and a better understanding of the role of the different cellular players would facilitate the development of novel therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment. Towards this goal, intravital imaging is a powerful method to unravel interaction partners of tumor cells. Among vertebrate model organisms, zebrafish is uniquely suited for in vivo imaging studies. In recent years zebrafish has also become a valuable model in cancer research. In this chapter, we will summarize, how zebrafish has been used to characterize cells of the tumor microenvironment. We will cover both genetically engineered cancer models and xenograft models in zebrafish. The majority of work has been done on the role of innate immune cells and their role during tumor initiation and metastasis, but we will also cover studies focusing on adipocytes, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells. Taken together, we will highlight the versatile use of the zebrafish model for in vivo tumor microenvironment studies.

Single-cell imaging of human cancer xenografts using adult immunodeficient zebrafish

Zebrafish are an ideal cell transplantation model. They are highly fecund, optically clear and an excellent platform for preclinical drug discovery studies. Traditionally, xenotransplantation has been carried out using larval zebrafish that have not yet developed adaptive immunity. Larval engraftment is a powerful short-term transplant platform amenable to high-throughput drug screening studies, yet animals eventually reject tumors and cannot be raised at 37 °C. To address these limitations, we have recently developed adult casper-strain prkdc^-/-, il2rgα^-/- immunocompromised zebrafish that robustly engraft human cancer cells for in excess of 28 d. Because the adult zebrafish can be administered drugs by oral gavage or i.p. injection, our model is suitable for achieving accurate, preclinical drug dosing. Our platform also allows facile visualization of drug effects in vivo at single-cell resolution over days. Here, we describe the procedures for xenograft cell transplantation into the prkdc^-/-, il2rgα^-/- model, including refined husbandry protocols for optimal growth and rearing of immunosuppressed zebrafish at 37 °C; optimized intraperitoneal and periocular muscle cell transplantation; and epifluorescence and confocal imaging approaches to visualize the effects of administering clinically relevant drug dosing at single-cell resolution in vivo. After identification of adult homozygous animals, this procedure takes 35 d to complete. 7 days are required to acclimate adult fish to 37 °C, and 28 d are required for engraftment studies. Our protocol provides a comprehensive guide for using immunocompromised zebrafish for xenograft cell transplantation and credentials the model as a new preclinical drug discovery platform.

Generation of foxn1/Casper Mutant Zebrafish for Allograft and Xenograft of Normal and Malignant Cells

Cell transplantation into immunodeficient recipients is a widely used approach to study stem cell and cancer biology; however, studying cell states post transplantation in vivo is inconvenient in mammals. Here, we generated a foxn1/Casper mutant zebrafish that is transparent and exhibits T cell deficiency. By employing the line for hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) transplantation (HSCT), we could achieve nonconditioned transplantation. Meanwhile, we found that fetal HSCs from 3 days post fertilization zebrafish embryos produce a better transplant outcome in foxn1/Casper mutants, compared with adult HSCs. In addition to HSCT, the foxn1/Casper mutant is feasible for allografts of myelodysplastic syndrome-like and muscle cells, as well as xenografts of medaka muscle cells. In summary, foxn1/Casper mutants permit the nonconditioned engraftment of multiple cell types and visualized characterization of transplanted cells in vivo.

•

foxn1/Casper mutant zebrafish permit unconditioned and visualized cell transplantation

•

Zebrafish fetal HSCs possess more robust engraftment ability than adult HSCs

•

foxn1/Casper mutant zebrafish permit allogeneic MDS-like cell transplantation

•

Allograft and xenograft of muscle cells can be monitored in foxn1/Casper mutant zebrafish

Wilms Tumor 1b Expression Defines a Pro-regenerative Macrophage Subtype and Is Required for Organ Regeneration in the Zebrafish

