The mucosal immunity in crustaceans: Inferences from other species

Crustaceans such as shrimps and crabs, hold significant ecological significance and substantial economic value within marine ecosystems. However, their susceptibility to disease outbreaks and pathogenic infections has posed major challenges to production in recent decades. As invertebrate, crustaceans primarily rely on their innate immune system for defense, lacking the adaptive immune system found in vertebrates. Mucosal immunity, acting as the frontline defense against a myriad of pathogenic microorganisms, is a crucial aspect of their immune repertoire. This review synthesizes insights from comparative immunology, highlighting parallels between mucosal immunity in vertebrates and innate immune mechanisms in invertebrates. Despite lacking classical adaptive immunity, invertebrates, including crustaceans, exhibit immune memory and rely on inherent "innate immunity factors" to combat invading pathogens. Drawing on parallels from mammalian and piscine systems, this paper meticulously explores the complex role of mucosal immunity in regulating immune responses in crustaceans. Through the extrapolation from well-studied models like mammals and fish, this review infers the potential mechanisms of mucosal immunity in crustaceans and provides insights for research on mucosal immunity in crustaceans.

What can the common fruit fly teach us about stroke?: lessons learned from the hypoxic tolerant Drosophila melanogaster

Stroke, resulting in hypoxia and glucose deprivation, is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Presently, there are no treatments that reduce neuronal damage and preserve function aside from tissue plasminogen activator administration and rehabilitation therapy. Interestingly, Drosophila melanogaster, the common fruit fly, demonstrates robust hypoxic tolerance, characterized by minimal effects on survival and motor function following systemic hypoxia. Due to its organized brain, conserved neurotransmitter systems, and genetic similarity to humans and other mammals, uncovering the mechanisms of Drosophila's tolerance could be a promising approach for the development of new therapeutics. Interestingly, a key facet of hypoxic tolerance in Drosophila is organism-wide metabolic suppression, a response involving multiple genes and pathways. Specifically, studies have demonstrated that pathways associated with oxidative stress, insulin, hypoxia-inducible factors, NFκB, Wnt, Hippo, and Notch, all potentially contribute to Drosophila hypoxic tolerance. While manipulating the oxidative stress response and insulin signaling pathway has similar outcomes in Drosophila hypoxia and the mammalian middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model of ischemia, effects of Notch pathway manipulation differ between Drosophila and mammals. Additional research is warranted to further explore how other pathways implicated in hypoxic tolerance in Drosophila, such as NFκB, and Hippo, may be utilized to benefit mammalian response to ischemia. Together, these studies demonstrate that exploration of the hypoxic response in Drosophila may lead to new avenues of research for stroke treatment in humans.

Morphological, Genetic, and Physiological Effects of Nutrient Manipulation on a Colonial Marine Hydroid

AbstractThe availability of environmental nutrients is an existential constraint for heterotrophic organisms and is thus expected to impact numerous biochemical and physiological features. The continuously proliferative polyp stage of colonial hydroids provides a useful model to study these features, allowing genetically identical replicates to be compared. Two groups of colonies of Eirene sp., defined by different feeding treatments, were grown by explanting the same founder colony onto cover glass. Colonies of both treatments were allowed to grow continuously by explanting them onto new cover glass as they reached the edge of the existing surface. The nutrient-abundant polyps grew faster and produced more clumped or "sheet-like" colonies. Compared to the founder colony, the nutrient-abundant colonies exhibited more mutations (i.e., single-nucleotide polymorphisms) than the nutrient-scarce colonies. Nevertheless, these differences were not commensurate with the differences in growth. Using a polarographic electrode, we found that the nutrient-abundant colonies exhibited lower rates of oxygen uptake relative to total protein. The probe 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate and fluorescent microscopy allowed visualization of the mitochondrion-rich cells at the base of the polyps and showed that the nutrient-abundant colonies exhibited greater amounts of reactive oxygen species than the nutrient-scarce colonies. Parallels to the Warburg effect-aerobic glycolysis, diminished oxygen uptake, and lactate secretion-found in human cancers and other proliferative cells may be suggested. However, little is known about anaerobic metabolism in cnidarians. Examination of oxygen uptake suggests an anaerobic threshold at a roughly 1-mg/L oxygen concentration. Nutrient-abundant colonies may respond more dramatically to this threshold than nutrient-scarce colonies.

