Sphingosine 1-phosphate induces antimicrobial activity both in vitro and in vivo

Whole-transcriptome sequencing of phagocytes reveals a ceRNA network contributing to natural resistance to tuberculosis infection

Tuberculosis (TB) is a major fatal infectious disease globally, exhibiting high morbidity rates and impacting public health and other socio-economic factors. However, some individuals are resistant to TB infection and are referred to as "Resisters". Resisters remain uninfected even after exposure to high load of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). To delineate this further, this study aimed to investigate the factors and mechanisms influencing the Mtb resistance phenotype. We assayed the phagocytic capacity of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) collected from Resisters, patients with latent TB infection (LTBI), and patients with active TB (ATB), following infection with fluorescent Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG). Phagocytosis was stronger in PBMCs from ATB patients, and comparable in LTBI patients and Resisters. Subsequently, phagocytes were isolated and subjected to whole transcriptome sequencing and small RNA sequencing to analyze transcriptional expression profiles and identify potential targets associated with the resistance phenotype. The results revealed that a total of 277 mRNAs, 589 long non-coding RNAs, 523 circular RNAs, and 35 microRNAs were differentially expressed in Resisters and LTBI patients. Further, the endogenous competitive RNA (ceRNA) network was constructed from differentially expressed genes after screening. Bioinformatics, statistical analysis, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction were used for the identification and validation of potential crucial targets in the ceRNA network. As a result, we obtained a ceRNA network that contributes to the resistance phenotype. TCONS_00034796-F3, ENST00000629441-DDX43, hsa-ATAD3A_0003-CYP17A1, and XR_932996.2-CERS1 may be crucial association pairs for resistance to TB infection. Overall, this study demonstrated that the phagocytic capacity of PBMCs was not a determinant of the resistance phenotype and that some non-coding RNAs could be involved in the natural resistance to TB infection through a ceRNA mechanism.

The antimicrobial activity of innate host-directed therapies: A systematic review

Intracellular human pathogens are the deadliest infectious diseases and are difficult to treat effectively due to their protection inside the host cell and the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). An emerging approach to combat these intracellular pathogens is host-directed therapies (HDT), which harness the innate immunity of host cells. HDT rely on small molecules to promote host protection mechanisms that ultimately lead to pathogen clearance. These therapies are hypothesized to: (1) possess indirect yet broad, cross-species antimicrobial activity, (2) effectively target drug-resistant pathogens, (3) carry a reduced susceptibility to the development of AMR and (4) have synergistic action with conventional antimicrobials. As the field of HDT expands, this systematic review was conducted to collect a compendium of HDT and their characteristics, such as the host mechanisms affected, the pathogen inhibited, the concentrations investigated and the magnitude of pathogen inhibition. The evidential support for the main four HDT hypotheses was assessed and concluded that HDT demonstrate robust cross-species activity, are active against AMR pathogens, clinical isolates and laboratory-adapted pathogens. However, limited information exists to support the notion that HDT are synergistic with canonical antimicrobials and are less predisposed to AMR development.

Immunological and metabolic characterization of environmental Mycobacterium chimaera infection in a murine model

Mycobacterium chimaera causes pulmonary disease, but little is known of gradations in isolate virulence. Previously, 17 M. chimaera isolates were screened for survival in THP1 macrophages. "M. chimaera 1" was categorized as "more virulent" because it showed the greatest survival in macrophages, whereas "M. chimaera 2" was categorized as "less virulent" with reduced survival. Herein, we infected C3HeB/FeJ mice to compare the in vivo immune responses to M. chimaera 1 and 2. Unlike macrophages, significantly lower M. chimaera 1 counts were recovered from mouse lung tissue and BAL cells with less lung histopathologic changes compared to M. chimaera 2. Compared to M. chimaera 2, significantly more IL-1β, IL-6, and TNFα was produced early after M. chimaera 1 infection. LC-MS metabolomics analyses of BAL fluid revealed divergence in sphingolipid, phospholipid metabolism between M. chimaera 1 versus M. chimaera 2 mice. From pan-GWAS analyses, virulence and organizing DNA/molecular structure genes were associated with more virulent M. chimaera isolates. Vigorous lung-specific immune responses to M. chimaera 1 may influence effective bacterial control, but for a different isolate M. chimaera 2, subvert immune control. Continued studies of the gradations in virulence among the same NTM species will advance our understanding of NTM pathogenesis.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate signaling during infection and immunity

Sphingolipids are essential components of all eukaryotic membranes. The bioactive sphingolipid molecule, Sphingosine 1-Phosphate (S1P), regulates various important biological functions. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the role of S1P signaling pathway in various immune cell functions under different pathophysiological conditions including bacterial and viral infections, autoimmune disorders, inflammation, and cancer. We covered the aspects of S1P pathways in NOD/TLR pathways, bacterial and viral infections, autoimmune disorders, and tumor immunology. This implies that targeting S1P signaling can be used as a strategy to block these pathologies. Our current understanding of targeting various components of S1P signaling for therapeutic purposes and the present status of S1P pathway inhibitors or modulators in disease conditions where the host immune system plays a pivotal role is the primary focus of this review.

Revolutionizing control strategies against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection through selected targeting of lipid metabolism

Lipid species play a critical role in the growth and virulence expression of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB). During Mtb infection, foamy macrophages accumulate lipids in granulomas, providing metabolic adaptation and survival strategies for Mtb against multiple stresses. Host-derived lipid species, including triacylglycerol and cholesterol, can also contribute to the development of drug-tolerant Mtb, leading to reduced efficacy of antibiotics targeting the bacterial cell wall or transcription. Transcriptional and metabolic analyses indicate that lipid metabolism-associated factors of Mtb are highly regulated by antibiotics and ultimately affect treatment outcomes. Despite the well-known association between major antibiotics and lipid metabolites in TB treatment, a comprehensive understanding of how altered lipid metabolites in both host and Mtb influence treatment outcomes in a drug-specific manner is necessary to overcome drug tolerance. The current review explores the controversies and correlations between lipids and drug efficacy in various Mtb infection models and proposes novel approaches to enhance the efficacy of anti-TB drugs. Moreover, the review provides insights into the efficacious control of Mtb infection by elucidating the impact of lipids on drug efficacy. This review aims to improve the effectiveness of current anti-TB drugs and facilitate the development of innovative therapeutic strategies against Mtb infection by making reverse use of Mtb-favoring lipid species.

Sex Differences in Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Levels Are Dependent on Ceramide Synthase 1 and Ceramidase in Lung Physiology and Tumor Conditions

Sex is a biological variable that can reflect clinical outcomes in terms of quality of life, therapy effectiveness, responsiveness and/or toxicity. Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a lipidic mediator whose activity can be influenced by sex. To evaluate whether the S1P axis underlies sex 'instructions' in the lung during physiological and oncological lung conditions, sphingosine and S1P were quantified in the blood of healthy (H) volunteers, lung adenocarcinoma (ADK) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) patients of both sexes. S1P receptors and their metabolic enzymes were evaluated in the tissues. Circulating levels of S1P were similar among H female and male subjects and female SCC patients. Instead, male and female ADK patients had lower circulating S1P levels. S1P receptor 3 (S1PR3) was physiologically expressed in the lung, but it was overexpressed in male SCC, and female and male ADK, but not in female SCC patients, who showed a significantly reduced ceramide synthase 1 (CERS1) mRNA and an overexpression of the ceramidase (ASAH1) precursor in lung tumor tissues, compared to male SCC and both male and female ADK patients. These findings highlighted sex differences in S1P rheostat in pathological conditions, but not in physiological conditions, identifying S1P as a prognostic mediator depending on lung cancer histotype.

