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Vezzani B, Carinci M, Patergnani S, Pasquin MP, Guarino A, Aziz N, Pinton P, Simonato M, Giorgi C. The Dichotomous Role of Inflammation in the CNS: A Mitochondrial Point of View. Biomolecules 2020; 10:E1437. [PMID: 33066071 PMCID: PMC7600410 DOI: 10.3390/biom10101437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immune response is one of our primary defenses against pathogens infection, although, if dysregulated, it represents the leading cause of chronic tissue inflammation. This dualism is even more present in the central nervous system, where neuroinflammation is both important for the activation of reparatory mechanisms and, at the same time, leads to the release of detrimental factors that induce neurons loss. Key players in modulating the neuroinflammatory response are mitochondria. Indeed, they are responsible for a variety of cell mechanisms that control tissue homeostasis, such as autophagy, apoptosis, energy production, and also inflammation. Accordingly, it is widely recognized that mitochondria exert a pivotal role in the development of neurodegenerative diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, as well as in acute brain damage, such in ischemic stroke and epileptic seizures. In this review, we will describe the role of mitochondria molecular signaling in regulating neuroinflammation in central nervous system (CNS) diseases, by focusing on pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) signaling, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and mitophagy, giving a hint on the possible therapeutic approaches targeting mitochondrial pathways involved in inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Vezzani
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (B.V.); (M.C.); (S.P.); (M.P.P.); (P.P.)
- Laboratory of Technologies for Advanced Therapy (LTTA), Technopole of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (A.G.); (N.A.); (M.S.)
| | - Marianna Carinci
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (B.V.); (M.C.); (S.P.); (M.P.P.); (P.P.)
- Laboratory of Technologies for Advanced Therapy (LTTA), Technopole of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (A.G.); (N.A.); (M.S.)
| | - Simone Patergnani
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (B.V.); (M.C.); (S.P.); (M.P.P.); (P.P.)
- Laboratory of Technologies for Advanced Therapy (LTTA), Technopole of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (A.G.); (N.A.); (M.S.)
| | - Matteo P. Pasquin
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (B.V.); (M.C.); (S.P.); (M.P.P.); (P.P.)
- Laboratory of Technologies for Advanced Therapy (LTTA), Technopole of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (A.G.); (N.A.); (M.S.)
| | - Annunziata Guarino
- Laboratory of Technologies for Advanced Therapy (LTTA), Technopole of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (A.G.); (N.A.); (M.S.)
- Department of BioMedical and Specialist Surgical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Nimra Aziz
- Laboratory of Technologies for Advanced Therapy (LTTA), Technopole of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (A.G.); (N.A.); (M.S.)
- Department of BioMedical and Specialist Surgical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Paolo Pinton
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (B.V.); (M.C.); (S.P.); (M.P.P.); (P.P.)
- Laboratory of Technologies for Advanced Therapy (LTTA), Technopole of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (A.G.); (N.A.); (M.S.)
- Maria Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care & Research, 48033 Cotignola (RA), Italy
| | - Michele Simonato
- Laboratory of Technologies for Advanced Therapy (LTTA), Technopole of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (A.G.); (N.A.); (M.S.)
- Department of BioMedical and Specialist Surgical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
- School of Medicine, University Vita-Salute San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Carlotta Giorgi
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (B.V.); (M.C.); (S.P.); (M.P.P.); (P.P.)
- Laboratory of Technologies for Advanced Therapy (LTTA), Technopole of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (A.G.); (N.A.); (M.S.)
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2
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Eberlein J, Davenport B, Nguyen TT, Victorino F, Jhun K, van der Heide V, Kuleshov M, Ma'ayan A, Kedl R, Homann D. Chemokine Signatures of Pathogen-Specific T Cells I: Effector T Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 205:2169-2187. [PMID: 32948687 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The choreography of complex immune responses, including the priming, differentiation, and modulation of specific effector T cell populations generated in the immediate wake of an acute pathogen challenge, is in part controlled by chemokines, a large family of mostly secreted molecules involved in chemotaxis and other patho/physiological processes. T cells are both responsive to various chemokine cues and a relevant source for certain chemokines themselves; yet, the actual range, regulation, and role of effector T cell-derived chemokines remains incompletely understood. In this study, using different in vivo mouse models of viral and bacterial infection as well as protective vaccination, we have defined the entire spectrum of chemokines produced by pathogen-specific CD8+ and CD4+T effector cells and delineated several unique properties pertaining to the temporospatial organization of chemokine expression patterns, synthesis and secretion kinetics, and cooperative regulation. Collectively, our results position the "T cell chemokine response" as a notably prominent, largely invariant, yet distinctive force at the forefront of pathogen-specific effector T cell activities and establish novel practical and conceptual approaches that may serve as a foundation for future investigations into the role of T cell-produced chemokines in infectious and other diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Eberlein
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Bennett Davenport
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029.,Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | - Tom T Nguyen
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Francisco Victorino
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Kevin Jhun
- Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029.,Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | - Verena van der Heide
- Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029.,Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | - Maxim Kuleshov
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029; and.,Mount Sinai Center for Bioinformatics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Avi Ma'ayan
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029; and.,Mount Sinai Center for Bioinformatics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Ross Kedl
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Dirk Homann
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045; .,Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029.,Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
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3
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Tritz ZP, Orozco RC, Malo CS, Ayasoufi K, Fain CE, Khadka RH, Goddery EN, Yokanovich LT, Settell ML, Hansen MJ, Jin F, Pavelko KD, Pease LR, Johnson AJ. Conditional Silencing of H-2D b Class I Molecule Expression Modulates the Protective and Pathogenic Kinetics of Virus-Antigen-Specific CD8 T Cell Responses during Theiler's Virus Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 205:1228-1238. [PMID: 32737149 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection of the CNS is cleared in C57BL/6 mice by a CD8 T cell response restricted by the MHC class I molecule H-2Db The identity and function of the APC(s) involved in the priming of this T cell response is (are) poorly defined. To address this gap in knowledge, we developed an H-2Db LoxP-transgenic mouse system using otherwise MHC class I-deficient C57BL/6 mice, thereby conditionally ablating MHC class I-restricted Ag presentation in targeted APC subpopulations. We observed that CD11c+ APCs are critical for early priming of CD8 T cells against the immunodominant TMEV peptide VP2121-130 Loss of H-2Db on CD11c+ APCs mitigates the CD8 T cell response, preventing early viral clearance and immunopathology associated with CD8 T cell activity in the CNS. In contrast, animals with H-2Db-deficient LysM+ APCs retained early priming of Db:VP2121-130 epitope-specific CD8 T cells, although a modest reduction in immune cell entry into the CNS was observed. This work establishes a model enabling the critical dissection of H-2Db-restricted Ag presentation to CD8 T cells, revealing cell-specific and temporal features involved in the generation of CD8 T cell responses. Employing this novel system, we establish CD11c+ cells as pivotal to the establishment of acute antiviral CD8 T cell responses against the TMEV immunodominant epitope VP2121-130, with functional implications both for T cell-mediated viral control and immunopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachariah P Tritz
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester, MN 55905.,Mayo Clinic Department of Immunology, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Robin C Orozco
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester, MN 55905.,Mayo Clinic Department of Immunology, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Courtney S Malo
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester, MN 55905.,Mayo Clinic Department of Immunology, Rochester, MN 55905
| | | | - Cori E Fain
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester, MN 55905.,Mayo Clinic Department of Immunology, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Roman H Khadka
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester, MN 55905.,Mayo Clinic Department of Immunology, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Emma N Goddery
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester, MN 55905.,Mayo Clinic Department of Immunology, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Lila T Yokanovich
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester, MN 55905.,Mayo Clinic Department of Immunology, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Megan L Settell
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester, MN 55905
| | | | - Fang Jin
- Mayo Clinic Department of Immunology, Rochester, MN 55905
| | | | - Larry R Pease
- Mayo Clinic Department of Immunology, Rochester, MN 55905.,Mayo Clinic Department of Biochemistry, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Aaron J Johnson
- Mayo Clinic Department of Immunology, Rochester, MN 55905; .,Mayo Clinic Department of Molecular Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905; and.,Mayo Clinic Department of Neurology, Rochester, MN 55905
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4