Is cancer an intelligent species?

Some relevant emerging properties of intelligent systems are "adaptation to a changing environment," "reaction to unexpected situations," "capacity of problem solving," and "ability to communicate." Single cells have remarkable abilities to adapt, make adequate context-dependent decision, take constructive actions, and communicate, thus theoretically meeting all the above-mentioned requirements. From a biological point of view, cancer can be viewed as an invasive species, composed of cells that move from primary to distant sites, being continuously exposed to changes in the environmental conditions. Blood represents the first hostile habitat that a cancer cell encounters once detached from the primary site, so that cancer cells must rapidly carry out multiple adaptation strategies to survive. The aim of this review was to deepen the adaptation mechanisms of cancer cells in the blood microenvironment, particularly referring to four adaptation strategies typical of animal species (phenotypic adaptation, metabolic adaptation, niche adaptation, and collective adaptation), which together define the broad concept of biological intelligence. We provided evidence that the required adaptations (either structural, metabolic, and related to metastatic niche formation) and "social" behavior are useful principles allowing putting into a coherent frame many features of circulating cancer cells. This interpretative frame is described by the comparison with analog behavioral traits typical of various animal models.

Responses and detoxification mechanisms of earthworm Amynthas hupeiensis to metal contaminated soils of North China

Metal contamination is widespread, but only a few studies have evaluated the toxicological risks of metals (Cd, Cu, and Pb) in earthworms from farmlands in North China (Hebei province). Amynthas hupeiensis, the dominant species in the study area, was used to determine the responses and detoxification mechanisms of uncontaminated (CK), and low (LM)-, and high (HM)-metal-contaminated soils following 7-, 14-, and 28-days exposure. Metal toxicity in LM and HM soils inhibited the biomass of A. hupeiensis. The concentrations of Cd in A. hupeiensis bodies indicated accumulated Cd appeared to remain steady with prolonged exposure, while Cu/Pb increased significantly with soil levels. Bioaccumulation occurred in the order Cd > Pb > Cu in LM soil, and in the order Cd > Cu ≈ Pb in HM soil, which was attributed to differences in available fractions between LM and HM soils. Physiological levels of biomarkers in A. hupeiensis were determined, including total protein (TP), glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and malondialdehyde (MDA). Deviations in GSH, GPx, and AChE were considered to denote sensitive biomarkers using the IBRv2 index. Metabolomics data (1H nuclear magnetic resonance-based) revealed changes in metabolites following 28-days exposure to LM and HM soils. Differences in metabolism in A. hupeiensis following exposure to LM and HM were related to energy metabolism, amino acid biosynthesis, glycerophospholipid metabolism, inositol phosphate metabolism, and glutathione metabolism. Metal stress from LM and HM soils disturbed osmoregulation, resulting in oxidative stress, destruction of cell membranes and inflammation, and altered levels of amino acids required for energy by A. hupeiensis. These findings provide biochemical insights into the physiological and metabolic mechanisms underlying the ability of A. hupeiensis to resist metal stress, and for assessing the environmental risks of metal-contaminated soils in farmland in North China.

Different reoxygenation rates induce different metabolic, apoptotic and immune responses in Golden Pompano (Trachinotus blochii) after hypoxic stress