Organ regeneration is preceded by the recruitment of innate immune cells, which play an active role during repair and regrowth. Here, we studied macrophage subtypes during organ regeneration in the zebrafish, an animal model with a high regenerative capacity. We identified a macrophage subpopulation expressing Wilms tumor 1b (wt1b), which accumulates within regenerating tissues. This wt1b⁺ macrophage population exhibited an overall pro-regenerative gene expression profile and different migratory behavior compared to the remainder of the macrophages. Functional studies showed that wt1b regulates macrophage migration and retention at the injury area. Furthermore, wt1b-null mutant zebrafish presented signs of impaired macrophage differentiation, delayed fin growth upon caudal fin amputation, and reduced cardiomyocyte proliferation following cardiac injury that correlated with altered macrophage recruitment to the regenerating areas. We describe a pro-regenerative macrophage subtype in the zebrafish and a role for wt1b in organ regeneration.

•

Wt1b⁺ macrophages reveal a pro-regenerative gene expression prolife

•

Wt1b controls migration behavior of macrophages during fin and heart regeneration

•

Wt1b regulates differentiation of macrophages in the kidney marrow

•

wt1b mutants reveal impaired fin and heart regeneration

Epigenetic Protection of Vertebrate Lymphoid Progenitor Cells by Dnmt1

DNA methylation is a universal epigenetic mechanism involved in regulation of gene expression and genome stability. The DNA maintenance methylase DNMT1 ensures that DNA methylation patterns are faithfully transmitted to daughter cells during cell division. Because loss of DNMT1 is lethal, a pan-organismic analysis of DNMT1 function is lacking. We identified new recessive dnmt1 alleles in medaka and zebrafish and, guided by the structures of mutant proteins, generated a recessive variant of mouse Dnmt1. Each of the three missense mutations studied here distorts the catalytic pocket and reduces enzymatic activity. Because all three DNMT1 mutant animals are viable, it was possible to examine their phenotypes throughout life. The consequences of genome-wide hypomethylation of DNA of somatic tissues in the Dnmt1 mutants are surprisingly mild but consistently affect the development of the lymphoid lineage. Our findings indicate that developing lymphocytes in vertebrates are sensitive to perturbations of DNA maintenance methylation.

•

Genetic screens identified recessive viable missense alleles of dnmt1 in teleosts

•

A viable mouse Dnmt1 mutant generated by structure-guided precision mutagenesis

•

Missense mutations distort the catalytic pocket and reduce enzymatic activity

•

DNA hypomethylation consistently affects development of the lymphoid lineage

From Tank to Treatment: Modeling Melanoma in Zebrafish

Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer and one of few cancers with a growing incidence. A thorough understanding of its pathogenesis is fundamental to developing new strategies to combat mortality and morbidity. Zebrafish—due in large part to their tractable genetics, conserved pathways, and optical properties—have emerged as an excellent system to model melanoma. Zebrafish have been used to study melanoma from a single tumor initiating cell, through metastasis, remission, and finally into relapse. In this review, we examine seminal zebrafish studies that have advanced our understanding of melanoma.

Zebrafish patient avatars in cancer biology and precision cancer therapy

In precision oncology, two major strategies are being pursued for predicting clinically relevant tumour behaviours, such as treatment response and emergence of drug resistance: inference based on genomic, transcriptomic, epigenomic and/or proteomic analysis of patient samples, and phenotypic assays in personalized cancer avatars. The latter approach has historically relied on in vivo mouse xenografts and in vitro organoids or 2D cell cultures. Recent progress in rapid combinatorial genetic modelling, the development of a genetically immunocompromised strain for xenotransplantation of human patient samples in adult zebrafish and the first clinical trial using xenotransplantation in zebrafish larvae for phenotypic testing of drug response bring this tiny vertebrate to the forefront of the precision medicine arena. In this Review, we discuss advances in transgenic and transplantation-based zebrafish cancer avatars, and how these models compare with and complement mouse xenografts and human organoids. We also outline the unique opportunities that these different models present for prediction studies and current challenges they face for future clinical deployment.