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Lassalle F, Beale MA, Bharucha T, Williams CA, Williams RJ, Cudini J, Goldstein R, Haque T, Depledge DP, Breuer J. Whole genome sequencing of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 directly from human cerebrospinal fluid reveals selective constraints in neurotropic viruses. Virus Evol 2020; 6:veaa012. [PMID: 32099667 PMCID: PMC7031915 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veaa012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 (HSV-1) chronically infects over 70 per cent of the global population. Clinical manifestations are largely restricted to recurrent epidermal vesicles. However, HSV-1 also leads to encephalitis, the infection of the brain parenchyma, with high associated rates of mortality and morbidity. In this study, we performed target enrichment followed by direct sequencing of HSV-1 genomes, using target enrichment methods on the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of clinical encephalitis patients and from skin swabs of epidermal vesicles on non-encephalopathic patients. Phylogenetic analysis revealed high inter-host diversity and little population structure. In contrast, samples from different lesions in the same patient clustered with similar patterns of allelic variants. Comparison of consensus genome sequences shows HSV-1 has been freely recombining, except for distinct islands of linkage disequilibrium (LD). This suggests functional constraints prevent recombination between certain genes, notably those encoding pairs of interacting proteins. Distinct LD patterns characterised subsets of viruses recovered from CSF and skin lesions, which may reflect different evolutionary constraints in different body compartments. Functions of genes under differential constraint related to immunity or tropism and provide new hypotheses on tissue-specific mechanisms of viral infection and latency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florent Lassalle
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St-Mary's Hospital campus, Praed Street, London W2 1NY, UK
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College London, St-Mary's Hospital campus, Praed Street, London W2 1NY, UK
| | - Mathew A Beale
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Parasites and Microbes, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Saffron Walden CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Tehmina Bharucha
- Department of Virology, Royal Free Hospital, 10 Pond Street, Hampstead, London NW3 2PS, UK
| | - Charlotte A Williams
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Rachel J Williams
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Juliana Cudini
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Parasites and Microbes, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Saffron Walden CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Richard Goldstein
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Tanzina Haque
- Department of Virology, Royal Free Hospital, 10 Pond Street, Hampstead, London NW3 2PS, UK
| | - Daniel P Depledge
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Judith Breuer
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, Great Ormond Street, London WC1N 3JH
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5
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Pokorna Formanova P, Palus M, Salat J, Hönig V, Stefanik M, Svoboda P, Ruzek D. Changes in cytokine and chemokine profiles in mouse serum and brain, and in human neural cells, upon tick-borne encephalitis virus infection. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16:205. [PMID: 31699097 PMCID: PMC6839073 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-019-1596-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a severe neuropathological disorder caused by tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). Brain TBEV infection is characterized by extensive pathological neuroinflammation. The mechanism by which TBEV causes CNS destruction remains unclear, but growing evidence suggests that it involves both direct neuronal damage by the virus infection and indirect damage caused by the immune response. Here, we aimed to examine the TBEV-infection-induced innate immune response in mice and in human neural cells. We also compared cytokine/chemokine communication between naïve and infected neuronal cells and astrocytes. Methods We used a multiplexed Luminex system to measure multiple cytokines/chemokines and growth factors in mouse serum samples and brain tissue, and in human neuroblastoma cells (SK-N-SH) and primary cortical astrocytes (HBCA), which were infected with the highly pathogenic TBEV strain Hypr. We also investigated changes in cytokine/chemokine production in naïve HBCA cells treated with virus-free supernatants from TBEV-infected SK-N-SH cells and in naïve SK-N-SH cells treated with virus-free supernatants from TBEV-infected HBCA cells. Additionally, a plaque assay was performed to assess how cytokine/chemokine treatment influenced viral growth following TBEV infection. Results TBEV-infected mice exhibited time-dependent increases in serum and brain tissue concentrations of multiple cytokines/chemokines (mainly CXCL10/IP-10, and also CXCL1, G-CSF, IL-6, and others). TBEV-infected SK-N-SH cells exhibited increased production of IL-8 and RANTES and downregulated MCP-1 and HGF. TBEV infection of HBCA cells activated production of a broad spectrum of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors (mainly IL-6, IL-8, CXCL10, RANTES, and G-CSF) and downregulated the expression of VEGF. Treatment of SK-N-SH with supernatants from infected HBCA induced expression of a variety of chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines, reduced SK-N-SH mortality after TBEV infection, and decreased virus growth in these cells. Treatment of HBCA with supernatants from infected SK-N-SH had little effect on cytokine/chemokine/growth factor expression but reduced TBEV growth in these cells after infection. Conclusions Our results indicated that both neurons and astrocytes are potential sources of pro-inflammatory cytokines in TBEV-infected brain tissue. Infected/activated astrocytes produce cytokines/chemokines that stimulate the innate neuronal immune response, limiting virus replication, and increasing survival of infected neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Pokorna Formanova
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Palus
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100, Brno, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Branisovska 31, CZ-37005, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Salat
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Vaclav Hönig
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100, Brno, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Branisovska 31, CZ-37005, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Stefanik
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Mendel University in Brno, Zemedelska 1, CZ-61300, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Svoboda
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Daniel Ruzek
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100, Brno, Czech Republic. .,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Branisovska 31, CZ-37005, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic.
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6
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Single-cell analysis reveals T cell infiltration in old neurogenic niches. Nature 2019; 571:205-210. [PMID: 31270459 PMCID: PMC7111535 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1362-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 295] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The mammalian brain contains neurogenic niches comprising neural stem cells (NSCs) and other cell types. Neurogenic niches become less functional with age, but how they change during aging remains unclear. Here we perform single cell RNA-sequencing of young and old neurogenic niches in mice. Analysis of 14,685 single cell transcriptomes reveals a decrease in activated NSCs, changes in endothelial cells and microglia, and infiltration of T cells in old neurogenic niches. Surprisingly, T cells in old brains are clonally expanded and generally distinct from those in old blood, suggesting they may experience specific antigens. T cells from old brains express interferon γ, and the subset of NSCs with a high interferon response shows decreased proliferation in vivo. Interestingly, T cells can inhibit NSC proliferation in co-cultures and in vivo, in part by secreting interferon. Our study reveals an interaction between T cells and NSCs in old brains, opening potential avenues to counter age-related decline in brain function.
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7
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Kumar V. Toll-like receptors in the pathogenesis of neuroinflammation. J Neuroimmunol 2019; 332:16-30. [PMID: 30928868 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2019.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are discovered as crucial pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) involved in the recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Later studies showed their involvement in the recognition of various damage/danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) generated by host itself. Thus, TLRs are capable of recognizing wide-array of patterns/molecules derived from pathogens and host as well and initiating a proinflammatory immune response through the activation of NF-κB and other transcription factors causing synthesis of proinflammatory molecules. The process of neuroinflammation is seen under both sterile and infectious inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) and may lead to the development of neurodegeneration. The present article is designed to highlight the importance of TLRs in the pathogenesis of neuroinflammation under diverse conditions. TLRs are expressed by various immune cells present in CNS along with neurons. However out of thirteen TLRs described in mammals, some are present and active in these cells, while some are absent and are described in detail in main text. The role of various immune cells present in the brain and their role in the pathogenesis of neuroinflammation depending on the type of TLR expressed is described. Thereafter the role of TLRs in bacterial meningitis, viral encephalitis, stroke, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and autoimmune disease including multiple sclerosis (MS) is described. The article is designed for both neuroscientists needing information regarding TLRs in neuroinflammation and TLR biologists or immunologists interested in neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Kumar
- Children Health Clinical Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Mater Research, University of Queensland, ST Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4078, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, ST Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4078, Australia.