Therapeutic Potentials of Immunometabolomic Modulations Induced by Tuberculosis Vaccination

Metabolomics is emerging as a promising tool to understand the effect of immunometabolism for the development of novel host-directed alternative therapies. Immunometabolism can modulate both innate and adaptive immunity in response to pathogens and vaccinations. For instance, infections can affect lipid and amino acid metabolism while vaccines can trigger bile acid and carbohydrate pathways. Metabolomics as a vaccinomics tool, can provide a broader picture of vaccine-induced biochemical changes and pave a path to potentiate the vaccine efficacy. Its integration with other systems biology tools or treatment modes can enhance the cure, response rate, and control over the emergence of drug-resistant strains. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection can remodel the host metabolism for its survival, while there are many biochemical pathways that the host adjusts to combat the infection. Similarly, the anti-TB vaccine, Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG), was also found to affect the host metabolic pathways thus modulating immune responses. In this review, we highlight the metabolomic schema of the anti-TB vaccine and its therapeutic applications. Rewiring of immune metabolism upon BCG vaccination induces different signaling pathways which lead to epigenetic modifications underlying trained immunity. Metabolic pathways such as glycolysis, central carbon metabolism, and cholesterol synthesis play an important role in these aspects of immunity. Trained immunity and its applications are increasing day by day and it can be used to develop the next generation of vaccines to treat various other infections and orphan diseases. Our goal is to provide fresh insight into this direction and connect various dots to develop a conceptual framework.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors 2 and 3 reprogram resting human macrophages into M1 phenotype following mycobacteria infection

Mycobacteria tuberculosis (M.tb) the causative agent for tuberculosis has been accredited for a high rate of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The rise in MDR and XDR cases has further created new obstacles in achieving the "End TB Strategy", which is aimed for 2035. In this article, we have demonstrated the potential of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) analogs in providing an anti-mycobacterial effector response by altering macrophage polarity into M1. Among S1PR1 and S1PR3 analogs, S1PR2 analogs proficiently favor selective polarization of infected human macrophages into M1 phenotypes, marked by increased expression of M1 markers and decreased M2 markers. Furthermore, S1PR1-3 analogs treated macrophages were also able to decrease the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and can induce NO secretion in infected macrophages. Lastly, only S1PR2-3 analogs were able to restrict the growth of mycobacteria in human macrophages. Taken together our study reflects the potential of S1PR2-3 analogs in providing host defenses following mycobacterial infection by favoring M1 macrophage polarization.

Liposomes as Adjuvants and Vaccine Delivery Systems

The review considers liposomes as systems of substantial interest as adjuvant carriers in vaccinology due to their versatility and maximal biocompatibility. Research and development on the use of liposomes and lipid nanoparticles to create subunit vaccines for the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases has been going on for several decades. In recent years, the area has seen serious progress due to the improvement of the technology of industrial production of various high-grade lipids suitable for parenteral administration and the emergence of new technologies and equipment for the production of liposomal preparations. When developing vaccines, it is necessary to take into account how the body’s immune system (innate and adaptive immunity) functions. The review briefly describes some of the fundamental mechanisms underlying the mobilization of immunity when encountering an antigen, as well as the influence of liposome carriers on the processes of internalization of antigens by immunocompetent cells and ways of immune response induction. The results of the studies on the interactions of liposomes with antigen-presenting cells in function of the liposome size, charge, and phase state of the bilayer, which depends on the lipid composition, are often contradictory and should be verified in each specific case. The introduction of immunostimulant components into the composition of liposomal vaccine complexes—ligands of the pathogen-associated molecular pattern receptors—permits modulation of the strength and type of the immune response. The review briefly discusses liposome-based vaccines approved for use in the clinic for the treatment and prevention of infectious diseases, including mRNA-loaded lipid nanoparticles. Examples of liposomal vaccines that undergo various stages of clinical trials are presented.

Lipid larceny: channelizing host lipids for establishing successful pathogenesis by bacteria

Lipids are complex organic compounds made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. These play a diverse and intricate role in cellular processes like membrane trafficking, protein sorting, signal transduction, and bacterial infections. Both Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus sp., Listeria monocytogenes, etc.) and Gram-negative bacteria (Chlamydia sp., Salmonella sp., E. coli, etc.) can hijack the various host-lipids and utilize them structurally as well as functionally to mount a successful infection. The pathogens can deploy with various arsenals to exploit host membrane lipids and lipid-associated receptors as an attachment for toxins' landing or facilitate their entry into the host cellular niche. Bacterial species like Mycobacterium sp. can also modulate the host lipid metabolism to fetch its carbon source from the host. The sequential conversion of host membrane lipids into arachidonic acid and prostaglandin E2 due to increased activity of cPLA-2 and COX-2 upon bacterial infection creates immunosuppressive conditions and facilitates the intracellular growth and proliferation of bacteria. However, lipids' more debatable role is that they can also be a blessing in disguise. Certain host-lipids, especially sphingolipids, have been shown to play a crucial antibacterial role and help the host in combating the infections. This review shed light on the detailed role of host lipids in bacterial infections and the current understanding of the lipid in therapeutics. We have also discussed potential prospects and the need of the hour to help us cope in this race against deadly pathogens and their rapidly evolving stealthy virulence strategies.

Tuberculosis lymph node granulomas: using transcriptomics to discover immunopathology paradigms and guide host-directed therapy

Immunometabolism is a burgeoning field of investigation in tuberculosis host defense, susceptibility, and pathophysiology. Unbiased approaches to studying tuberculosis have, as expected, confirmed that pathways of immunometabolism are crucial in these disease processes. In this issue of the JCI, Reichmann et al. studied carefully controlled human lymph node tuberculosis and uncovered Sphingosine kinase 1 as a druggable target of interest that could support the infected host. Future host-directed therapy research might seek to establish the different cellular consequences of sphingolipid pathway manipulation. Animal models will be especially useful to establish the role of this pathway, which might target diseased organs to improve mycobactericidal effect and limit pathology.

Integrative Metabolomics to Identify Molecular Signatures of Responses to Vaccines and Infections

Approaches to the identification of metabolites have progressed from early biochemical pathway evaluation to modern high-dimensional metabolomics, a powerful tool to identify and characterize biomarkers of health and disease. In addition to its relevance to classic metabolic diseases, metabolomics has been key to the emergence of immunometabolism, an important area of study, as leukocytes generate and are impacted by key metabolites important to innate and adaptive immunity. Herein, we discuss the metabolomic signatures and pathways perturbed by the activation of the human immune system during infection and vaccination. For example, infection induces changes in lipid (e.g., free fatty acids, sphingolipids, and lysophosphatidylcholines) and amino acid pathways (e.g., tryptophan, serine, and threonine), while vaccination can trigger changes in carbohydrate and bile acid pathways. Amino acid, carbohydrate, lipid, and nucleotide metabolism is relevant to immunity and is perturbed by both infections and vaccinations. Metabolomics holds substantial promise to provide fresh insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying the host immune response. Its integration with other systems biology platforms will enhance studies of human health and disease.