Zebrafish Xenografts for Drug Discovery and Personalized Medicine

Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the world. Given that cancer is a highly individualized disease, predicting the best chemotherapeutic treatment for individual patients can be difficult. Ex vivo models such as mouse patient-derived xenografts (PDX) and organoids are being developed to predict patient-specific chemosensitivity profiles before treatment in the clinic. Although promising, these models have significant disadvantages including long growth times that introduce genetic and epigenetic changes to the tumor. The zebrafish xenograft assay is ideal for personalized medicine. Imaging of the small, transparent fry is unparalleled among vertebrate organisms. In addition, the speed (5-7 days) and small patient tissue requirements (100-200 cells per animal) are unique features of the zebrafish xenograft model that enable patient-specific chemosensitivity analyses.

Modeling of Solid-Tumor Microenvironment in Zebrafish (Danio Rerio) Larvae

The zebrafish larvae have emerged as a powerful model for studying tumorigenesis in vivo, with remarkable conservation with mammals in genetics, molecular and cell biology. Zebrafish tumor models bear the significant advantages of optical clarity in comparison to that in the mammalian models, allowing noninvasive investigation of the tumor cell and its microenvironment at single-cell resolution. Here we review recent progressions in the field of zebrafish models of solid tumor diseases in two main categories: the genetically engineered tumor models in which all cells in the tumor microenvironment are zebrafish cells, and xenograft tumor models in which the tumor microenvironment is composed of zebrafish cells and cells from other species. Notably, the zebrafish patient-derived xenograft (zPDX) models can be used for personalized drug assessment on primary tumor biopsies, including the pancreatic cancer. For the future studies, a series of high throughput drug screenings on the library of transgenic zebrafish models of solid tumor are expected to provide systematic database of oncogenic mutation, cell-of-origin, and leading compounds; and the humanization of zebrafish in genetics and cellular composition will make it more practical hosts for zPDX modeling. Together, zebrafish tumor model systems are unique and convenient in vivo platforms, with great potential to serve as valuable tools for cancer researches.

Zebrafish Models of Cancer-New Insights on Modeling Human Cancer in a Non-Mammalian Vertebrate

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a valuable non-mammalian vertebrate model widely used to study development and disease, including more recently cancer. The evolutionary conservation of cancer-related programs between human and zebrafish is striking and allows extrapolation of research outcomes obtained in fish back to humans. Zebrafish has gained attention as a robust model for cancer research mainly because of its high fecundity, cost-effective maintenance, dynamic visualization of tumor growth in vivo, and the possibility of chemical screening in large numbers of animals at reasonable costs. Novel approaches in modeling tumor growth, such as using transgene electroporation in adult zebrafish, could improve our knowledge about the spatial and temporal control of cancer formation and progression in vivo. Looking at genetic as well as epigenetic alterations could be important to explain the pathogenesis of a disease as complex as cancer. In this review, we highlight classic genetic and transplantation models of cancer in zebrafish as well as provide new insights on advances in cancer modeling. Recent progress in zebrafish xenotransplantation studies and drug screening has shown that zebrafish is a reliable model to study human cancer and could be suitable for evaluating patient-derived xenograft cell invasiveness. Rapid, large-scale evaluation of in vivo drug responses and kinetics in zebrafish could undoubtedly lead to new applications in personalized medicine and combination therapy. For all of the above-mentioned reasons, zebrafish is approaching a future of being a pre-clinical cancer model, alongside the mouse. However, the mouse will continue to be valuable in the last steps of pre-clinical drug screening, mostly because of the highly conserved mammalian genome and biological processes.

Visualizing Engrafted Human Cancer and Therapy Responses in Immunodeficient Zebrafish

Xenograft cell transplantation into immunodeficient mice has become the gold standard for assessing pre-clinical efficacy of cancer drugs, yet direct visualization of single-cell phenotypes is difficult. Here, we report an optically-clear prkdc-/-, il2rga-/- zebrafish that lacks adaptive and natural killer immune cells, can engraft a wide array of human cancers at 37°C, and permits the dynamic visualization of single engrafted cells. For example, photoconversion cell-lineage tracing identified migratory and proliferative cell states in human rhabdomyosarcoma, a pediatric cancer of muscle. Additional experiments identified the preclinical efficacy of combination olaparib PARP inhibitor and temozolomide DNA-damaging agent as an effective therapy for rhabdomyosarcoma and visualized therapeutic responses using a four-color FUCCI cell-cycle fluorescent reporter. These experiments identified that combination treatment arrested rhabdomyosarcoma cells in the G2 cell cycle prior to induction of apoptosis. Finally, patient-derived xenografts could be engrafted into our model, opening new avenues for developing personalized therapeutic approaches in the future.