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8
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Klein H, Rabe GK, Karacay B, Bonthius DJ. T-Cells Underlie Some but Not All of the Cerebellar Pathology in a Neonatal Rat Model of Congenital Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Infection. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2016; 75:1031-1047. [PMID: 27667772 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlw079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection during pregnancy injures the human fetal brain. Neonatal rats inoculated with LCMV are an excellent model of congenital LCMV infection because they develop cerebellar injuries similar to those in humans. To evaluate the role of T-lymphocytes in LCMV-induced cerebellar pathology, congenitally athymic rats, deficient in T-lymphocytes were compared with euthymic rats. Peak viral titers and cellular targets of infection were similar, but viral clearance from astrocytes was impaired in the athymic rats. Cytokines and chemokines rose to higher levels and for a greater duration in the euthymic rats than in their athymic counterparts. The euthymic rats developed an intense lymphocytic infiltration, accompanied by destructive lesions of the cerebellum and a neuronal migration defect because of T-cell-mediated alteration of Bergmann glia. These pathologic changes were absent in the athymic rats but were restored by adoptive transfer of lymphocytes. Athymic rats were not free of pathologic effects, however, as the virus induced cerebellar hypoplasia. Thus, T-lymphocytes play key roles in LCMV clearance, cytokine/chemokine responses, and pathogenesis of destructive lesions and neuronal migration disturbances but not all pathology is T-lymphocyte-dependent. Cerebellar hypoplasia from LCMV occurs even in the absence of T-lymphocytes and is likely due to the viral infection itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Klein
- From the Department of Neurology (HK, DJB); Department of Pediatrics (GKR, BK); and Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa (HK, DJB)
| | - Glenda K Rabe
- From the Department of Neurology (HK, DJB); Department of Pediatrics (GKR, BK); and Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa (HK, DJB)
| | - Bahri Karacay
- From the Department of Neurology (HK, DJB); Department of Pediatrics (GKR, BK); and Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa (HK, DJB)
| | - Daniel J Bonthius
- From the Department of Neurology (HK, DJB); Department of Pediatrics (GKR, BK); and Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa (HK, DJB)
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9
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Shukla V, Shakya AK, Shukla M, Kumari N, Krishnani N, Dhole TN, Misra UK. Circulating levels of matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases during Japanese encephalitis virus infection. Virusdisease 2016; 27:63-76. [PMID: 26925446 DOI: 10.1007/s13337-015-0301-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 12/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are widely implicated in modulating blood brain barrier (BBB) integrity and affect the entry of peripheral immune cells into the central nervous system (CNS). The expression of MMPs is tightly regulated at the level of gene transcription, conversion of pro-enzyme to active MMPs and by the action of tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP). The crucial role of MMPs in inflammation indicates that perturbation of the MMP/TIMP balance decisively plays an important role in pathogenesis during viral encephalitis. The study was performed to evaluate the production of MMP-2, MMP-7, MMP-9, TIMP-1 and TIMP-3 in the sera of JEV i.e. GP 78668A (GP-78) infected BALB/c mouse model of encephalitis and gel zymography was performed for MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities. The estimation of MMP-2, MMP-7, MMP-9, TIMP-1, and TIMP-3 in JEV-infected mouse serum was analyzed by ELISA along with brain histopathology and immunohistochemistry. Evan's blue dye exclusion test was done to check the BBB integrity. Gelatin gel zymography was performed for MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities. We noticed an upregulated expression of MMPs in the sera of virus infected groups compared to controls at different days post inoculation (dpi). Post hoc analysis between days also reveals significant increase (p < 0.05) in virus infected groups with disease progression. In contrast, TIMPs expressions were significantly (p < 0.005) down regulated in the virus infected group. We provide preliminary evidence for a pattern of TIMP response in JEV infection distinct from that seen in acute inflammatory CNS conditions in JE, shown in our previous findings. Increased MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities were also found in a virus infected group with disease progression and are consistent with our previous finding of MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities in the CNS which clearly demonstrate worsen role of these immune mediators in JEV infection. This study will help to identify new targets for the therapeutic treatment of inflammatory mediated CNS disorders in JEV infection and may lead to the development of potential pharmacological targets in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vibha Shukla
- Department of Microbiology, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Raebareli Road, Lucknow, 226 014 India
| | - Akhalesh Kumar Shakya
- Department of Microbiology, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Raebareli Road, Lucknow, 226 014 India
| | - Mukti Shukla
- Department of Microbiology, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Raebareli Road, Lucknow, 226 014 India
| | - Niraj Kumari
- Department of Pathology, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
| | - Narendra Krishnani
- Department of Pathology, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
| | - T N Dhole
- Department of Microbiology, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Raebareli Road, Lucknow, 226 014 India
| | - Usha Kant Misra
- Department of Neurology, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
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10
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Mundt S, Engelhardt B, Kirk CJ, Groettrup M, Basler M. Inhibition and deficiency of the immunoproteasome subunit LMP7 attenuates LCMV-induced meningitis. Eur J Immunol 2015; 46:104-13. [PMID: 26464284 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201545578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2015] [Revised: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
In addition to antigen processing, immunoproteasomes were recently shown to exert functions influencing cytokine production by monocytes and T cells, T-helper cell differentiation, and T-cell survival. Moreover, selective inhibition of the immunoproteasome subunit LMP7 ameliorated symptoms of autoimmune diseases including CD4(+) T-cell mediated EAE. In this study, we show that LMP7 also plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV)-induced meningitis mediated by CTLs. Mice lacking functional LMP7 display delayed and reduced clinical signs of disease accompanied by a strongly decreased inflammatory infiltration into the brain. Interestingly, we found that selective inhibition and genetic deficiency of LMP7 affect the pathogenesis of LCMV-induced meningitis in a distinct manner. Our findings support the important role of LMP7 in inflammatory disorders and suggest immunoproteasome inhibition as a novel strategy against inflammation-induced neuropathology in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Mundt
- Division of Immunology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.,Konstanz Research School Chemical Biology (KoRS-CB), University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | | | | | - Marcus Groettrup
- Division of Immunology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.,Biotechnology Institute Thurgau at the University of Konstanz (BITg), Kreuzlingen, Switzerland
| | - Michael Basler
- Division of Immunology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.,Biotechnology Institute Thurgau at the University of Konstanz (BITg), Kreuzlingen, Switzerland
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11
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Herz J, Johnson KR, McGavern DB. Therapeutic antiviral T cells noncytopathically clear persistently infected microglia after conversion into antigen-presenting cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 212:1153-69. [PMID: 26122661 PMCID: PMC4516789 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20142047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Clearance of neurotropic infections is challenging because the CNS is relatively intolerant of immunopathological reactions. Herz et al. use a model of persistent viral infection in mice to demonstrate therapeutic antiviral T cells can purge the CNS infection without causing tissue damage resulting from limited recruitment of inflammatory innate immune cells and conversion of microglia into APCs. Several viruses can infect the mammalian nervous system and induce neurological dysfunction. Adoptive immunotherapy is an approach that involves administration of antiviral T cells and has shown promise in clinical studies for the treatment of peripheral virus infections in humans such as cytomegalovirus (CMV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and adenovirus, among others. In contrast, clearance of neurotropic infections is particularly challenging because the central nervous system (CNS) is relatively intolerant of immunopathological reactions. Therefore, it is essential to develop and mechanistically understand therapies that noncytopathically eradicate pathogens from the CNS. Here, we used mice persistently infected from birth with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) to demonstrate that therapeutic antiviral T cells can completely purge the persistently infected brain without causing blood–brain barrier breakdown or tissue damage. Mechanistically, this is accomplished through a tailored release of chemoattractants that recruit antiviral T cells, but few pathogenic innate immune cells such as neutrophils and inflammatory monocytes. Upon arrival, T cells enlisted the support of nearly all brain-resident myeloid cells (microglia) by inducing proliferation and converting them into CD11c+ antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Two-photon imaging experiments revealed that antiviral CD8+ and CD4+ T cells interacted directly with CD11c+ microglia and induced STAT1 signaling but did not initiate programmed cell death. We propose that noncytopathic CNS viral clearance can be achieved by therapeutic antiviral T cells reliant on restricted chemoattractant production and interactions with apoptosis-resistant microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmin Herz
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Kory R Johnson
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Dorian B McGavern
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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12
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Libbey JE, Fujinami RS. Adaptive immune response to viral infections in the central nervous system. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2014. [PMID: 25015488 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-0.00010-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Libbey
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Robert S Fujinami
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
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13
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Libbey JE, Fujinami RS. Adaptive immune response to viral infections in the central nervous system. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2014; 123:225-47. [PMID: 25015488 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-53488-0.00010-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Libbey
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Robert S Fujinami
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
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14
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Moseman EA, McGavern DB. The great balancing act: regulation and fate of antiviral T-cell interactions. Immunol Rev 2014; 255:110-24. [PMID: 23947351 PMCID: PMC3748617 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The fate of T lymphocytes revolves around a continuous stream of interactions between the T‐cell receptor (TCR) and peptide‐major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Beginning in the thymus and continuing into the periphery, these interactions, refined by accessory molecules, direct the expansion, differentiation, and function of T‐cell subsets. The cellular context of T‐cell engagement with antigen‐presenting cells, either in lymphoid or non‐lymphoid tissues, plays an important role in determining how these cells respond to antigen encounters. CD8+ T cells are essential for clearance of a lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection, but the virus can present a number of unique challenges that antiviral T cells must overcome. Peripheral LCMV infection can lead to rapid cytolytic clearance or chronic viral persistence; central nervous system infection can result in T‐cell‐dependent fatal meningitis or an asymptomatic carrier state amenable to immunotherapeutic clearance. These diverse outcomes all depend on interactions that require TCR engagement of cognate peptide‐MHC complexes. In this review, we explore the diversity in antiviral T‐cell behaviors resulting from TCR engagement, beginning with an overview of the immunological synapse and progressing to regulators of TCR signaling that shape the delicate balance between immunopathology and viral clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Ashley Moseman