GPCRs as an emerging host-directed therapeutic target against mycobacterial infection: From notion to reality

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) is one of the successful pathogens and claim millions of deaths across the globe. The emergence of drug resistance in M. tb has created new hurdles in the tuberculosis elimination programme worldwide. Hence, there is an unmet medical need for alternative therapy, which could be achieved by targeting the host's critical signalling pathways that are compromised during M. tb infection. In this review, we have summarized some of the findings involving the modulation of host GPCRs in the regulation of the mycobacterial infection. Understanding the role of these GPCRs not only unravels signalling pathways during infection but also provides clues for targeting critical signalling intermediates for the development of GPCR-based host-directive therapy.

Immunometabolism of Phagocytes During Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) remains as a leading killer among infectious diseases worldwide. The nature of the host immune response dictates whether the initial Mtb infection is cleared or progresses toward active disease, and is ultimately determined by intricate host-pathogen interactions that are yet to be fully understood. The early immune response to infection is mediated by innate immune cells, including macrophages and neutrophils that can phagocytose Mtb and mount an antimicrobial response. However, Mtb can exploit these innate immune cells for its survival and dissemination. Recently, it has become clear that the immune response and metabolic remodeling are interconnected, which is highlighted by the rapid evolution of the interdisciplinary field of immunometabolism. It has been proposed that the net outcome to Mtb infection—clearance or chronic disease—is likely a result of combined immunologic and metabolic activities of the immune cells. Indeed, host cells activated by Mtb infection have strikingly different metabolic requirements than naïve/non-infected cells. Macrophages activated by Mtb-derived molecules or upon phagocytosis acquire a phenotype similar to M1 with elevated production of pro-inflammatory molecules and rely on glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathway to meet their bioenergetic and metabolic requirements. In these macrophages, oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid oxidation are dampened. However, the non-infected/naive, M2-type macrophages are anti-inflammatory and derive their energy from oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid oxidation. Similar metabolic adaptations also occur in other phagocytes, including dendritic cells, neutrophils upon Mtb infection. This metabolic reprogramming of innate immune cells during Mtb infection can differentially regulate their effector functions, such as the production of cytokines and chemokines, and antimicrobial response, all of which can ultimately determine the outcome of Mtb-host interactions within the granulomas. In this review, we describe key immune cells bolstering host innate response and discuss the metabolic reprogramming in these phagocytes during Mtb infection. We focused on the major phagocytes, including macrophages, dendritic cells and neutrophils and the key regulators involved in metabolic reprogramming, such as hypoxia-inducible factor-1, mammalian target of rapamycin, the cellular myelocytomatosis, peroxisome proliferator-activator receptors, sirtuins, arginases, inducible nitric acid synthase and sphingolipids.

A Comprehensive Review on the Manipulation of the Sphingolipid Pathway by Pathogenic Bacteria

Bacterial pathogens have developed many different strategies to hijack host cell responses to promote their own survival. The manipulation of lipid biogenesis and cell membrane stability is emerging as a key player in bacterial host cell control. Indeed, many bacterial pathogens such as Legionella, Pseudomonas, Neisseria, Staphylococci, Mycobacteria, Helicobacter, or Clostridia are able to manipulate and use host sphingolipids during multiple steps of the infectious process. Sphingolipids have long been considered only as structural components of cell membranes, however, it is now well known that they are also intracellular and intercellular signaling molecules that play important roles in many eukaryotic cell functions as well as in orchestrating immune responses. Furthermore, they are important to eliminate invading pathogens and play a crucial role in infectious diseases. In this review, we focus on the different strategies employed by pathogenic bacteria to hijack the sphingolipid balance in the host cell to promote cellular colonization.

Sphingosine-1-Phosphate and Macrophage Biology-How the Sphinx Tames the Big Eater

The sphingolipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is produced by sphingosine kinases to either signal through intracellular targets or to activate a family of specific G-protein-coupled receptors (S1PR). S1P levels are usually low in peripheral tissues compared to the vasculature, forming a gradient that mediates lymphocyte trafficking. However, S1P levels rise during inflammation in peripheral tissues, thereby affecting resident or recruited immune cells, including macrophages. As macrophages orchestrate initiation and resolution of inflammation, the sphingosine kinase/S1P/S1P-receptor axis emerges as an important determinant of macrophage function in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis, and infection. In this review, we therefore summarize the current knowledge how S1P affects macrophage biology.

Autophagy in Skin Diseases

Autophagy, or self-eating, is an evolutionarily conserved process in which cytosol and organelles are sequestered within double-membrane vesicles that deliver the contents to the lysosome/vacuole for the degradation and recycling of cytoplasmic components in eukaryotes. It is well recognized that autophagy plays an important role in maintaining cellular homeostasis under physiological and pathophysiological con-ditions and the upregulation of autophagy may serve as an adaptive process to provide nutrients and energy when under stresses. Recently, studies have illustrated that autophagy is intricately related to skin diseases. This review provides a brief synopsis of the process of autophagy and aims to elucidate the roles of autophagy in different skin diseases and to highlight the need for increased research in the field.

Immunometabolic Signatures Predict Risk of Progression to Active Tuberculosis and Disease Outcome

There remains a pressing need for biomarkers that can predict who will progress to active tuberculosis (TB) after exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacterium. By analyzing cohorts of household contacts of TB index cases (HHCs) and a stringent non-human primate (NHP) challenge model, we evaluated whether integration of blood transcriptional profiling with serum metabolomic profiling can provide new understanding of disease processes and enable improved prediction of TB progression. Compared to either alone, the combined application of pre-existing transcriptome- and metabolome-based signatures more accurately predicted TB progression in the HHC cohorts and more accurately predicted disease severity in the NHPs. Pathway and data-driven correlation analyses of the integrated transcriptional and metabolomic datasets further identified novel immunometabolomic signatures significantly associated with TB progression in HHCs and NHPs, implicating cortisol, tryptophan, glutathione, and tRNA acylation networks. These results demonstrate the power of multi-omics analysis to provide new insights into complex disease processes.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling in Leishmania donovani infection in macrophages

BACKGROUND

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a crucial regulator of a wide array of cellular processes, such as apoptosis, cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation, but its role in Leishmania donovani infection is unknown.

METHODOLOGY/ PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

In the present study, we observed that L. donovani infection in THP-1 derived macrophages (TDM) leads to decrease in the expression of S1pr2 and S1pr3 at mRNA level. We further observed that Leishmania infection inhibits the phosphorylation of sphingosine kinase 1 (sphK1) in a time-dependent manner. Exogenous S1P supplementation decreases L. donovani induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation and increases p38 phosphorylation in TDM, resulting in a decrease in the intracellular parasite burden in a dose-dependent manner. On the other hand, sphK inhibition by DMS increases ERK1/2 phosphorylation leading to increased IL-10 and parasite load. To gain further insight, cytokines expression were checked in S1P supplemented TDM and we observed increase in IL-12, while decrease IL-10 expression at mRNA and protein levels. In addition, treatment of antagonist of S1PR2 and S1PR3 such as JTE-013 and CAY10444 respectively enhanced Leishmania-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation and parasite load.

CONCLUSIONS

Our overall study not only reports the significant role of S1P signaling during L. donovani infection but also provides a novel platform for the development of new drugs against Leishmaniasis.