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is essential for teleosts, and fluctuating environmental factors can result in hypoxic stress in the golden pompano (Trachinotus blochii). However, it is unknown whether different recovery speeds of DO concentration after hypoxia induce stress in T. blochii. In this study, T. blochii was subjected to hypoxic conditions (1.9 ± 0.2 mg/L) for 12 h followed by 12 h of reoxygenation at two different speeds (30 mg/L per hour and 1.7 mg/L per hour increasing). The gradual reoxygenation group (GRG), experienced DO recovery (1.9 ± 0.2 to 6.8 ± 0.2 mg/L) within 3 h, and the rapid reoxygenation group (RRG), experienced DO recovery (1.9 ± 0.2 to 6.8 ± 0.2 mg/L) within 10 min. Physiological and biochemical parameters of metabolism (glucose, glycegon, lactic acid (LD), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), pyruvic acid (PA), phosphofructokinase (PFKA), and hexokinase (HK), triglyceride (TG), lipoprotein lipase (LPL), carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT-1)) and transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq of liver) were monitored to identify the effects of the two reoxygenation speeds. Increased LD content and increased activity of LDH, PA, PFKA, and HK suggested enhanced anaerobic glycolysis under hypoxic stress. LD and LDH levels remained significantly elevated during reoxygenation, indicating that the effects of hypoxia were not immediately alleviated during reoxygenation. The expressions of PGM2, PFKA, GAPDH, and PK were increased in the RRG, which suggests that glycolysis was enhanced. The same pattern was not observed in the GRG. Additionally, In the RRG, reoxygenation may promote glycolysis to guarantee energy supply. However, the GRG may through the lipid metabolism such as steroid biosynthesis at the later stage of reoxygenation. In the aspect of apoptosis, differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the RRG were enriched in the p53 signaling pathway, which promoted cell apoptosis, while DEGs in the GRG seem to activate cell apoptosis at early stage of reoxygenation but was restrained latterly. DEGs in both the RRG and the GRG were enriched in the NF-kappa B and JAK-STAT signaling pathways, the RRG may induce cell survival by regulating the expression of IL-12B, COX2, and Bcl-XL, while in the GRG it may induce by regulating the expression of IL-8. Moreover, DEGs in the RRG were also enriched in the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway. This research revealed that at different velocity of reoxygenation after hypoxic stress, T. blochii would represent different metabolic, apoptotic and immune strategies, and this conclusion would provide new insight into the response to hypoxia and reoxygenation in teleosts.

Effects of environmental factors on the cellular and molecular parameters of the immune system in decapods

Crustaceans and in particular decapods (i.e. shrimp, crabs and lobsters) are a diverse, commercially and ecologically important group of organisms. They are exposed to a range of environmental factors whose abiotic and biotic components are prone to fluctuate beyond their optimum ranges and, in doing so, affect crustaceans' immune system and health. Changes in key environmental factors such as temperature, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen, ammonia concentrations and pathogens can provoke stress and immune responses due to alterations in immune parameters. The mechanisms through which stressors mediate effects on immune parameters are not fully understood in decapods. Improved knowledge of the environmental factors - above all, their abiotic components - that influence the immune parameters of decapods could help mitigate or constrain their harmful effects that adversely affect the production of decapod crustaceans. The first part of this overview examines current knowledge and information gaps regarding the basic components and functions of the innate immune system of decapods. In the second part, we discuss various mechanisms provoked by environmental factors and categorize cellular and molecular immune responses to each environmental factor with special reference to decapods.

The interplay between prior selection, mild intermittent exposure, and acute severe exposure in phenotypic and transcriptional response to hypoxia

Hypoxia has profound and diverse effects on aerobic organisms, disrupting oxidative phosphorylation and activating several protective pathways. Predictions have been made that exposure to mild intermittent hypoxia may be protective against more severe exposure and may extend lifespan. Here we report the lifespan effects of chronic, mild, intermittent hypoxia, and short-term survival in acute severe hypoxia in four clones of Daphnia magna originating from either permanent or intermittent habitats. We test the hypothesis that acclimation to chronic mild intermittent hypoxia can extend lifespan through activation of antioxidant and stress-tolerance pathways and increase survival in acute severe hypoxia through activation of oxygen transport and storage proteins and adjustment to carbohydrate metabolism. Unexpectedly, we show that chronic hypoxia extended the lifespan in the two clones originating from intermittent habitats but had the opposite effect in the two clones from permanent habitats, which also showed lower tolerance to acute hypoxia. Exposure to chronic hypoxia did not protect against acute hypoxia; to the contrary, Daphnia from the chronic hypoxia treatment had lower acute hypoxia tolerance than normoxic controls. Few transcripts changed their abundance in response to the chronic hypoxia treatment in any of the clones. After 12 h of acute hypoxia treatment, the transcriptional response was more pronounced, with numerous protein-coding genes with functionality in oxygen transport, mitochondrial and respiratory metabolism, and gluconeogenesis, showing upregulation. While clones from intermittent habitats showed somewhat stronger differential expression in response to acute hypoxia than those from permanent habitats, contrary to predictions, there were no significant hypoxia-by-habitat of origin or chronic-by-acute treatment interactions. GO enrichment analysis revealed a possible hypoxia tolerance role by accelerating the molting cycle and regulating neuron survival through upregulation of cuticular proteins and neurotrophins, respectively.