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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15
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Puccini JM, Ruller CM, Robinson SM, Knopp KA, Buchmeier MJ, Doran KS, Feuer R. Distinct neural stem cell tropism, early immune activation, and choroid plexus pathology following coxsackievirus infection in the neonatal central nervous system. J Transl Med 2014; 94:161-81. [PMID: 24378643 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2013.138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Revised: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) and lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) are both neurotropic RNA viruses, which can establish a persistent infection and cause meningitis and encephalitis in the neonatal host. Utilizing our neonatal mouse model of infection, we evaluated the consequences of early viral infection upon the host central nervous system (CNS) by comparing CVB3 and LCMV infection. Both viruses expressed high levels of viral protein in the choroid plexus and subventricular zone (SVZ), a region of neurogenesis. LCMV infected a greater number of cells in the SVZ and targeted both nestin(+) (neural progenitor cell marker) and olig2(+) (glial progenitor marker) cells at a relatively equal proportion. In contrast, CVB3 preferentially infected nestin(+) cells within the SVZ. Microarray analysis revealed differential kinetics and unique host gene expression changes for each infection. MHC class I gene expression, several developmental-related Hox genes, and transthyretin (TTR), a protein secreted in the cerebrospinal fluid by the choroid plexus, were specifically downregulated following CVB3 infection. Also, we identified severe pathology in the choroid plexus of CVB3-infected animals at 48 h post infection accompanied by a decrease in the level of TTR and carbonic anhydrase II. These results demonstrate broader neural progenitor and stem cell (NPSC) tropism for LCMV in the neonatal CNS, whereas CVB3 targeted a more specific subset of NPSCs, stimulated a distinct early immune response, and induced significant acute damage in the choroid plexus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna M Puccini
- The Integrated Regenerative Research Institute (IRRI) at San Diego State University, Cell & Molecular Biology Joint Doctoral Program, Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Chelsea M Ruller
- The Integrated Regenerative Research Institute (IRRI) at San Diego State University, Cell & Molecular Biology Joint Doctoral Program, Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Scott M Robinson
- The Integrated Regenerative Research Institute (IRRI) at San Diego State University, Cell & Molecular Biology Joint Doctoral Program, Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Kristeene A Knopp
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, UC Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Michael J Buchmeier
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, UC Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Kelly S Doran
- Department of Biology and Center for Microbial Sciences, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Ralph Feuer
- The Integrated Regenerative Research Institute (IRRI) at San Diego State University, Cell & Molecular Biology Joint Doctoral Program, Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
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16
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Wilson MR, Peters CJ. Diseases of the central nervous system caused by lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and other arenaviruses. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2014; 123:671-81. [PMID: 25015511 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-53488-0.00033-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Wilson
- Multiple Sclerosis Center, Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Clarence J Peters
- Departments of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
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17
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Donadieu E, Lowenski S, Servely JL, Laloy E, Lilin T, Nowotny N, Richardson J, Zientara S, Lecollinet S, Coulpier M. Comparison of the neuropathology induced by two West Nile virus strains. PLoS One 2013; 8:e84473. [PMID: 24367664 PMCID: PMC3867487 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Some strains of West Nile virus (WNV) are neuroinvasive and may induce fatal encephalitis/meningitis in a variety of animal species including humans. Whether, however, there is a strain-specific signature in the brain is as yet unknown. Here we investigated the neuropathogenesis induced by two phylogenetically distant WNV strains of lineage 1, WNVIS98 and WNVKUN35 911. While four-week old C57Bl/6J mice were susceptible to both strains and succumbed rapidly after intraperitoneal inoculation, differences were observed in virulence and clinical disease. WNVKUN35 911, the less virulent strain as judged by determination of LD50, induced typical signs of encephalitis. Such signs were not observed in WNVIS98-infected mice, although they died more rapidly. Histological examination of brain sections also revealed differences, as the level of apoptosis and inflammation was higher in WNVKUN35 911- than WNVIS98-infected mice. Moreover, staining for cleaved caspase 3 showed that the two WNV strains induced apoptotic death through different molecular mechanisms in one particular brain area. Finally, the two strains showed similar tropism in cortex, striatum, brainstem, and cerebellum but a different one in hippocampus. In summary, our data show that, upon peripheral administration, WNVIS98 and WNVKUN35 911 strains induce partially distinct lesions and tissue tropism in the brain. They suggest that the virulence of a WNV strain is not necessarily correlated with the severity of apoptotic and inflammatory lesions in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Donadieu
- Virology (UMR1161), French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), Paris-Est University, National Veterinary School of Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Steeve Lowenski
- Virology (UMR1161), French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), Paris-Est University, National Veterinary School of Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Jean-Luc Servely
- French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), Nouzilly, France
- Histology and Pathological Anatomy, Paris-Est University, National Veterinary School of Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Eve Laloy
- Histology and Pathological Anatomy, Paris-Est University, National Veterinary School of Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Thomas Lilin
- Biomedical Research Center, Paris-Est University, National Veterinary School of Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Norbert Nowotny
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
| | - Jennifer Richardson
- Virology (UMR1161), French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), Paris-Est University, National Veterinary School of Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Stéphan Zientara
- Virology (UMR1161), French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), Paris-Est University, National Veterinary School of Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Sylvie Lecollinet
- Virology (UMR1161), French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), Paris-Est University, National Veterinary School of Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Muriel Coulpier
- Virology (UMR1161), French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Virology (UMR1161), Paris-Est University, National Veterinary School of Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
- * E-mail:
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18
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Lukashevich IS. The search for animal models for Lassa fever vaccine development. Expert Rev Vaccines 2013; 12:71-86. [PMID: 23256740 DOI: 10.1586/erv.12.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Lassa virus (LASV) is the most prevalent arenavirus in West Africa and is responsible for several hundred thousand infections and thousands of deaths annually. The sizeable disease burden, numerous imported cases of Lassa fever (LF) and the possibility that LASV can be used as an agent of biological warfare make a strong case for vaccine development. Currently there is no licensed LF vaccine and research and devlopment is hampered by the high cost of nonhuman primate animal models and by biocontainment requirements (BSL-4). In addition, a successful LF vaccine has to induce a strong cell-mediated cross-protective immunity against different LASV lineages. All of these challenges will be addressed in this review in the context of available and novel animal models recently described for evaluation of LF vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor S Lukashevich
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine and the Center for Predictive Medicine for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40202, USA.
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19
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Abstract
Neurotropic flaviviruses are important emerging and reemerging arthropod-borne pathogens that cause significant morbidity and mortality in humans and other vertebrates worldwide. Upon entry and infection of the CNS, these viruses can induce a rapid inflammatory response characterized by the infiltration of leukocytes into the brain parenchyma. Chemokines and their receptors are involved in coordinating complex leukocyte trafficking patterns that regulate viral pathogenesis in vivo. In this review, we will summarize the current literature on the role of chemokines in regulating the pathogenesis of West Nile, Japanese encephalitis, and tick-borne encephalitis virus infections in mouse models and humans. Understanding how viral infections trigger chemokines, the key cellular events that occur during the infection process, as well as the immunopathogenic role of these cells, are critical areas of research that may ultimately guide a much needed effort toward developing specific immunomodulators and/or antiviral therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana V Bardina
- Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1124, New York, NY 10029, USA
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20
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Kosmac K, Bantug GR, Pugel EP, Cekinovic D, Jonjic S, Britt WJ. Glucocorticoid treatment of MCMV infected newborn mice attenuates CNS inflammation and limits deficits in cerebellar development. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003200. [PMID: 23505367 PMCID: PMC3591306 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2012] [Accepted: 01/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection of the developing fetus with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a major cause of central nervous system disease in infants and children; however, mechanism(s) of disease associated with this intrauterine infection remain poorly understood. Utilizing a mouse model of HCMV infection of the developing CNS, we have shown that peripheral inoculation of newborn mice with murine CMV (MCMV) results in CNS infection and developmental abnormalities that recapitulate key features of the human infection. In this model, animals exhibit decreased granule neuron precursor cell (GNPC) proliferation and altered morphogenesis of the cerebellar cortex. Deficits in cerebellar cortical development are symmetric and global even though infection of the CNS results in a non-necrotizing encephalitis characterized by widely scattered foci of virus-infected cells with mononuclear cell infiltrates. These findings suggested that inflammation induced by MCMV infection could underlie deficits in CNS development. We investigated the contribution of host inflammatory responses to abnormal cerebellar development by modulating inflammatory responses in infected mice with glucocorticoids. Treatment of infected animals with glucocorticoids decreased activation of CNS mononuclear cells and expression of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IFN-β and IFNγ) in the CNS while minimally impacting CNS virus replication. Glucocorticoid treatment also limited morphogenic abnormalities and normalized the expression of developmentally regulated genes within the cerebellum. Importantly, GNPC proliferation deficits were normalized in MCMV infected mice following glucocorticoid treatment. Our findings argue that host inflammatory responses to MCMV infection contribute to deficits in CNS development in MCMV infected mice and suggest that similar mechanisms of disease could be responsible for the abnormal CNS development in human infants infected in-utero with HCMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Kosmac
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America.