The Multirole of Liposomes in Therapy and Prevention of Infectious Diseases

Liposomes are closed bilayer structures spontaneously formed by hydrated phospholipids that are widely used as efficient delivery systems for drugs or antigens, due to their capability to encapsulate bioactive hydrophilic, amphipathic, and lipophilic molecules into inner water phase or within lipid leaflets. The efficacy of liposomes as drug or antigen carriers has been improved in the last years to ameliorate pharmacokinetics and capacity to release their cargo in selected target organs or cells. Moreover, different formulations and variations in liposome composition have been often proposed to include immunostimulatory molecules, ligands for specific receptors, or stimuli responsive compounds. Intriguingly, independent research has unveiled the capacity of several phospholipids to play critical roles as intracellular messengers in modulating both innate and adaptive immune responses through various mechanisms, including (i) activation of different antimicrobial enzymatic pathways, (ii) driving the fusion–fission events between endosomes with direct consequences to phagosome maturation and/or to antigen presentation pathway, and (iii) modulation of the inflammatory response. These features can be exploited by including selected bioactive phospholipids in the bilayer scaffold of liposomes. This would represent an important step forward since drug or antigen carrying liposomes could be engineered to simultaneously activate different signal transduction pathways and target specific cells or tissues to induce antigen-specific T and/or B cell response. This lipid-based host-directed strategy can provide a focused antimicrobial innate and adaptive immune response against specific pathogens and offer a novel prophylactic or therapeutic option against chronic, recurrent, or drug-resistant infections.

Sphingolipids role in the regulation of inflammatory response: From leukocyte biology to bacterial infection

Sphingolipids (SLs) are amphiphilic molecules mainly associated with the external leaflet of eukaryotic plasma membrane, and are structural membrane components with key signaling properties. Since the beginning of the last century, a large number of papers described the involvement of these molecules in several aspects of cell physiology and pathology. Several lines of evidence support the critical role of SLs in inflammatory diseases, by acting as anti- or pro-inflammatory mediators. They are involved in control of leukocyte activation and migration, and are recognized as essential players in host response to pathogenic infection. We propose here a critical overview of current knowledge on involvement of different classes of SLs in inflammation, focusing on the role of simple and complex SLs in pathogen-mediated inflammatory response.

Macrophage-Bacteria Interactions-A Lipid-Centric Relationship

Macrophages are professional phagocytes at the front line of immune defenses against foreign bodies and microbial pathogens. Various bacteria, which are responsible for deadly diseases including tuberculosis and salmonellosis, are capable of hijacking this important immune cell type and thrive intracellularly, either in the cytoplasm or in specialized vacuoles. Tight regulation of cellular metabolism is critical in shaping the macrophage polarization states and immune functions. Lipids, besides being the bulk component of biological membranes, serve as energy sources as well as signaling molecules during infection and inflammation. With the advent of systems-scale analyses of genes, transcripts, proteins, and metabolites, in combination with classical biology, it is increasingly evident that macrophages undergo extensive lipid remodeling during activation and infection. Each bacterium species has evolved its own tactics to manipulate host metabolism toward its own advantage. Furthermore, modulation of host lipid metabolism affects disease susceptibility and outcome of infections, highlighting the critical roles of lipids in infectious diseases. Here, we will review the emerging roles of lipids in the complex host-pathogen relationship and discuss recent methodologies employed to probe these versatile metabolites during the infection process. An improved understanding of the lipid-centric nature of infections can lead to the identification of the Achilles' heel of the pathogens and host-directed targets for therapeutic interventions. Currently, lipid-moderating drugs are clinically available for a range of non-communicable diseases, which we anticipate can potentially be tapped into for various infections.

Evaluation of plasma sphingosine 1-phosphate, hepcidin and cardiovascular damage biomarkers (cardiac troponin I and homocysteine) in rats infected with brucellosis and vaccinated (Rev-1, RB-51)

Brucellosis is known as one of important zoonosis. Studying the histological and biochemical effects of the disease could help to increase our knowledge about it. The aim of the present study was to evaluate changes of plasma parameters after intraperitoneal injection of two species of Brucella (Brucella melitensis and Brucella abortus) and two vaccines (Rev-1, RB-51) in the rat. Forty male rats were divided into five groups (n = 8 in each group). Two groups received suspensions of Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis and two other groups were injected intraperitoneally with two mentioned vaccines and the last group received only distilled water. The results showed a significant increase in sphingosine 1-phosphate, Malondialdehyde, hepcidin, homocysteine, cardiac troponin I and copper levels and a considerable decrease in the levels of iron and zinc (P ≤ 0.01) in infected groups compared to the control animals. In vaccinated groups, hepcidin was increased but other parameters were not changed in comparison to the control group. It can be concluded that increase of homocysteine and cardiac troponin I in brucellosis could be a warning for cardiac adverse effects. Besides, increase of sphingosine 1-phosphate probably indicates its stimulant and modulatory effects in anti- Brucellosis biochemical pathways of the host.

Sphingolipids Are Dual Specific Drug Targets for the Management of Pulmonary Infections: Perspective

Sphingolipids are the major constituent of the mucus secreted by the cells of epithelial linings of lungs where they maintain the barrier functions and prevent microbial invasion. Sphingolipids are interconvertible, and their primary and secondary metabolites have both structural and functional roles. Out of several sphingolipid metabolites, sphingosine-1 phosphate (S1P) and ceramide are central molecules and decisive for sphingolipid signaling. These are produced by enzymatic activity of sphingosine kinase-1 (SK-1) upon the challenge with either biological or physiological stresses. S1P and ceramide rheostat are important for the progression of various pathologies, which are manifested by inflammatory cascade. S1P is a well-established secondary messenger and associated with various neuronal, metabolic, and inflammatory diseases other than respiratory infections such as Chlamydia pneumoniae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These pathogens are known to exploit sphingolipid metabolism for their opportunistic survival. Decreased sphingosine kinase activity/S1P content in the lung and peripheral blood of tuberculosis patients clearly indicated a dysregulation of sphingolipid metabolism during infection and suggest that sphingolipid metabolism is important for management of infection by the host. Our previous study has demonstrated that gain of SK-1 activity is important for the maturation of phagolysosomal compartment, innate activation of macrophages, and subsequent control of mycobacterial replication/growth in macrophages. Furthermore, S1P-mediated amelioration of lung pathology and disease severity in TB patients is believed to be mediated by the selective activation or rearrangement of various S1P receptors (S1PR) particularly S1PR2, which has been effective in controlling respiratory fungal pathogens. Therefore, such specificity of S1P-S1PR would be paramount for triggering inflammatory events, subsequent activation, and fostering bactericidal potential in macrophages for the control of TB. In this review, we have discussed and emphasized that sphingolipids may represent effective novel, yet dual specific drug targets for controlling pulmonary infections.

Liposomes loaded with bioactive lipids enhance antibacterial innate immunity irrespective of drug resistance

Phagocytosis is a key mechanism of innate immunity, and promotion of phagosome maturation may represent a therapeutic target to enhance antibacterial host response. Phagosome maturation is favored by the timely and coordinated intervention of lipids and may be altered in infections. Here we used apoptotic body-like liposomes (ABL) to selectively deliver bioactive lipids to innate cells, and then tested their function in models of pathogen-inhibited and host-impaired phagosome maturation. Stimulation of macrophages with ABLs carrying phosphatidic acid (PA), phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P) or PI5P increased intracellular killing of BCG, by inducing phagosome acidification and ROS generation. Moreover, ABLs carrying PA or PI5P enhanced ROS-mediated intracellular killing of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, in macrophages expressing a pharmacologically-inhibited or a naturally-mutated cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. Finally, we show that bronchoalveolar lavage cells from patients with drug-resistant pulmonary infections increased significantly their capacity to kill in vivo acquired bacterial pathogens when ex vivo stimulated with PA- or PI5P-loaded ABLs. Altogether, these results provide the proof of concept of the efficacy of bioactive lipids delivered by ABL to enhance phagosome maturation dependent antimicrobial response, as an additional host-directed strategy aimed at the control of chronic, recurrent or drug-resistant infections.