Activation of p53 in anoxic freshwater crayfish, Faxonius virilis

Tumor suppressing transcription factor p53 regulates multiple pathways including DNA repair, cell survival, apoptosis, and autophagy. The current work studies stress-induced activation of p53 in anoxic crayfish (Faxonius virilis). Relative levels of target proteins and mRNAs involved in the DNA damage response was measured in normoxic control and anoxic hepatopancreas and tail muscle. Phosphorylation levels of p53 was assessed using immunoblotting at sites known to be phosphorylated (Serine 15 and 37) in response to DNA damage or reduced oxygen signaling. The capacity for DNA binding by phospho-p53 was also measured, followed by transcript analysis of a potentially pro-apoptotic downstream target, the etoposide induced (ei24) gene. Following this, both inhibitor (MDM2) and activator (p19-ARF) protein levels in response to low oxygen stress were studied. The results showed an increase in p53 levels during anoxia in both hepatopancreases and tail muscle. Increased transcript levels of ei24, a downstream target of p53, support the activation of p53 under anoxic stress. Cytoplasmic accumulation of Ser-15 p-p53 was observed during anoxia when proteins from cytoplasmic and nuclear fractions were measured. Increased cytoplasmic concentration is known to initiate an apoptotic response, which can be assumed as a preparatory step to prevent autophagy. The results suggest that p53 might play a protective role in crayfish defense against low oxygen stress. Understanding how anoxia-tolerant organisms are able to protect against DNA damage could provide important clues towards survival under metabolic rate depression and preparation for recovery to minimize damage.

Moderate acidification mitigates the toxic effects of phenanthrene on the mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis

Freshwater acidification and phenanthrene may result in complex adverse effects on aquatic animals. Juvenile Chinese mitten crabs (Eriocheir sinensis) were exposed to different pH levels (7.8, 6.5, and 5.5) under phenanthrene (PHE) (0 (control) and 50 μg/L) conditions for 14 days. Antioxidant and transcriptomic responses were determined under stress conditions to evaluate the physiological adaptation of crabs. Under the control pH 7.8, PHE led to significantly reduced activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione S-transferase (GST), but increased glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), 7-ethoxyresorufin-o-deethylase (EROD) activities, and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. However, moderate acidification (pH 6.5) changed PHE effects by increasing antioxidant enzymes. Acidification generally reduced SOD, GPx, GST and EROD activities, but increased CAT, GR, MDA. Compared with pH7.8 group, pH7.8 × PHE and pH6.5 × PHE groups had 1148 and 1498 differentially expressed genes, respectively, with "Biological process" being the main category in the two experimental groups. pH7.8 × PHE treatment caused significant enrichment of disease and immune-related pathways, while under pH6.5 × PHE, more pathways related to metabolism, detoxification, environmental information processing, and energy supply were significantly enriched. Thus, PHE had a significant inhibitory effect on antioxidant performance in crabs, while moderate acidification (pH6.5) mitigated the toxic effects of PHE. Overall, moderate acidification has a positive effect on the defense against the negative effects of PHE in Chinese mitten crabs, and this study provides insights into the defense mechanism of crustaceans in response to combined stress of acidification and PHE.