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21
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Role of interferon regulatory factor 7 in T cell responses during acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection. J Virol 2012; 86:11254-65. [PMID: 22875973 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00576-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Type I interferons (IFNs), predominantly IFN-α and -β, play critical roles in both innate and adaptive immune responses against viral infections. Interferon regulatory factor 7 (IRF7), a key innate immune molecule in the type I IFN signaling pathway, is essential for the type I IFN response to many viruses, including lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). Here, we show that although IRF7 knockout (KO) mice failed to control the replication of LCMV in the early stages of infection, they were capable of clearing LCMV infection. Despite the lack of type I IFN production, IRF7 KO mice generated normal CD4(+) T cell responses, and the expansion of naïve CD8(+) T cells into primary CD8(+) T cells specific for LCMV GP(33-41) was relatively normal. In contrast, the expansion of the LCMV NP(396)-specific CD8(+) T cells was severely impaired in IRF7 KO mice. We demonstrated that this defective CD8(+) T cell response is due neither to an impaired antigen-presenting system nor to any intrinsic role of IRF7 in CD8(+) T cells. The lack of a type I IFN response in IRF7 KO mice did not affect the formation of memory CD8(+) T cells. Thus, the present study provides new insight into the impact of the innate immune system on viral pathogenesis and demonstrates the critical contribution of innate immunity in controlling virus replication in the early stages of infection, which may shape the quality of CD8(+) T cell responses.
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22
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Zirger JM, Puntel M, Bergeron J, Wibowo M, Moridzadeh R, Bondale N, Barcia C, Kroeger KM, Liu C, Castro MG, Lowenstein PR. Immune-mediated loss of transgene expression from virally transduced brain cells is irreversible, mediated by IFNγ, perforin, and TNFα, and due to the elimination of transduced cells. Mol Ther 2012; 20:808-19. [PMID: 22233583 PMCID: PMC3321600 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2011.243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2011] [Accepted: 10/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The adaptive immune response to viral vectors reduces vector-mediated transgene expression from the brain. It is unknown, however, whether this loss is caused by functional downregulation of transgene expression or death of transduced cells. Herein, we demonstrate that during the elimination of transgene expression, the brain becomes infiltrated with CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells and that these T cells are necessary for transgene elimination. Further, the loss of transgene-expressing brain cells fails to occur in the absence of IFNγ, perforin, and TNFα receptor. Two methods to induce severe immune suppression in immunized animals also fail to restitute transgene expression, demonstrating the irreversibility of this process. The need for cytotoxic molecules and the irreversibility of the reduction in transgene expression suggested to us that elimination of transduced cells is responsible for the loss of transgene expression. A new experimental paradigm that discriminates between downregulation of transgene expression and the elimination of transduced cells demonstrates that transduced cells are lost from the brain upon the induction of a specific antiviral immune response. We conclude that the anti-adenoviral immune response reduces transgene expression in the brain through loss of transduced cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Zirger
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Mariana Puntel
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Josee Bergeron
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Mia Wibowo
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Rameen Moridzadeh
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Niyati Bondale
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Carlos Barcia
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Kurt M Kroeger
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Deceased
| | - Chunyan Liu
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Maria G Castro
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Current address: Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Michigan, Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Current address: Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, The University of Michigan, Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Pedro R Lowenstein
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Current address: Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Michigan, Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Current address: Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, The University of Michigan, Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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T cell responses in experimental viral retinitis: Mechanisms, peculiarities and implications for gene therapy with viral vectors. Prog Retin Eye Res 2011; 30:275-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2011.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2010] [Revised: 04/17/2011] [Accepted: 04/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Droebner K, Klein B, Paxian S, Schmid R, Stitz L, Planz O. The Alternative NF-κB Signalling Pathway is a Prerequisite for an Appropriate Immune Response Against Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Infection. Viral Immunol 2010; 23:295-308. [DOI: 10.1089/vim.2009.0101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Karoline Droebner
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Immunology, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bettina Klein
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Immunology, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stephan Paxian
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Technical University of Munich, München, Germany
| | - Roland Schmid
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Technical University of Munich, München, Germany
| | - Lothar Stitz
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Immunology, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Oliver Planz
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Immunology, Tübingen, Germany
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Franka R, Wu X, Jackson FR, Velasco-Villa A, Palmer DP, Henderson H, Hayat W, Green DB, Blanton JD, Greenberg L, Rupprecht CE. Rabies virus pathogenesis in relationship to intervention with inactivated and attenuated rabies vaccines. Vaccine 2010; 27:7149-55. [PMID: 19925945 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.09.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2009] [Accepted: 09/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Despite progress in vaccine development in the past century the mechanisms behind immune responses elicited by rabies biologics or via natural infection remain largely unknown. In this study, we compared protection elicited by standard, early, or delayed prophylaxis with a reduced number of vaccine doses using inactivated and live-attenuated vaccines. Two-month-old Syrian hamsters, 4-week-old ICR mice or adult rhesus macaques were inoculated with canine rabies virus variants. Thereafter, prophylaxis was initiated 6h, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 days post-exposure (p.e.). One or several doses of inactivated (HDCV), or reverse genetically attenuated (live), or gamma-irradiated (inactivated)-ERAG333 vaccines were administered intramuscularly. The dynamics of virus spread were measured over time in the rodent models. Rabies virus reached the spinal cord at day 4 and brain at day 6 p.e. All hamsters succumbed in groups in which live ERAG333 was delayed until days 5 and 6 p.e. However, 78%, 44%, 56% and 22% of hamsters survived when one dose of live ERAG333 was administered 6h, 1, 2, 3, and 4 days p.e., respectively. Similarly, 67% survived when inactivated ERAG333 was administered at 24h p.e. All hamsters succumbed when standard prophylaxis (the Essen regimen) was delayed until days 3-6, but 67% and 33% of hamsters survived when PEP began 1 or 2 days p.e., respectively. Macaques were protected by one dose of attenuated ERAG333 at 24h p.e. The highly attenuated (live) and inactivated ERAG333 vaccines elicited potent protective immune responses, even when prophylaxis initiation was delayed. When 2-5 doses of commercial vaccine and HRIG were administered according to the Essen scheme, 89-100% of the animals survived. Reduced vaccine schedules provided efficacious intervention, regardless of the total number of vaccine doses administered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Franka
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-borne and Enteric Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Inflammation on the mind: visualizing immunity in the central nervous system. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2009; 334:227-63. [PMID: 19521688 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-93864-4_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) is a remarkably complex structure that utilizes electrochemical signaling to coordinate activities throughout the entire body. Because the nervous system contains nonreplicative cells, it is postulated that, through evolutionary pressures, this compartment has acquired specialized mechanisms to limit damage. One potential source of damage comes from our immune system, which has the capacity to survey the CNS and periphery for the presence of foreign material. The immune system is equipped with numerous effector mechanisms and can greatly alter the homeostasis and function of the CNS. Degeneration, autoimmunity, and pathogen infection can all result in acute, and sometimes chronic, inflammation within the CNS. Understanding the specialized functionality of innate and adaptive immune cells within the CNS is critical to the design of more efficacious treatments to mitigate CNS inflammatory conditions. Much of our knowledge of CNS-immune interactions stems from seminal studies that have used static and dynamic imaging approaches to visualize inflammatory cells responding to different CNS conditions. This review will focus on how imaging techniques have elevated our understanding of CNS inflammation as well as the exciting prospects that lie ahead as we begin to pursue investigation of the inflamed CNS in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Diamond
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, and Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, United States of America.
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Immunopathological basis of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus-induced chorioretinitis and keratitis. J Virol 2008; 83:159-66. [PMID: 18945766 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01211-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The infection of humans with the rodent-borne lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) can lead to central nervous system disease in adults or severe neurological disease with hydrocephalus and chorioretinitis in children infected congenitally. Although LCMV-induced meningitis and encephalitis have been studied extensively, the immunopathological mechanisms underlying LCMV infection-associated ocular disease remain elusive. We report here that the intraocular administration of the neurotropic LCMV strain Armstrong (Arm) elicited pronounced chorioretinitis and keratitis and that infection with the more viscerotropic strains WE and Docile precipitated less severe immunopathological ocular disease. Time course analyses revealed that LCMV Arm infection of the uvea and neuroretina led to monophasic chorioretinitis which peaked between days 7 and 12 after infection. Analyses of T-cell-deficient mouse strains showed that LCMV-mediated ocular disease was strictly dependent on the presence of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells and that the contribution of CD4(+) T cells was negligible. Whereas the topical application of immunosuppressive agents did not prevent the development of chorioretinitis, passive immunization with hyperimmune sera partially prevented retinal and corneal damage. Likewise, mice displaying preexisting LCMV-specific T-cell responses were protected against LCMV-induced ocular disease. Thus, antibody- and/or T-cell-based vaccination protocols could be employed as preventive strategies against LCMV-mediated chorioretinitis.