Toxoplasma gondii GRA7-Targeted ASC and PLD1 Promote Antibacterial Host Defense via PKCα

Tuberculosis is a global health problem and at least one-third of the world’s population is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). MTB is a successful pathogen that enhances its own intracellular survival by inhibiting inflammation and arresting phago-lysosomal fusion. We previously demonstrated that Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) dense granule antigen (GRA) 7 interacts with TNF receptor-associated factor 6 via Myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88, enabling innate immune responses in macrophages. To extend these studies, we found that GRA7 interacts with host proteins involved in antimicrobial host defense mechanisms as a therapeutic strategy for tuberculosis. Here, we show that protein kinase C (PKC)α-mediated phosphorylation of T. gondii GRA7-I (Ser52) regulates the interaction of GRA7 with PYD domain of apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a carboxy-terminal CARD, which is capable of oligomerization and inflammasome activation can lead to antimicrobial defense against MTB. Furthermore, GRA7-III interacted with the PX domain of phospholipase D1, facilitating its enzyme activity, phago-lysosomal maturation, and subsequent antimicrobial activity in a GRA7-III (Ser135) phosphorylation-dependent manner via PKCα. Taken together, these results underscore a previously unrecognized role of GRA7 in modulating antimicrobial host defense mechanism during mycobacterial infection.

We previously demonstrated that Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) dense granule antigen (GRA) 7 interacts with TRAF6 via MyD88, enabling innate immune responses in macrophages and effective protection against T. gondii infection in vivo. However, its exact role and how it regulates host innate immune responses have not been fully explained. Herein, we show that PKCα-mediated phosphorylation of GRA7 is essential for the interaction between GRA7 and ASC or PLD1, which can promote antimicrobial defense against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). Notably, PKCα specifically phosphorylated Ser52 and Ser135 of GRA7 in vitro and in vivo, indicating that GRA7 is a substrate of PKCα. The N-terminal of GRA7 (GRA7-I) was sufficient for interaction with the PYD domain of ASC, which is capable of ASC oligomerization and inflammasome activation. Furthermore, GRA7-III interacted with the PX domain of PLD1, facilitating its enzyme activity, phago-lysosomal maturation, and subsequent antimicrobial activity in a GRA7 phosphorylation-dependent manner. Interestingly, phosphomimetic mutation in GRA7 overcame the need for PKCα. Collectively, these results provide novel insight into how GRA7 can promote ASC and PLD1 activation in a PKCα-dependent manner as an antimicrobial host defense mechanism.

Characterization of secreted sphingosine-1-phosphate lyases required for virulence and intracellular survival of Burkholderia pseudomallei

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a bioactive sphingolipid metabolite, plays a critical role in the orchestration of immune responses. S1P levels within the mammalian host are tightly regulated, in part through the activity of S1P lyase (S1PL) which catalyses its irreversible degradation. Herein, we describe the identification and characterization of secreted S1PL orthologues encoded by the facultative intracellular bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia thailandensis. These bacterial orthologues exhibited S1PL enzymatic activity, functionally complemented an S1PL-deficient yeast strain and conferred resistance to the antimicrobial sphingolipid D-erythro-sphingosine. We report that secretion of these bacterial S1PLs is pH-dependent, and is observed during intracellular infection. S1PL-deficient mutants displayed impaired intracellular replication in murine macrophages (associated with an inability to evade the maturing phagosome) and were significantly attenuated in murine and larval infection models. Furthermore, treatment of Burkholderia-infected macrophages with either S1P or a selective agonist of S1P receptor 1 enhanced bacterial colocalisation with LAMP-1 and reduced their intracellular survival. In summary, our studies confirm bacterial-encoded S1PL as a critical virulence determinant of B. pseudomallei and B. thailandensis, further highlighting the pivotal role of S1P in host-pathogen interactions. In addition, our data suggest that S1P pathway modulators have potential for the treatment of intracellular infection.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate signaling impacts lymphocyte migration, inflammation and infection

Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is a sphingosine containing lipid intermediate obtained from ceramide. S1P is known to be an important signaling molecule and plays multiple roles in the context of immunity. This lysophospholipid binds and activates G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) known as S1P receptors 1-5 (S1P1-5). Once activated, these GPCRs mediate signaling that can lead to alterations in cell proliferation, survival or migration, and can also have other effects such as promoting angiogenesis. In this review, we will present evidence demonstrating a role for S1P in lymphocyte migration, inflammation and infection, as well as in cancer. The therapeutic potential of targeting S1P receptors, kinases and lyase will also be discussed.

Mycobacteria infect different cell types in the human lung and cause species dependent cellular changes in infected cells

Background

Mycobacterial infections remain a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Due to limitations of the currently available model systems, there are still comparably large gaps in the knowledge about the pathogenesis of these chronic inflammatory diseases in particular with regard to the human host. Therefore, we aimed to characterize the initial phase of mycobacterial infections utilizing a human ex vivo lung tissue culture model designated STST (Short-Term Stimulation of Tissues).

Methods

Human lung tissues from 65 donors with a size of 0.5–1 cm³ were infected each with two strains of three different mycobacterial species (M. tuberculosis, M. avium, and M. abscessus), respectively. In order to preserve both morphology and nucleic acids, the HOPE® fixation technique was used. The infected tissues were analyzed using histo- and molecular-pathological methods. Immunohistochemistry was applied to identify the infected cell types.

Results

Morphologic comparisons between ex vivo incubated and non-incubated lung specimens revealed no noticeable differences. Viability of ex vivo stimulated tissues demonstrated by TUNEL-assay was acceptable. Serial sections verified sufficient diffusion of the infectious agents deep into the tissues. Infection was confirmed by Ziel Neelsen-staining and PCR to detect mycobacterial DNA. We observed the infection of different cell types, including macrophages, neutrophils, monocytes, and pneumocytes-II, which were critically dependent on the mycobacterial species used. Furthermore, different forms of nuclear alterations (karyopyknosis, karyorrhexis, karyolysis) resulting in cell death were detected in the infected cells, again with characteristic species-dependent differences.

Conclusion

We show the application of a human ex vivo tissue culture model for mycobacterial infections. The immediate primary infection of a set of different cell types and the characteristic morphologic changes observed in these infected human tissues significantly adds to the current understanding of the initial phase of human pulmonary tuberculosis. Further studies are ongoing to elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved in the early onset of mycobacterial infections in the human lung.

Ceramide Signaling and Metabolism in Pathophysiological States of the Lung

Following the discovery of ceramide as the central signaling and metabolic relay among sphingolipids, studies of its involvement in lung health and pathophysiology have exponentially increased. In this review, we highlight key studies in the context of recent progress in metabolomics and translational research methodologies. Evidence points toward an important role for the ceramide/sphingosine-1-phosphate rheostat in maintaining lung cell survival, vascular barrier function, and proper host response to airway microbial infections. Sphingosine kinase 1 has emerged as an important determinant of sphingosine-1-phosphate lung levels, which, when aberrantly high, contribute to lung fibrosis, maladaptive vascular remodeling, and allergic asthma. New sphingolipid metabolites have been discovered as potential biomarkers of several lung diseases. Although multiple acute and chronic lung pathological conditions involve perturbations in sphingolipid signaling and metabolism, there are specific patterns, unique sphingolipid species, enzymes, metabolites, and receptors, which have emerged that deepen our understanding of lung pathophysiology and inform the development of new therapies for lung diseases.