Hypoxia-mediated immunotoxicity in the blood clam Tegillarca granosa

In marine ecosystems, dissolved oxygen (DO) is essential for maintaining intracellular energy balance during aerobic metabolism. Bivalve mollusks are frequently exposed to hypoxia environments due to tides, temperature changes, and anthropogenic activities. The blood clam, Tegillarca granosa, mainly inhabits intertidal mudflats and is more susceptible to low oxygen events. In this study, we investigated the effect of hypoxia on immune responses in clams, and showed that hypoxia exposure reduced total hemocyte counts (THC), hemoglobin concentrations, and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. Also, phagocytic and cell activities of hemocyte were significantly inhibited. Furthermore, immune-related gene expression was also down-regulated. In conclusion, hypoxia greatly affected immune functions in blood clams, and our research provided the foundation for further mechanistic studies on hypoxia tolerance in clams.

DCOIT unbalances the antioxidant defense system in juvenile and adults of the marine bivalve Amarilladesma mactroides (Mollusca: Bivalvia)

DCOIT is a co-biocide that is part of the formulation of the commercial antifouling Sea-Nine 211® and although it is "safe to use", negative effects have been reported on the antioxidant defense system of non-target organisms. Therefore, the objective of this research was to verify and compare the response of antioxidant enzymes of juveniles and adults of Amarilladesma mactroides exposed to DCOIT. The animals were exposed to solvent control (DMSO 0.01%) and DCOIT (measured concentration 0.01 mg/L and 0.13 mg/L) for 96 h, then gills, digestive gland and mantle were collected for analysis of the enzymatic activity of glutathione S-transferase (GST), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT). The results revealed that adults, in relation to juveniles, have low basal activity of GST and SOD enzymes in the gills and digestive gland and high basal activity of SOD and CAT in the mantle. DCOIT did not alter GST activity in the gills of any life stage, while both concentrations decreased SOD and CAT in adults. In the digestive gland, it was observed that DCOIT (0.13 mg/L) decreased the GST activity in adults and CAT in juveniles, and both concentrations of the co-biocide decreased the SOD and CAT in adults. In the mantle, DCOIT (0.13 mg/L) increased CAT in juveniles. We conclude that juveniles have greater basal activity of antioxidant enzymes than adults and, in addition, DCOIT negatively affected the adults of A. mactroides, mainly decreasing the activity of GST, SOD and CAT in the gills and digestive gland of these organisms.

Aerobic scope does matter in the temperature-size rule, but only under optimal conditions

We united theoretical predictions of the factors responsible for the evolutionary significance of the temperature-size rule (TSR). We assumed that (i) the TSR is a response to temperature-dependent oxic conditions, (ii) body size decrease is a consequence of cell shrinkage in response to hypoxia, (iii) this response enables organisms to maintain a wide scope for aerobic performance, and (iv) it prevents a decrease in fitness. We examined three clones of the rotifer Lecane inermis exposed to three experimental regimes: mild hypoxia, severe hypoxia driven by too high of a temperature, and severe hypoxia driven by an inadequate oxygen concentration. We compared the following traits in normoxia- and hypoxia-exposed rotifers: nuclear size (a proxy for cell size), body size, specific dynamic action (SDA, a proxy of aerobic metabolism) and two fitness measures, the population growth rate and eggs/female ratio. The results showed that (i) under mildly hypoxic conditions, our causative reasoning was correct, except that one of the clones decreased in body size without a decrease in nuclear size, and (ii) in more stressful environments, rotifers exhibited clone- and condition-specific responses, which were equally successful in terms of fitness levels. Our results indicate the importance of the testing conditions. The important conclusions were that (i) a body size decrease at higher temperatures enabled the maintenance of a wide aerobic scope under clone-specific, thermally optimal conditions, and (ii) this response was not the only option to prevent fitness reduction under hypoxia.