Modeling Cancer with Flies and Fish

Cancer has joined heart disease as the leading source of mortality in the US. In an era of organoids, patient-derived xenografts, and organs on a chip, model organisms continue to thrive with a combination of powerful genetic tools, rapid pace of discovery, and affordability. Model organisms enable the analysis of both the tumor and its associated microenvironment, aspects that are particularly relevant to our understanding of metastasis and drug resistance. In this Perspective, we explore some of the strengths of fruit flies and zebrafish for addressing fundamental cancer questions and how these two organisms can contribute to identifying promising therapeutic candidates.

Zebrafish Xenografts for the In Vivo Analysis of Healthy and Malignant Human Hematopoietic Cells

The zebrafish is a powerful vertebrate model for genetic studies on embryonic development and organogenesis. In the last decades, zebrafish were furthermore increasingly used for disease modeling and investigation of cancer biology. Zebrafish are particularly used for mutagenesis and small molecule screens, as well as for live imaging assays that provide unique opportunities to monitor cell behavior, both on a single cell and whole organism level in real time. Zebrafish have been also used for in vivo investigations of human cells transplanted into embryos or adult animals; this zebrafish xenograft model can be considered as an intermediate assay between in vitro techniques and more time-consuming and expensive mammalian models.Here, we present a protocol for transplantation of healthy and malignant human hematopoietic cells into larval zebrafish; transplantation into adult zebrafish and possible advantages and limitations of the zebrafish compared to murine xenograft models are discussed.

Deciphering phenotypic variance in different models of DNA-PKcs deficiency

DNA-PKcs deficiency has been studied in numerous animal models and cell culture systems. In previous studies of kinase inactivating mutations in cell culture systems, ablation of DNA-PK's catalytic activity results in a cell phenotype that is virtually indistinguishable from that ascribed to complete loss of the enzyme. However, a recent compelling study demonstrates a remarkably more severe phenotype in mice harboring a targeted disruption of DNA-PK's ATP binding site as compared to DNA-PKcs deficient mice. Here we investigate the mechanism for these divergent results. We find that kinase inactivating DNA-PKcs mutants markedly radiosensitize immortalized DNA-PKcs deficient cells, but have no substantial effects on transformed DNA-PKcs deficient cells. Since the non-homologous end joining mechanism likely functions similarly in all of these cell strains, it seems unlikely that kinase inactive DNA-PK could impair the end joining mechanism in some cell types, but not in others. In fact, we observed no significant differences in either episomal or chromosomal end joining assays in cells expressing kinase inactivated DNA-PKcs versus no DNA-PKcs. Several potential explanations could explain these data including a non-catalytic role for DNA-PKcs in promoting cell death, or alteration of gene expression by loss of DNA-PKcs as opposed to inhibition of its catalytic activity. Finally, controversy exists as to whether DNA-PKcs autophosphorylates or is the target of other PIKKs; we present data demonstrating that DNA-PK primarily autophosphorylates.