Sphingolipids as Regulators of the Phagocytic Response to Fungal Infections

Fungal infections pose a significant risk for the increasing population of individuals who are immunocompromised. Phagocytes play an important role in immune defense against fungal pathogens, but the interactions between host and fungi are still not well understood. Sphingolipids have been shown to play an important role in many cell functions, including the function of phagocytes. In this review, we discuss major findings that relate to the importance of sphingolipids in macrophage and neutrophil function and the role of macrophages and neutrophils in the most common types of fungal infections, as well as studies that have linked these three concepts to show the importance of sphingolipid signaling in immune response to fungal infections.

Novel therapies for the treatment of pertussis disease

Whooping cough, or pertussis, incidence has reached levels not seen since the 1950s. Previous studies have shown that antibiotics fail to improve the course of disease unless diagnosed early. Early diagnosis is complicated by the non-diagnostic presentation of disease early in infection. This review focuses on previous attempts at developing novel host-directed therapies for the treatment of pertussis. In addition, two novel approaches from our group are discussed. Manipulation of the signaling pathway of sphingosine-1-phosphate, a lipid involved in many immune processes, has shown great promise, but is in its infancy. Pendrin, a host epithelial anion exchanger upregulated in the airways with B. pertussis infection, appears to drive mucus production and dysregulation of airway surface liquid pH and salinity. In addition to detailing these potential new therapeutic targets, the need for greater focus on the neonatal model of disease is highlighted.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling: unraveling its role as a drug target against infectious diseases

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) signaling is reported in variety of cell types, including immune, endothelial and cancerous cells. It is emerging as a crucial regulator of cellular processes, such as apoptosis, cell proliferation, migration, differentiation and so on. This signaling pathway is initiated by the intracellular production and secretion of S1P through a cascade of enzymatic reactions. Binding of S1P to different S1P receptors (S1PRs) activates different downstream signaling pathways that regulate the cellular functions differentially depending upon the cell type. An accumulating body of evidence suggests that S1P metabolism and signaling is often impaired during infectious diseases; thus, its manipulation might be helpful in the treatment of such diseases. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of the S1P signaling pathway and its candidature as a novel drug target against infectious diseases.

The Granuloma Response Controlling Cryptococcosis in Mice Depends on the Sphingosine Kinase 1-Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Pathway

Cryptococcus neoformans is a fungal pathogen that causes pulmonary infections, which may progress into life-threatening meningitis. In commonly used mouse models of C. neoformans infections, fungal cells are not contained in the lungs, resulting in dissemination to the brain. We have previously reported the generation of an engineered C. neoformans strain (C. neoformans Δgcs1) which can be contained in lung granulomas in the mouse model and have shown that granuloma formation is dependent upon the enzyme sphingosine kinase 1 (SK1) and its product, sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P). In this study, we have used four mouse models, CBA/J and C57BL6/J (both immunocompetent), Tgε26 (an isogenic strain of strain CBA/J lacking T and NK cells), and SK(-/-) (an isogenic strain of strain C57BL6/J lacking SK1), to investigate how the granulomatous response and SK1-S1P pathway are interrelated during C. neoformans infections. S1P and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) levels were significantly elevated in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of all mice infected with C. neoformans Δgcs1 but not in mice infected with the C. neoformans wild type. SK1(-/-) mice did not show elevated levels of S1P or MCP-1. Primary neutrophils isolated from SK1(-/-) mice showed impaired antifungal activity that could be restored by the addition of extracellular S1P. In addition, high levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha were found in the mice infected with C. neoformans Δgcs1 in comparison to the levels found in mice infected with the C. neoformans wild type, and their levels were also dependent on the SK1-S1P pathway. Taken together, these results suggest that the SK1-S1P pathway promotes host defense against C. neoformans infections by regulating cytokine levels, promoting extracellular killing by phagocytes, and generating a granulomatous response.

Activation of ATP secretion via volume-regulated anion channels by sphingosine-1-phosphate in RAW macrophages

We report the activation of outwardly rectifying anion currents by sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) in the murine macrophage cell line RAW 264.7. The S1P-induced current is mainly carried by anions, because the reversal potential of the current was shifted by replacement of extracellular Cl(-) by glutamate(-) but not when extracellular Na(+) was substituted by Tris(+). The inhibition of the current by hypertonic extracellular or hypotonic intracellular solution as well as the inhibitory effects of NPPB, tamoxifen, and glibenclamide indicates that the anion current is mediated by volume-regulated anion channels (VRAC). The S1P effect was blocked by intracellular GDPβS and W123, which points to signaling via the S1P receptor 1 (S1PR1) and G proteins. As cytochalasin D diminished the action of S1P, we conclude that the actin cytoskeleton is involved in the stimulation of VRAC. S1P and hypotonic extracellular solution induced secretion of ATP from the macrophages, which in both cases was blocked in a similar way by typical VRAC blockers. We suppose that the S1P-induced ATP secretion in macrophages via activation of VRAC constitutes a functional link between sphingolipid and purinergic signaling in essential processes such as inflammation and migration of leukocytes as well as phagocytosis and the killing of intracellular bacteria.

Host-directed therapeutics for tuberculosis: can we harness the host?

Treatment of tuberculosis (TB) remains challenging, with lengthy treatment durations and complex drug regimens that are toxic and difficult to administer. Similar to the vast majority of antibiotics, drugs for Mycobacterium tuberculosis are directed against microbial targets. Although more effective drugs that target the bacterium may lead to faster cure of patients, it is possible that a biological limit will be reached that can be overcome only by adopting a fundamentally new treatment approach. TB regimens might be improved by including agents that target host pathways. Recent work on host-pathogen interactions, host immunity, and host-directed interventions suggests that supplementing anti-TB therapy with host modulators may lead to shorter treatment times, a reduction in lung damage caused by the disease, and a lower risk of relapse or reinfection. We undertook this review to identify molecular pathways of the host that may be amenable to modulation by small molecules for the treatment of TB. Although several approaches to augmenting standard TB treatment have been proposed, only a few have been explored in detail or advanced to preclinical and clinical studies. Our review focuses on molecular targets and inhibitory small molecules that function within the macrophage or other myeloid cells, on host inflammatory pathways, or at the level of TB-induced lung pathology.