Oxidative and osmotolerant effects in Salvator merianae (Squamata: Teiidae) red blood cells during hibernation

Hibernation is a natural condition of animals that lives in the temperate zone, although some tropical lizards also experience hibernation annually, such as the lizard native from South America, Salvator merianae, or "tegu" lizard. Even though physiological and metabolic characteristic associated with hibernation have been extensively studied, possible alterations in the red blood cells (RBC) integrity during this period remains unclear. Dehydration and fasting are natural consequences of hibernating for several months and it could be related to some cellular modifications. In this study, we investigated if the osmotic tolerance of RBCs of tegu lizard under hibernation is different from the cells obtained from animals while normal activity. Additionally, we indirectly investigated if the RBCs membrane of hibernating tegus could be associated with oxidation by quantifying oxidized biomolecules and the activity of antioxidant enzymes. Our findings suggest that RBCs are more fragile during the hibernation period, although we did not find evidence of an oxidative stress scenario associated with the accentuated fragility. Even though we did not exclude the possibility of oxidative damage during hibernation, we suggested that an increased RBCs volume as a consequence of hypoosmotic blood during hibernation could also affect RBCs integrity as noted.

HIF-Dependent Mechanisms of Relationship between Hypoxia Tolerance and Tumor Development

Oxygen deficiency is one of the key pathogenetic factors determining development and severity of many diseases, including inflammatory, infectious diseases, and cancer. Lack of oxygen activates the signaling pathway of the hypoxia-inducible transcription factor HIF in cells that has three isoforms, HIF-1, HIF-2, HIF-3, regulating expression of several thousand genes. Throughout tumor progression, HIF activation stimulates angiogenesis, promotes changes in cell metabolism, adhesion, invasiveness, and ability to metastasize. HIF isoforms can play opposite roles in the development of inflammatory and neoplastic processes. Humans and laboratory animals differ both in tolerance to hypoxia and in the levels of expression of HIF and HIF-dependent genes, which may lead to predisposition to the development of certain oncological disorders. In particular, the ratio of different histogenetic types of tumors may vary among people living in the mountains and at the sea level. However, despite the key role of hypoxia at almost all stages of tumor development, basal tolerance to oxygen deficiency is not considered as a factor of predisposition to the tumor growth initiation. In literature, there are many works characterizing the level of local hypoxia in various tumors, and suggesting fundamental approaches to its mitigation by HIF inhibition. HIF inhibitors, as a rule, have a systemic effect on the organism, however, basal tolerance of an organism to hypoxia as well as the level of HIF expression are not taken into account in the process of their use. The review summarizes the literature data on different HIF isoforms and their role in tumor progression, with extrapolation to organisms with high and low tolerance to hypoxia, as well as on the prevalence of various types of tumors in the populations living at high altitudes.

Histopathological, hematological, and biochemical changes in high-latitude fish Phoxinus lagowskii exposed to hypoxia

Hypoxia is one of the most significant threats to biodiversity in aquatic systems. The ability of high-latitude fish to tolerate hypoxia with histological and physiological responses is mostly unknown. We address this knowledge gap by investigating the effects of exposures to different oxygen levels using Phoxinus lagowskii (a high-latitude, cold-water fish) as a model. Fish were exposed to different oxygen levels (0.5 mg/L and 3 mg/L) for 24 h. The loss of equilibrium (LOE), an indicator of acute hypoxia tolerance, was 0.21 ± 0.01 mg/L, revealing the ability of fish to tolerate low-oxygen conditions. We sought to determine if, in P. lagowskii, the histology of gills and liver, blood indicators, enzyme activities of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and antioxidants changed to relieve stress in response to acute hypoxia. Notably, changes in vigorous jumping behavior under low oxygen revealed the exceptional hypoxia acclimation response compared with other low-latitude fish. A decrease in blood parameters, including RBC, WBC, and Hb, as well as an increase in MCV was observed compared to the controls. The increased total area in lamella and decreased ILCM volume in P. lagowskii gills were detected in the present study. Our results also showed the size of vacuoles in the livers of the hypoxic fish shrunk. Interestingly, an increase in the enzyme activity of lipid metabolism but not glucose metabolism was observed in the groups exposed to hypoxia at 6 h and 24 h. After combining histology and physiology results, our findings provide evidence that lipid metabolism plays a crucial role in enhancing hypoxia acclimation in P. lagowskii. Additionally, SOD activity significantly increased during hypoxia, suggesting the presence of an antioxidant response of P. lagowskii during hypoxia. High expression levels of lipogenesis and lipolysis-related genes were detected in the 6 h 3 mg/L and 24 h 3 mg/L hypoxia group. Enhanced expression of lipid-metabolism genes (ALS4, PGC-1, and FASN) was detected during hypoxia exposure. Together, these data suggest that P. lagowskii's ability to tolerate hypoxic events is likely mediated by a comprehensive strategy.