Bloody Zebrafish: Novel Methods in Normal and Malignant Hematopoiesis

Hematopoiesis is an optimal system for studying stem cell maintenance and lineage differentiation under physiological and pathological conditions. In vertebrate organisms, billions of differentiated hematopoietic cells need to be continuously produced to replenish the blood cell pool. Disruptions in this process have immediate consequences for oxygen transport, responses against pathogens, maintenance of hemostasis and vascular integrity. Zebrafish is a widely used and well-established model for studying the hematopoietic system. Several new hematopoietic regulators were identified in genetic and chemical screens using the zebrafish model. Moreover, zebrafish enables in vivo imaging of hematopoietic stem cell generation and differentiation during embryogenesis, and adulthood. Finally, zebrafish has been used to model hematopoietic diseases. Recent technological advances in single-cell transcriptome analysis, epigenetic regulation, proteomics, metabolomics, and processing of large data sets promise to transform the current understanding of normal, abnormal, and malignant hematopoiesis. In this perspective, we discuss how the zebrafish model has proven beneficial for studying physiological and pathological hematopoiesis and how these novel technologies are transforming the field.

Cell motility in cancer invasion and metastasis: insights from simple model organisms

Metastasis remains the greatest challenge in the clinical management of cancer. Cell motility is a fundamental and ancient cellular behaviour that contributes to metastasis and is conserved in simple organisms. In this Review, we evaluate insights relevant to human cancer that are derived from the study of cell motility in non-mammalian model organisms. Dictyostelium discoideum, Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster and Danio rerio permit direct observation of cells moving in complex native environments and lend themselves to large-scale genetic and pharmacological screening. We highlight insights derived from each of these organisms, including the detailed signalling network that governs chemotaxis towards chemokines; a novel mechanism of basement membrane invasion; the positive role of E-cadherin in collective direction-sensing; the identification and optimization of kinase inhibitors for metastatic thyroid cancer on the basis of work in flies; and the value of zebrafish for live imaging, especially of vascular remodelling and interactions between tumour cells and host tissues. While the motility of tumour cells and certain host cells promotes metastatic spread, the motility of tumour-reactive T cells likely increases their antitumour effects. Therefore, it is important to elucidate the mechanisms underlying all types of cell motility, with the ultimate goal of identifying combination therapies that will increase the motility of beneficial cells and block the spread of harmful cells.

Organism-Level Tumor Models in Zebrafish Danio rerio

Development and implementation of adequate organism-level models is one of the key elements in biomedical research that focuses on experimental oncology. Over the last decade, studies using Zebrafish (Danio rerio) have gained in popularity in this area of research. This review describes the various approaches that have been used in developing highly effective models for oncological (clinical term, better cancer or tumor) studies based on D. rerio. Priority is given to transplantation models of cancer and their application to optically transparent D. rerio lines, including clonal ones, and utilization tumors of various origins bearing fluorescent labels. The combination of tumor transplantation at organism-level models in transparent clonal D. rerio lines with fluorescent microscopy, FACS-fractionation of tumor cell subsets, and transcription analysis can result in one of the most promising research approaches in providing new information on tumor formation and growth.

Identification and characterization of T reg-like cells in zebrafish

Kasheta et al. report the identification of T reg–like cells in zebrafish, a means to track and live-image these cells, and foxp3a-deficient mutants that display lymphoproliferation, severe inflammation, and other hallmarks of T reg deficiency syndromes.

Regulatory T (T reg) cells are a specialized sublineage of T lymphocytes that suppress autoreactive T cells. Functional studies of T reg cells in vitro have defined multiple suppression mechanisms, and studies of T reg–deficient humans and mice have made clear the important role that these cells play in preventing autoimmunity. However, many questions remain about how T reg cells act in vivo. Specifically, it is not clear which suppression mechanisms are most important, where T reg cells act, and how they get there. To begin to address these issues, we sought to identify T reg cells in zebrafish, a model system that provides unparalleled advantages in live-cell imaging and high-throughput genetic analyses. Using a FOXP3 orthologue as a marker, we identified CD4-enriched, mature T lymphocytes with properties of T reg cells. Zebrafish mutant for foxp3a displayed excess T lymphocytes, splenomegaly, and a profound inflammatory phenotype that was suppressed by genetic ablation of lymphocytes. This study identifies T reg–like cells in zebrafish, providing both a model to study the normal functions of these cells in vivo and mutants to explore the consequences of their loss.