Detection of host-derived sphingosine by Pseudomonas aeruginosa is important for survival in the murine lung

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common environmental bacterium that is also a significant opportunistic pathogen, particularly of the human lung. We must understand how P. aeruginosa responds to the lung environment in order to identify the regulatory changes that bacteria use to establish and maintain infections. The P. aeruginosa response to pulmonary surfactant was used as a model to identify transcripts likely induced during lung infection. The most highly induced transcript in pulmonary surfactant, PA5325 (sphA), is regulated by an AraC-family transcription factor, PA5324 (SphR). We found that sphA was specifically induced by sphingosine in an SphR-dependent manner, and also via metabolism of sphingomyelin, ceramide, or sphingoshine-1-phosphate to sphingosine. These sphingolipids not only play a structural role in lipid membranes, but some are also intracellular and intercellular signaling molecules important in normal eukaryotic cell functions as well as orchestrating immune responses. The members of the SphR transcriptome were identified by microarray analyses, and DNA binding assays showed specific interaction of these promoters with SphR, which enabled us to determine the consensus SphR binding site. SphR binding to DNA was modified by sphingosine and we used labeled sphingosine to demonstrate direct binding of sphingosine by SphR. Deletion of sphR resulted in reduced bacterial survival during mouse lung infection. In vitro experiments show that deletion of sphR increases sensitivity to the antimicrobial effects of sphingosine which could, in part, explain the in vivo phenotype. This is the first identification of a sphingosine-responsive transcription factor in bacteria. We predict that SphR transcriptional regulation may be important in response to many sites of infection in eukaryotes and the presence of homologous transcription factors in other pathogens suggests that sphingosine detection is not limited to P. aeruginosa.

The roles of cutaneous lipids in host defense

Lauric acid (C12:0) and sapienic acid (C16:1Δ6) derived from human sebaceous triglycerides are potent antimicrobials found at the human skin surface. Long-chain bases (sphingosine, dihydrosphingosine and 6-hydroxysphingosine) are also potent and broad-acting antimicrobials normally present at the skin surface. These antimicrobials are generated through the action of ceramidases on ceramides from the stratum corneum. These natural antimicrobials are thought to be part of the innate immune system of the skin. Exogenously providing these lipids to the skin may provide a new therapeutic option, or could potentially provide prophylaxis in people at risk of infection. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled The Important Role of Lipids in the Epidermis and their Role in the Formation and Maintenance of the Cutaneous Barrier. Guest Editors: Kenneth R. Feingold and Peter Elias.

Resveratrol stimulates sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling of cathelicidin production

We recently discovered a regulatory mechanism that stimulates production of the multifunctional antimicrobial peptide, cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAMP). In response to subtoxic levels of ER stress, increased sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) production activates an NFκB→C/EBPα dependent pathway that enhances CAMP production in cultured human keratinocytes. Since the multifunctional stilbenoid compound, resveratrol (RESV), increases ceramide (Cer) levels, a precursor of S1P, we hypothesized and assessed whether RESV could exploit the same pathway to regulate CAMP production. Accordingly, RESV significantly increased Cer and S1P levels in cultured keratinocytes, paralleled by increased CAMP mRNA/protein expression. Furthermore, topical RESV also increased murine CAMP mRNA/protein expression in mouse skin. Conversely, blockade of Cer→sphingosine→S1P metabolic conversion, with specific inhibitors of ceramidase or sphingosine kinase, attenuated the expected RESV-mediated increase in CAMP expression. The RESV-induced increase in CAMP expression required both NF-κB and C/EBPα transactivation. Moreover, conditioned media from keratinocyte treated with RESV significantly suppressed Staphylococcus aureus growth. Finally, topical RESV, if not coapplied with a specific inhibitor of sphingosine kinase, blocked Staphylococcus aureus invasion into murine skin. These results demonstrate that the dietary stilbenoid, RESV, stimulates S1P signaling of CAMP production through an NF-κB→C/EBPα-dependent mechanism, leading to enhanced antimicrobial defense against exogenous microbial pathogens.

The emerging role of peptides and lipids as antimicrobial epidermal barriers and modulators of local inflammation

Skin is complex and comprised of distinct layers, each layer with unique architecture and immunologic functions. Cells within these layers produce differing amounts of antimicrobial peptides and lipids (sphingoid bases and sebaceous fatty acids) that limit colonization of commensal and opportunistic microorganisms. Furthermore, antimicrobial peptides and lipids have distinct, concentration-dependent ancillary innate and adaptive immune functions. At 0.1-2.0 μM, antimicrobial peptides induce cell migration and adaptive immune responses to coadministered antigens. At 2.0-6.0 μM, they induce cell proliferation and enhance wound healing. At 6.0-12.0 μM, they can regulate chemokine and cytokine production and at their highest concentrations of 15.0-30.0 μM, antimicrobial peptides can be cytotoxic. At 1-100 nM, lipids enhance cell migration induced by chemokines, suppress apoptosis, and optimize T cell cytotoxicity, and at 0.3-1.0 μM they inhibit cell migration and attenuate chemokine and pro-inflammatory cytokine responses. Recently, many antimicrobial peptides and lipids at 0.1-2.0 μM have been found to attenuate the production of chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines to microbial antigens. Together, both the antimicrobial and the anti-inflammatory activities of these peptides and lipids may serve to create a strong, overlapping immunologic barrier that not only controls the concentrations of cutaneous commensal flora but also the extent to which they induce a localized inflammatory response.

Janus-faced liposomes enhance antimicrobial innate immune response in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

We have generated unique asymmetric liposomes with phosphatidylserine (PS) distributed at the outer membrane surface to resemble apoptotic bodies and phosphatidic acid (PA) at the inner layer as a strategy to enhance innate antimycobacterial activity in phagocytes while limiting the inflammatory response. Results show that these apoptotic body-like liposomes carrying PA (ABL/PA) (i) are more efficiently internalized by human macrophages than by nonprofessional phagocytes, (ii) induce cytosolic Ca(2+) influx, (iii) promote Ca(2+)-dependent maturation of phagolysosomes containing Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), (iv) induce Ca(2+)-dependent reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, (v) inhibit intracellular mycobacterial growth in differentiated THP-1 cells as well as in type-1 and -2 human macrophages, and (vi) down-regulate tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-12, IL-1β, IL-18, and IL-23 and up-regulate transforming growth factor (TGF)-β without altering IL-10, IL-27, and IL-6 mRNA expression. Also, ABL/PA promoted intracellular killing of M. tuberculosis in bronchoalveolar lavage cells from patients with active pulmonary tuberculosis. Furthermore, the treatment of MTB-infected mice with ABL/PA, in combination or not with isoniazid (INH), dramatically reduced lung and, to a lesser extent, liver and spleen mycobacterial loads, with a concomitant 10-fold reduction of serum TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ compared with that in untreated mice. Altogether, these results suggest that apoptotic body-like liposomes may be used as a Janus-faced immunotherapeutic platform to deliver polar secondary lipid messengers, such as PA, into phagocytes to improve and recover phagolysosome biogenesis and pathogen killing while limiting the inflammatory response.

Lysophosphatidic acid enhances antimycobacterial response during in vivo primary Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

Lysophospholipids may play an important protective role during primary infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) by enhancing innate antimycobacterial immune response of both macrophages and alveolar epithelial cells. Here, we show that treatment with lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) of mice aerogenically infected with MTB immediately after infection results in a significant early reduction of pulmonary CFUs and of histopathological damage in comparison with control mice. In contrast, treatment of acute disease does not result in any improvement of both microbiological and histopathological parameters. Altogether, these results show that LPA treatment can exert protective effect if administrated during primary infection, only.