Two-sided effects of prolonged hypoxia and sulfide exposure on juvenile ark shells (Anadara broughtonii)

Oxygen deficit and sulfide have been restrictive factors in mariculture zones. However, the adaptive mechanism in aquatic lives is still unclear. The commercial ark shells Anadara broughtonii were selected to test the tolerance and adaptive responses to prolonged and intermittent hypoxia with or without exogenous sulfide (mild, moderate, high) by evaluating their behavior, mortality, oxidative level, antioxidant responses, and the MAPK-mediated apoptosis in gills. The results indicated that the clams were tolerant to hypoxia and sulfide exposure but vulnerable during reoxygenation from the challenges. Even so, sulfide had remarkable effect on attenuating the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxides caused by reoxygenation from prolonged hypoxia. The increase of glutathione level was probably as an early and primary protective response to prevent the expected reperfusion injury from reoxygenation. The challenges suppressed the oxidative level with a dose-dependent effect of sulfide, with an exception when exposed to mild sulfide. Synchronously, biphasic effects of exogenous sulfide on apoptotic cascade, which was induced by mild sulfide while it was inhibited by higher sulfide, were also detected in gills. The induced or inhibited apoptosis by hypoxia and sulfide kept to a typical ROS-MAPK-CASPASE cascade, desiderating further investigation.

Scavenging of reactive oxygen species mimics the anoxic response in goldfish pyramidal neurons

Goldfish are one of a few species able to avoid cellular damage during month-long periods in severely hypoxic environments. By suppressing action potentials in excitatory glutamatergic neurons, the goldfish brain decreases its overall energy expenditure. Coincident with reductions in O2 availability is a natural decrease in cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, which has been proposed to function as part of a low-oxygen signal transduction pathway. Using live-tissue fluorescence microscopy, we found that ROS production decreased by 10% with the onset of anoxia in goldfish telencephalic brain slices. Employing whole-cell patch-clamp recording, we found that, similar to severe hypoxia, the ROS scavengers N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) and MitoTEMPO, added during normoxic periods, depolarized membrane potential (severe hypoxia -73.6 to -61.4 mV, NAC -76.6 to -66.2 mV and MitoTEMPO -71.5 mV to -62.5 mV) and increased whole-cell conductance (severe hypoxia 5.7 nS to 8.0 nS, NAC 6.0 nS to 7.5 nS and MitoTEMPO 6.0 nS to 7.6 nS). Also, in a subset of active pyramidal neurons, these treatments reduced action potential firing frequency (severe hypoxia 0.18 Hz to 0.03 Hz, NAC 0.27 Hz to 0.06 Hz and MitoTEMPO 0.35 Hz to 0.08 Hz). Neither severe hypoxia nor ROS scavenging impacted action potential threshold. The addition of exogenous hydrogen peroxide could reverse the effects of the antioxidants. Taken together, this supports a role for a reduction in [ROS] as a low-oxygen signal in goldfish brain.

Antioxidant responses of the mussel Mytilus coruscus co-exposed to ocean acidification, hypoxia and warming

In the present study, the combined effects of pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) and temperature levels on the antioxidant responses of the mussel Mytilus coruscus were evaluated. Mussels were exposed to two pH (8.1, 7.7-acidification), two DO (6 mg L^-1, 2 mg L^-1-hypoxia) and two temperature levels (20 °C, 30 °C-warming) for 30 days. SOD, CAT, MDA, GPx, GSH, GST, TAOC, AKP, ACP, GPT, AST levels were measured in the gills of mussels. All tested biochemical parameters were altered by these three environmental stressors. Values for all the test parameters except GSH first increased and then decreased at various experimental treatments during days 15 and 30 as a result of acidification, hypoxia and warming. GSH content always increased with decreased pH, decreased DO and increased temperature. PCA showed a positive correlation among all the measured biochemical indexes. IBR results showed that M. coruscus were adversely affected by reduced pH, low DO and elevated temperature.