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Kang SS, McGavern DB. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis infection of the central nervous system. FRONTIERS IN BIOSCIENCE : A JOURNAL AND VIRTUAL LIBRARY 2008; 13:4529-43. [PMID: 18508527 PMCID: PMC5279998 DOI: 10.2741/3021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Viral infection of the central nervous system (CNS) can result in a multitude of responses including pathology, persistence or immune clearance. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) is a powerful model system to explore these potential outcomes of CNS infection due to the diversity of responses that can be achieved after viral inoculation. Several factors including tropism, timing, dose and variant of LCMV in combination with the development or suppression of the corresponding immune response dictates whether lethal meningitis, chronic infection or clearance of LCMV in the CNS will occur. Importantly, the functionality and positioning of the LCMV-specific CD8+ T cell response are critical in directing the subsequent outcome of CNS LCMV infection. Although a basic understanding of LCMV and immune interactions in the brain exists, the molecular machinery that shapes the balance between pathogenesis and clearance in the LCMV-infected CNS remains to be elucidated. This review covers the various outcomes of LCMV infection in the CNS and what is currently known about the impact of the virus itself versus the immune response in the development of disease or clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia S. Kang
- Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Department, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
- Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Dorian B. McGavern
- Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Department, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
- Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
- Harold L. Dorris Neurological Research Institute, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
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Regulation of immune response and inflammatory reactions against viral infection by VCAM-1. J Virol 2008; 82:2952-65. [PMID: 18216105 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02191-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The migration of activated antigen-specific immune cells to the target tissues of virus replication is controlled by the expression of adhesion molecules on the vascular endothelium that bind to ligands on circulating lymphocytes. Here, we demonstrate that the adhesion pathway mediated by vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) plays a role in regulating T-cell-mediated inflammation and pathology in nonlymphoid tissues, including the central nervous system (CNS) during viral infection. The ablation of VCAM-1 expression from endothelial and hematopoietic cells using a loxP-Cre recombination strategy had no major effect on the induction or overall tissue distribution of antigen-specific T cells during a systemic infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), except in the case of lung tissue. However, enhanced resistance to lethal LCM and the significantly reduced magnitude and duration of footpad swelling observed in VCAM-1 mutant mice compared to B6 controls suggest a significant role for VCAM-1 in promoting successful local inflammatory reactions associated with efficient viral clearance and even life-threatening immunopathology under particular infection conditions. Interestingly, analysis of the infiltrating populations in the brains of intracerebrally infected mice revealed that VCAM-1 deletion significantly delayed migration into the CNS of antigen-presenting cells (macrophages and dendritic cells), which are critical for optimal stimulation of migrating virus-specific CD8(+) T cells initiating a pathological cascade. We propose that the impaired migration of these accessory cells in the brain may explain the improved clinical outcome of infection in VCAM-1 mutant mice. Thus, these results underscore the potential role of VCAM-1 in regulating the immune response and inflammatory reactions against viral infections.
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Lauterbach H, Truong P, McGavern DB. Clearance of an immunosuppressive virus from the CNS coincides with immune reanimation and diversification. Virol J 2007; 4:53. [PMID: 17553158 PMCID: PMC1899484 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-4-53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2007] [Accepted: 06/06/2007] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Once a virus infection establishes persistence in the central nervous system (CNS), it is especially difficult to eliminate from this specialized compartment. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to fully understand scenarios during which a persisting virus is ultimately purged from the CNS by the adaptive immune system. Such a scenario can be found following infection of adult mice with an immunosuppressive variant of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) referred to as clone 13. In this study we demonstrate that following intravenous inoculation, clone 13 rapidly infected peripheral tissues within one week, but more slowly inundated the entire brain parenchyma over the course of a month. During the establishment of persistence, we observed that genetically tagged LCMV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) progressively lost function; however, the severity of this loss in the CNS was never as substantial as that observed in the periphery. One of the most impressive features of this model system is that the peripheral T cell response eventually regains functionality at ~60–80 days post-infection, and this was associated with a rapid decline in virus from the periphery. Coincident with this "reanimation phase" was a massive influx of CD4 T and B cells into the CNS and a dramatic reduction in viral distribution. In fact, olfactory bulb neurons served as the last refuge for the persisting virus, which was ultimately purged from the CNS within 200 days post-infection. These data indicate that a functionally revived immune response can prevail over a virus that establishes widespread presence both in the periphery and brain parenchyma, and that therapeutic enhancement of an existing response could serve as an effective means to thwart long term CNS persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henning Lauterbach
- Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Department, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Rd., La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Phi Truong
- Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Department, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Rd., La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Dorian B McGavern
- Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Department, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Rd., La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Harold L. Dorris Neurological Research Institute, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Rd., La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Lauterbach H, Zuniga EI, Truong P, Oldstone MBA, McGavern DB. Adoptive immunotherapy induces CNS dendritic cell recruitment and antigen presentation during clearance of a persistent viral infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 203:1963-75. [PMID: 16847068 PMCID: PMC2118382 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20060039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Given the global impact of persistent infections on the human population, it is of the utmost importance to devise strategies to noncytopathically purge tissues of infectious agents. The central nervous system (CNS) poses a unique challenge when considering such strategies, as it is an immunologically specialized compartment that contains a nonreplicative cell population. Administration of exogenously derived pathogen-specific memory T cells (referred to as adoptive immunotherapy) to mice burdened with a persistent lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection from birth results in eradication of the pathogen from all tissues, including the CNS. In this study, we sought mechanistic insights into this highly successful therapeutic approach. By monitoring the migration of traceable LCMV-specific memory CD8+ T cells after immunotherapy, it was revealed that cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) distributed widely throughout the CNS compartment early after immunotherapy, which resulted in a dramatic elevation in the activity of CNS antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Immunotherapy induced microglia activation as well as the recruitment of macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) into the brain parenchyma. However, DCs emerged as the only CNS APC population capable of inducing memory CTLs to preferentially produce the antiviral cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α, a cytokine demonstrated to be required for successful immunotherapeutic clearance. DCs were also found to be an essential element of the immunotherapeutic process because in their absence, memory T cells failed to undergo secondary expansion, and viral clearance was not attained in the CNS. These experiments underscore the importance of DCs in the immunotherapeutic clearance of a persistent viral infection and suggest that strategies to elevate the activation/migration of DCs (especially within the CNS) may facilitate pathogen clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henning Lauterbach
- Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Department, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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33
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Becher B, Bechmann I, Greter M. Antigen presentation in autoimmunity and CNS inflammation: how T lymphocytes recognize the brain. J Mol Med (Berl) 2006; 84:532-43. [PMID: 16773356 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-006-0065-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2005] [Accepted: 03/02/2006] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) is traditionally viewed as an immune privileged site in which overzealous immune cells are prevented from doing irreparable damage. It was believed that immune responses occurring within the CNS could potentially do more damage than the initial pathogenic insult itself. However, virtually every aspect of CNS tissue damage, including degeneration, tumors, infection, and of course autoimmunity, involves a significant cellular inflammatory component. While the blood-brain barrier (BBB) inhibits diffusion of hydrophilic (immune) molecules across brain capillaries, activated lymphocytes readily pass the endothelial layer of postcapillary venules without difficulty. In classic neuro-immune diseases such as multiple sclerosis or acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, it is thought that neuroantigen-reactive lymphocytes, which have escaped immune tolerance, now invade the CNS and are responsible for tissue damage, demyelination, and axonal degeneration. The developed animal model for these disorders, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), reflects many aspects of the human conditions. Studies in EAE proved that auto-reactive encephalitogenic T helper (Th) cells are responsible for the onset of the disease. Th cells recognize their cognate antigen (Ag) only when presented by professional Ag-presenting cells in the context of major histocompatibility complex class II molecules. The apparent target structures of EAE immunity are myelinating oligodendrocytes, which are not capable of presenting Ag to invading encephalitogenic T cells. A compulsory third party is thus required to mediate between the attacking T cells and the myelin-expressing target. This review will discuss the recent advances in this field of research and we will discuss the journey of an auto-reactive T cell from its site of activation into perivascular spaces and further into the target tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Burkhard Becher