Role of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and S1P receptor 2 in the phagocytosis of Cryptococcus neoformans by alveolar macrophages

The pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised individuals. Infection of the human host occurs through inhalation of infectious propagules following environmental exposure. In the lung, C. neoformans can reside in the extracellular environment of the alveolar spaces or, upon phagocytosis, it can survive and grow intracellularly within alveolar macrophages (AMs). In previous studies, we found that sphingosine kinase 1 (SK1) influenced the intracellular residency of C. neoformans within AMs. Therefore, with this study we aimed to examine the role of the SK1 lipid product, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), in the AMs-C. neoformans interaction. It was found that extracellular S1P enhances the phagocytosis of C. neoformans by AMs. Using both genetic and pharmacological approaches we further show that extracellular S1P exerts its effect on the phagocytosis of C. neoformans by AMs through S1P receptor 2 (S1P2). Interestingly, loss of S1P2 caused a dramatic decrease in the mRNA levels of Fcγ receptors I (FcγRI), -II and -III. In conclusion, our data suggest that extracellular S1P increases antibody-mediated phagocytosis through S1P2 by regulating the expression of the phagocytic Fcγ receptors.

Sphingosine kinase-1 is required for toll mediated beta-defensin 2 induction in human oral keratinocytes

Background

Host defense against invading pathogens is triggered by various receptors including toll-like receptors (TLRs). Activation of TLRs is a pivotal step in the initiation of innate, inflammatory, and antimicrobial defense mechanisms. Human β-defensin 2 (HBD-2) is a cationic antimicrobial peptide secreted upon Gram-negative bacterial perturbation in many cells. Stimulation of various TLRs has been shown to induce HBD-2 in oral keratinocytes, yet the underlying cellular mechanisms of this induction are poorly understood.

Principal Findings

Here we demonstrate that HBD-2 induction is mediated by the Sphingosine kinase-1 (Sphk-1) and augmented by the inhibition of Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3β (GSK-3β) via the Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) dependent pathway. HBD-2 secretion was dose dependently inhibited by a pharmacological inhibitor of Sphk-1. Interestingly, inhibition of GSK-3β by SB 216763 or by RNA interference, augmented HBD-2 induction. Overexpression of Sphk-1 with concomitant inhibition of GSK-3β enhanced the induction of β-defensin-2 in oral keratinocytes. Ectopic expression of constitutively active GSK-3β (S9A) abrogated HBD-2 whereas kinase inactive GSK-3β (R85A) induced higher amounts of HBD-2.

Conclusions/Significance

These data implicate Sphk-1 in HBD-2 regulation in oral keratinocytes which also involves the activation of PI3K, AKT, GSK-3β and ERK 1/2. Thus we reveal the intricate relationship and pathways of toll-signaling molecules regulating HBD-2 which may have therapeutic potential.

Sphingosine kinase-1 (SphK-1) regulates Mycobacterium smegmatis infection in macrophages

Sphingosine kinase-1 is known to mediate Mycobacterium smegmatis induced inflammatory responses in macrophages, but its role in controlling infection has not been reported to date. We aimed to unravel the significance of SphK-1 in controlling M. smegmatis infection in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Our results demonstrated for the first time that selective inhibition of SphK-1 by either D, L threo dihydrosphingosine (DHS; a competitive inhibitor of Sphk-1) or Sphk-1 siRNA rendered RAW macrophages sensitive to M. smegmatis infection. This was due to the reduction in the expression of iNOs, p38, pp-38, late phagosomal marker, LAMP-2 and stabilization of the RelA (pp-65) subunit of NF-kappaB. This led to a reduction in the generation of NO and secretion of TNF-alpha in infected macrophages. Congruently, overexpression of SphK-1 conferred resistance in macrophages to infection which was due to enhancement in the generation of NO and expression of iNOs, pp38 and LAMP-2. In addition, our results also unraveled a novel regulation of p38MAPK by SphK-1 during M. smegmatis infection and generation of NO in macrophages. Enhanced NO generation and expression of iNOs in SphK-1++ infected macrophages demonstrated their M-1(bright) phenotype of these macrophages. These findings thus suggested a novel antimycobacterial role of SphK-1 in macrophages.

Role of host sphingosine kinase 1 in the lung response against Cryptococcosis

Cryptococcus neoformans is a fungal pathogen causing pulmonary infection and a life-threatening meningoencephalitis in human hosts. The fungus infects the host through inhalation, and thus, the host response in the lung environment is crucial for containment or dissemination of C. neoformans to other organs. In the lung, alveolar macrophages (AMs) are key players in the host lung immune response, and upon phagocytosis, they can kill C. neoformans by evoking an effective immune response through a variety of signaling molecules. On the other hand, under conditions not yet fully defined, the fungus is able to survive and proliferate within macrophages. Since the host sphingosine kinase 1 (SK1) regulates many signaling functions of immune cells, particularly in macrophages, in this study we determined the role of SK1 in the host response to C. neoformans infection. Using wild-type (SK1/2(+/+)) and SK1-deficient (SK1(-/-)) mice, we found that SK1 is dispensable during infection with a facultative intracellular wild-type C. neoformans strain. However, SK1 is required to form a host lung granuloma and to prevent brain infection by a C. neoformans mutant strain lacking the cell wall-associated glycosphingolipid glucosylceramide (Delta gcs1), previously characterized as a mutant able to replicate only intracellularly. Specifically, in contrast to those from SK1/2(+/+) mice, lungs from SK1(-/-) mice have no collagen deposition upon infection with C. neoformans Delta gcs1, and AMs from these mice contain significantly more C. neoformans cells than AMs from SK1/2(+/+) mice, suggesting that under conditions in which C. neoformans is more internalized by AMs, SK1 may become important to control C. neoformans infection. Indeed, when we induced immunosuppression, a host condition in which wild-type C. neoformans cells are increasingly found intracellularly, SK1(-/-) survived significantly less than SK1/2(+/+) mice infected with a facultative intracellular wild-type strain, suggesting that SK1 has an important role in controlling C. neoformans infection under conditions in which the fungus is predominantly found intracellularly.

Natural lysophospholipids reduce Mycobacterium tuberculosis-induced cytotoxicity and induce anti-mycobacterial activity by a phagolysosome maturation-dependent mechanism in A549 type II alveolar epithelial cells

Human alveolar epithelial cells actively contribute to the innate immune response in the lung and play an important role in mycobacterial dissemination during primary infection, by undergoing cell death and by releasing mycobacteria. In the present study, we report that natural lysophospholipids, such as lysophosphatidic acid or sphingosine 1-phosphate, reduce Mycobacterium tuberculosis-induced cytotoxicity and enhance anti-mycobacterial activity in the A549 cell line, used as a model of type II alveolar epithelial cells. Intracellular mycobacterial killing was strictly dependent on phagolysosome maturation, which in turn was promoted by the activation of a Ca(2+)dependent phospholipase D. Finally, the restriction of mycobacteria in highly microbiocidal compartments was associated, in vitro, with a significant decrease in mycobacterial dissemination to macrophages. Taken as whole, these results suggest that the pulmonary lysophospholipid microenvironment may play a protective role during the early phases of host-pathogen interaction by enhancing anti-mycobacterial activity in type II alveolar epithelial cells.

Regulation of macrophage function by sphingosine-1-phosphate

The bioactive lipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) fulfils manifold tasks in the immune system acting in auto- and/or paracrine fashion. This includes regulation of apoptosis, migration and proliferation. Upon its generation by sphingosine kinases from plasma membrane sphingolipids, S1P can either act as a second messenger within cells or can be released from cells to occupy a family of specific G-protein-coupled receptors (S1P1-5). This diversity is reflected by the impact of S1P on macrophage biology and function. Over the last years it became apparent that the sphingosine kinase/S1P/S1P-receptor signalling axis in macrophages might play a central role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. Here, we summarize the current knowledge of the function of S1P in macrophage biology and discuss potential implications for pathology.