Intravital imaging of metastasis in adult Zebrafish

Background

Metastasis is a major clinical problem whose biology is not yet fully understood. This lack of understanding is especially true for the events at the metastatic site, which include arrest, extravasation, and growth into macrometastases. Intravital imaging is a powerful technique that has shown great promise in increasing our understanding of these events. To date, most intravital imaging studies have been performed in mice, which has limited its adoption. Zebrafish are also a common system for the intravital imaging of metastasis. However, as imaging in embryos is technically simpler, relatively few studies have used adult zebrafish to study metastasis and none have followed individual cells at the metastatic site over time. The aim of this study was to demonstrate that adult casper zebrafish offer a convenient model system for performing intravital imaging of the metastatic site over time with single-cell resolution.

Methods

ZMEL1 zebrafish melanoma cells were injected into 6 to 10-week-old casper fish using an intravenous injection protocol. Because casper fish are transparent even as adults, they could be imaged without surgical intervention. Individual cells were followed over the course of 2 weeks as they arrested, extravasated, and formed macroscopic metastases.

Results

Our injection method reliably delivered cells into circulation and led to the formation of tumors in multiple organs. Cells in the skin and sub-dermal muscle could be imaged at high resolution over 2 weeks using confocal microscopy. Arrest was visualized and determined to be primarily due to size restriction. Following arrest, extravasation was seen to occur between 1 and 6 days post-injection. Once outside of the vasculature, cells were observed migrating as well as forming protrusions.

Conclusions

Casper fish are a useful model for studying the events at the metastatic site using intravital imaging. The protocols described in this study are relatively simple. Combined with the reasonably low cost of zebrafish, they offer to increase access to intravital imaging.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12885-017-3647-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Zebrafish in Translational Cancer Research: Insight into Leukemia, Melanoma, Glioma and Endocrine Tumor Biology

Over the past 15 years, zebrafish have emerged as a powerful tool for studying human cancers. Transgenic techniques have been employed to model different types of tumors, including leukemia, melanoma, glioblastoma and endocrine tumors. These models present histopathological and molecular conservation with their human cancer counterparts and have been fundamental for understanding mechanisms of tumor initiation and progression. Moreover, xenotransplantation of human cancer cells in embryos or adult zebrafish offers the advantage of studying the behavior of human cancer cells in a live organism. Chemical-genetic screens using zebrafish embryos have uncovered novel druggable pathways and new therapeutic strategies, some of which are now tested in clinical trials. In this review, we will report on recent advances in using zebrafish as a model in cancer studies—with specific focus on four cancer types—where zebrafish has contributed to novel discoveries or approaches to novel therapies.

Dissecting hematopoietic and renal cell heterogeneity in adult zebrafish at single-cell resolution using RNA sequencing

The work by Tang et al. provides a comprehensive, single-cell, transcriptomic analysis of kidney and blood cells from the adult zebrafish, identifying novel cell types, including two classes of NK immune cells, classically defined and erythroid-primed hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, mucin-secreting kidney cells, and kidney stem/progenitor cells.

Recent advances in single-cell, transcriptomic profiling have provided unprecedented access to investigate cell heterogeneity during tissue and organ development. In this study, we used massively parallel, single-cell RNA sequencing to define cell heterogeneity within the zebrafish kidney marrow, constructing a comprehensive molecular atlas of definitive hematopoiesis and functionally distinct renal cells found in adult zebrafish. Because our method analyzed blood and kidney cells in an unbiased manner, our approach was useful in characterizing immune-cell deficiencies within DNA–protein kinase catalytic subunit (prkdc), interleukin-2 receptor γ a (il2rga), and double-homozygous–mutant fish, identifying blood cell losses in T, B, and natural killer cells within specific genetic mutants. Our analysis also uncovered novel cell types, including two classes of natural killer immune cells, classically defined and erythroid-primed hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, mucin-secreting kidney cells, and kidney stem/progenitor cells. In total, our work provides the first, comprehensive, single-cell, transcriptomic analysis of kidney and marrow cells in the adult zebrafish.