- Neurology Department, Division for Neuroimmunology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
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34
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Goffic RL, Balloy V, Lagranderie M, Alexopoulou L, Escriou N, Flavell R, Chignard M, Si-Tahar M. Detrimental contribution of the Toll-like receptor (TLR)3 to influenza A virus-induced acute pneumonia. PLoS Pathog 2006; 2:e53. [PMID: 16789835 PMCID: PMC1475659 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0020053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 399] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2005] [Accepted: 04/26/2006] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) is the etiological agent of a highly contagious acute respiratory disease that causes epidemics and considerable mortality annually. Recently, we demonstrated, using an in vitro approach, that the pattern recognition Toll-like receptor (TLR)3 plays a key role in the immune response of lung epithelial cells to IAV. In view of these data and the fact that the functional role of TLR3 in vivo is still debated, we designed an investigation to better understand the role of TLR3 in the mechanisms of IAV pathogenesis and host immune response using an experimental murine model. The time-course of several dynamic parameters, including animal survival, respiratory suffering, viral clearance, leukocyte recruitment into the airspaces and secretion of critical inflammatory mediators, was compared in infected wild-type and TLR3−/− mice. First, we found that the pulmonary expression of TLR3 is constitutive and markedly upregulated following influenza infection in control mice. Notably, when compared to wild-type mice, infected TLR3−/− animals displayed significantly reduced inflammatory mediators, including RANTES (regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted), interleukin-6, and interleukin-12p40/p70 as well as a lower number of CD8+ T lymphocytes in the bronchoalveolar airspace. More important, despite a higher viral production in the lungs, mice deficient in TLR3 had an unexpected survival advantage. Hence, to our knowledge, our findings show for the first time that TLR3-IAV interaction critically contributes to the debilitating effects of a detrimental host inflammatory response. Influenza A virus (IAV) is responsible for highly contagious acute respiratory disease. Recent concerns have risen concerning a possible influenza pandemic in the near future. Thus, a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of IAV pathogenesis and host immune responses is required for the development of more efficient means of prevention and treatment of influenza. The Toll-like receptor (TLR)3 is a member of a family of receptors that detects microbes and triggers host defenses. We previously demonstrated using an in vitro approach, that the TLR3 plays a key role in the response of lung epithelial cells to IAV. Here, we used a mouse model to dissect the in vivo importance of TLR3-dependent responses during influenza. The time-course of several parameters, including animal survival, respiratory distress, viral clearance, and inflammation, was compared in infected control wild-type and TLR3-deficient mice. Our findings reveal that TLR3−/− mice have an unexpected advantage against IAV challenge as we show for the first time that a reduction of TLR3-mediated inflammatory response reduces the clinical manifestations of IAV-induced pneumonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronan Le Goffic
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Défense Innée et Inflammation, Paris, France
- INSERM, E336, Paris, France
| | - Viviane Balloy
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Défense Innée et Inflammation, Paris, France
- INSERM, E336, Paris, France
| | | | - Lena Alexopoulou
- Université de la Méditerranée, Faculté des Sciences de Luminy, Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy (CIML), Marseille, France
- INSERM U631, Marseille, France
- CNRS, UMR6102, Marseille, France
| | - Nicolas Escriou
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Génétique Moléculaire des Virus Respiratoires, CNRS URA 1966, Paris, France
| | - Richard Flavell
- Section of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Michel Chignard
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Défense Innée et Inflammation, Paris, France
- INSERM, E336, Paris, France
| | - Mustapha Si-Tahar
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Défense Innée et Inflammation, Paris, France
- INSERM, E336, Paris, France
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Ramakrishna C, Atkinson RA, Stohlman SA, Bergmann CC. Vaccine-induced memory CD8+ T cells cannot prevent central nervous system virus reactivation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:3062-9. [PMID: 16493065 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.5.3062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Noncytopathic viruses use multiple strategies to evade immune detection, challenging a role for vaccine induced CTL in preventing microbial persistence. Recrudescence of neurotropic coronavirus due to loss of T cell-mediated immune control provided an experimental model to test T cell vaccination efficacy in the absence of Ab. Challenge virus was rapidly controlled in vaccinated Ab-deficient mice coincident with accelerated recruitment of memory CD8+ T cells and enhanced effector function compared with primary CD8+ T cell responses. In contrast to primary effectors, reactivated memory cells persisted in the CNS at higher frequencies and retained ex vivo cytolytic activity. Nevertheless, despite earlier and prolonged T cell-mediated control in the CNS of vaccinated mice, virus ultimately reactivated. Apparent loss of memory CD8+ effector function in vivo was supported by a prominent decline in MHC expression on CNS resident target cells, presumably reflecting diminished IFN-gamma. Severely reduced MHC expression on glial cells at the time of recrudescence suggested that memory T cells, although fully armed to exert antiviral activity upon Ag recognition in vitro, are not responsive in an environment presenting few if any target MHC molecules. Paradoxically, effective clearance of viral Ag thus affords persisting virus a window of opportunity to escape from immune surveillance. These studies demonstrate that vaccine-induced T cell memory alone is unable to control persisting virus in a tissue with strict IFN-dependent MHC regulation, as evident in immune privileged sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandran Ramakrishna
- Department of Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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Abstract
Persistent infections and amyloid disorders afflict a significant number of people worldwide. It would appear at first glance that the treatment of these afflictions should be entirely unrelated; however, in both cases components of the adaptive immune system have been harnessed in an attempt to provide some therapeutic relief. Given that the ability of a pathogen to establish persistence often depends in part on a shortcoming of the adaptive immune response, it seems logical to devise immunotherapies with the intention of supplementing (or replacing) the insufficient immunologic element. A case in point is an intervention referred as immunocytotherapy, which relies upon the adoptive transfer of pathogen-specific T lymphocytes into a persistently infected host. Remarkably, the adoptively transferred T lymphocytes not only have the capacity to clear the persistent infection, but can also provide the recipient with protection against subsequent rechallenge (i.e., immunologic memory). Treatment of amyloid disorders (e.g., Alzheimer disease, sporadic inclusion-body myositis) with a similar therapeutic approach is complicated by the fact that the aberrant protein accumulations are self-derived. Focusing the adaptive response on these aberrant self-proteins has the potential to result in autoimmune pathology. This review critically evaluates the importance of immunotherapeutic approaches for the treatment of persistent infections and amyloid disorders, and attempts to delineate the interventions that are most likely to succeed in an exceedingly complex disorder such as sporadic inclusion-body myositis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorian B McGavern
- Division of Virology, Department of Neuropharmacology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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Storm P, Bartholdy C, Sørensen MR, Christensen JP, Thomsen AR. Perforin-deficient CD8+ T cells mediate fatal lymphocytic choriomeningitis despite impaired cytokine production. J Virol 2006; 80:1222-30. [PMID: 16414999 PMCID: PMC1346958 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.3.1222-1230.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracerebral (i.c.) infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) is one of the most studied models for virus-induced immunopathology, and based on results from perforin-deficient mice, it is currently assumed that fatal disease directly reflects perforin-mediated cell lysis. However, recent studies have revealed additional functional defects within the effector T cells of LCMV-infected perforin-deficient mice, raising the possibility that perforin may not be directly involved in mediating lethal disease. For this reason, we decided to reevaluate the role of perforin in determining the outcome of i.c. infection with LCMV. We confirmed that the expansion of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells is unimpaired in perforin-deficient mice. However, despite the fact that the virus-specific CD8(+) effector T cells in perforin-deficient mice are broadly impaired in their effector function, these mice invariably succumb to i.c. infection with LCMV strain Armstrong, although a few days later than matched wild-type mice. Upon further investigation, we found that this delay correlates with the delayed recruitment of inflammatory cells to the central nervous system (CNS). However, CD8(+) effector T cells were not kept from the CNS by sequestering in infected extraneural organ sites such as liver or lungs. Thus, the observed dysfunctionality regarding the production of proinflammatory mediators probably results in the delayed recruitment of effector cells to the CNS, and this appears to be the main explanation for the delayed onset of fatal disease in perforin-deficient mice. However, once accumulated in the CNS, virus-specific CD8(+) T cells can induce fatal CNS pathology despite the absence of perforin-mediated lysis and reduced capacity to produce several key cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pernille Storm
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, The Panum Institute, 3C Blegdamsvej, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
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Ling C, Sandor M, Suresh M, Fabry Z. Traumatic injury and the presence of antigen differentially contribute to T-cell recruitment in the CNS. J Neurosci 2006; 26:731-41. [PMID: 16421293 PMCID: PMC6675378 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3502-05.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
T-cell recruitment into the brain is critical in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases of the CNS. We use intracerebral antigen microinjection and tetramer technology to track antigen-specific CD8+ T-cells in the CNS and to clarify the contribution of antigen deposition or traumatic injury to the accumulation of T-cells in the brain. We demonstrate that, after intracerebral microinjection of ovalbumin, ovalbumin-specific CD8+ T-cells expand systemically and then migrate into the brain where they complete additional proliferation cycles. T-cells in the brain are activated and respond to in vitro secondary antigen challenge. CD8+ T-cells accumulate and persist in sites of antigen in the brain without replenishment from the periphery. Persistent survival of CD8+ T-cells at sites of cognate antigen is significantly reduced by blocking CD154 molecules. A small traumatic injury itself does not lead to recruitment of CD8+ T-cells into the brain but attracts activated antigen-specific CD8+ T-cells from cognate antigen injection sites. This process is presumably antigen independent and cannot be inhibited by blocking CD154 molecules. These data show that activated antigen-specific CD8+ T-cells accumulate in the CNS at both cognate antigen-containing and traumatic injury sites after intracerebral antigen delivery. The accumulation of activated antigen-specific T-cells at traumatic injury sites, in addition to antigen-containing areas, could amplify local inflammatory processes in the CNS. Combination therapies in neuroinflammatory diseases to block both of these processes should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changying Ling
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison Medical School, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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Klein RS, Lin E, Zhang B, Luster AD, Tollett J, Samuel MA, Engle M, Diamond MS. Neuronal CXCL10 directs CD8+ T-cell recruitment and control of West Nile virus encephalitis. J Virol 2005; 79:11457-66. [PMID: 16103196 PMCID: PMC1193600 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.17.11457-11466.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 328] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The activation and entry of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells into the central nervous system is an essential step towards clearance of West Nile virus (WNV) from infected neurons. The molecular signals responsible for the directed migration of virus-specific T cells and their cellular sources are presently unknown. Here we demonstrate that in response to WNV infection, neurons secrete the chemokine CXCL10, which recruits effector T cells via the chemokine receptor CXCR3. Neutralization or a genetic deficiency of CXCL10 leads to a decrease in CXCR3(+) CD8(+) T-cell trafficking, an increase in viral burden in the brain, and enhanced morbidity and mortality. These data support a new paradigm in chemokine neurobiology, as neurons are not generally considered to generate antiviral immune responses, and CXCL10 may represent a novel neuroprotective agent in response to WNV infection in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn S Klein
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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Abstract
As measles virus causes subacute sclerosing panencephalitis and measles inclusion body encephalitis due to its ability to establish human persistent infection, without symptoms for the time between the acute infection and the onset of clinical symptoms, it has been the paradigm for a long term persistent as opposed to chronic infection by an RNA virus. We have reviewed the mechanisms of persistence of the virus and discuss specific mutations associated with CNS infection affecting the matrix and fusion protein genes. These are placed in the context of our current understanding of the viral replication cycle. We also consider the proposed mechanisms of persistence of the virus in replicating cell cultures and conclude that no general mechanistic model can be derived from our current state of knowledge. Finally, we indicate how reverse genetics approaches and the use of mouse models with specific knock-out and knock-in modifications can further our understanding of measles virus persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertus K Rima
- School of Biology and Biochemistry and Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, The Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK.
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41
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Oldstone MBA. Future trends in neurovirology: neuronal survival during virus infection and analysis of virus-specific T cells in central nervous system tissues. J Neurovirol 2005; 10:207-15. [PMID: 15371150 DOI: 10.1080/13550280490468438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The recent ability to quantitate and localize the interaction of antigen-specific T cells in the central nervous system during infectious and autoimmune diseases will greatly enhance our understanding of the molecular and biologic basis of virus-induced diseases of the nervous and other systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B A Oldstone
- Division of Virology, Department of Neuropharmacology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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42
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Bryceson YT, Foster JA, Kuppusamy SP, Herkenham M, Long EO. Expression of a killer cell receptor-like gene in plastic regions of the central nervous system. J Neuroimmunol 2005; 161:177-82. [PMID: 15748957 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2004] [Revised: 11/26/2004] [Accepted: 11/29/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A property common to the immune system and the nervous system is regulation by a highly complex and adaptable network of cellular interactions. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules, which are ligands of antigen-specific receptors on CD8 T cells and of inhibitory receptors on natural killer cells, have an important and surprising role in the control of activity-dependent neuronal plasticity in the central nervous system (CNS). While expression of MHC class I molecules in neurons has been reported, corresponding immune receptors have not been identified in the CNS. Here we show selective expression of a gene related to killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR) genes in subregions of the mouse brain where synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis occur, including olfactory bulbs, rostral migratory stream and dentate gyrus of hippocampus. These results suggest new functions for KIR-like molecules in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y T Bryceson
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 12441 Parklawn Drive, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
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43
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Abstract
It is generally accepted that both self- and pathogen-specific T lymphocytes have the potential to mediate immunopathogenesis and contribute to a variety of human ailments. Despite this unfortunate tendency to induce tissue injury, these cells are guided by interactions with peptide-loaded major histocompatibility complexes (MHC) and adhere appropriately to a vital evolutionary constraint imposed by the host: specificity. More recently, a series of studies have demonstrated that bystander T cells of an irrelevant specificity can bypass peptide/MHC restriction and become active participants in immunopathology. This review critically evaluates the role of bystander T cells in immunopathogenesis and pathogen clearance in the periphery as well as the central nervous system and attempts to establish the likelihood of their participation in human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorian B McGavern
- Division of Virology, Department of Neuropharmacology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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44
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Ritchie KJ, Hahn CS, Kim KI, Yan M, Rosario D, Li L, de la Torre JC, Zhang DE. Role of ISG15 protease UBP43 (USP18) in innate immunity to viral infection. Nat Med 2004; 10:1374-8. [PMID: 15531891 DOI: 10.1038/nm1133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2004] [Accepted: 09/17/2004] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Innate immune responses provide the host with an early protection barrier against infectious agents, including viruses, and help shape the nature and quality of the subsequent adaptive immune responses of the host. Expression of ISG15 (UCRP), a ubiquitin-like protein, and protein ISGylation are highly increased upon viral infection. We have identified UBP43 (USP18) as an ISG15 deconjugating protease. Protein ISGylation is enhanced in cells deficient in UBP43 (ref. 6). Here we have examined the role of UBP43, encoded by the gene Usp18, in innate immunity to virus infection. Usp18(-/-) mice were resistant to the fatal lymphocytic choriomeningitis and myeloencephalitis that developed in wild-type mice after intracerebral inoculation with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) or vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), respectively. Survival of Usp18(-/-) mice after intracerebral LCMV infection correlated with a severe inhibition of LCMV RNA replication and antigen expression in the brain and increased levels of protein ISGylation. Consistent with these findings, mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) and bone marrow-derived macrophages from Usp18(-/-) mice showed restricted LCMV replication. Moreover, MEF from Usp18(-/-) mice showed enhanced interferon-mediated resistance to the cytopathic effect caused by VSV and Sindbis virus (SNV). This report provides the first direct evidence that the ISG15 protease UBP43 and possibly protein ISGylation have a role in innate immunity against viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth J Ritchie
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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45
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McGavern DB, Truong P. Rebuilding an immune-mediated central nervous system disease: weighing the pathogenicity of antigen-specific versus bystander T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:4779-90. [PMID: 15470017 PMCID: PMC5319420 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.8.4779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Although both self- and pathogen-specific T cells can participate in tissue destruction, recent studies have proposed that after viral infection, bystander T cells of an irrelevant specificity can bypass peptide-MHC restriction and contribute to undesired immunopathological consequences. To evaluate the importance of this mechanism of immunopathogenesis, we determined the relative contributions of Ag-specific and bystander CD8+ T cells to the development of CNS disease. Using lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) as a stimulus for T cell recruitment into the CNS, we demonstrate that bystander CD8+ T cells with an activated surface phenotype can indeed be recruited into the CNS over a chronic time window. These cells become anatomically positioned in the CNS parenchyma, and a fraction aberrantly acquires the capacity to produce the effector cytokine, IFN-gamma. However, when directly compared with their virus-specific counterparts, the contribution of bystander T cells to CNS damage was insignificant in nature (even when specifically activated). Although bystander T cells alone failed to cause tissue injury, transferring as few as 1000 naive LCMV-specific CD8+ T cells into a restricted repertoire containing only bystander T cells was sufficient to induce immune-mediated pathology and reconstitute a fatal CNS disease. These studies underscore the importance of specific T cells in the development of immunopathology and subsequent disease. Because of highly restrictive constraints imposed by the host, it is more likely that specific, rather than nonspecific, bystander T cells are the active participants in T cell-mediated diseases that afflict humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorian B McGavern
- Department of Neuropharmacology, Division of Virology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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