Differences in Tolerance to Hypoxia: Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular-Biological Characteristics

Hypoxia plays an important role in the development of many infectious, inflammatory, and tumor diseases. The predisposition to such disorders is mostly provided by differences in basic tolerance to oxygen deficiency, which we discuss in this review. Except the direct exposure of different-severity hypoxia in decompression chambers or in highland conditions, there are no alternative methods for determining organism tolerance. Due to the variability of the detection methods, differences in many parameters between tolerant and susceptible organisms are still not well-characterized, but some of them can serve as biomarkers of susceptibility to hypoxia. At the moment, several potential biomarkers in conditions after hypoxic exposure have been identified both in experimental animals and humans. The main potential biomarkers are Hypoxia-Inducible Factor (HIF)-1, Heat-Shock Protein 70 (HSP70), and NO. Due to the different mechanisms of various high-altitude diseases, biomarkers may not be highly specific and universal. Therefore, it is extremely important to conduct research on hypoxia susceptibility biomarkers. Moreover, it is important to develop a method for the evaluation of organisms' basic hypoxia tolerance without the necessity of any oxygen deficiency exposure. This can contribute to new personalized medicine approaches' development for diagnostics and the treatment of inflammatory and tumor diseases, taking into account hypoxia tolerance differences.

The Redox Theory of Development

Significance: The geological record shows that as atmospheric O2 levels increased, it concomitantly coincided with the evolution of metazoans. More complex, higher organisms contain a more cysteine-rich proteome, potentially as a means to regulate homeostatic responses in a more O2-rich environment. Regulation of redox-sensitive processes to control development is likely to be evolutionarily conserved. Recent Advances: During early embryonic development, the conceptus is exposed to varying levels of O2. Oxygen and redox-sensitive elements can be regulated to promote normal development, defined as changes to cellular mass, morphology, biochemistry, and function, suggesting that O2 is a developmental morphogen. During periods of O2 fluctuation, embryos are "reprogrammed," on the genomic and metabolic levels. Reprogramming imparts changes to particular redox couples (nodes) that would support specific post-translational modifications (PTMs), targeting the cysteine proteome to regulate protein function and development. Critical Issues: Major developmental events such as stem cell expansion, proliferation, differentiation, migration, and cell fate decisions are controlled through oxidative PTMs of cysteine-based redox nodes. As such, timely coordinated redox regulation of these events yields normal developmental outcomes and viable species reproduction. Disruption of normal redox signaling can produce adverse developmental outcomes. Future Directions: Furthering our understanding of the redox-sensitive processes/pathways, the nature of the regulatory PTMs involved in development and periods of activation/sensitivity to specific developmental pathways would greatly support the theory of redox regulation of development, and would also provide rationale and direction to more fully comprehend poor developmental outcomes, such as dysmorphogenesis, functional deficits, and preterm embryonic death.

Comparative morphometric analysis of lungs of the semifossorial giant pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus) and the subterranean Nigerian mole rat (Cryptomys foxi)

Lungs of the rodent species, the African giant pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus) and the Nigerian mole rat (Cryptomys foxi) were investigated. Significant morphometric differences exist between the two species. The volume of the lung per unit body mass was 2.7 times larger; the respiratory surface area 3.4 times greater; the volume of the pulmonary capillary blood 2 times more; the harmonic mean thickness of the blood-gas (tissue) barrier (τht) ~29% thinner and; the total pulmonary morphometric diffusing capacity (DLo2) for O2 2.3 times more in C. foxi. C. gambianus occupies open burrows that are ventilated with air while C. foxi lives in closed burrows. The less morphometrically specialized lungs of C. gambianus may be attributed to its much larger body mass (~6 times more) and possibly lower metabolic rate and its semifossorial life whereas the 'superior' lungs of C. foxi may largely be ascribed to the subterranean hypoxic and hypercapnic environment it occupies. Compared to other rodents species that have been investigated hitherto, the τht was mostly smaller in the lungs of the subterranean species and C. foxi has the highest mass-specific DLo2. The fossorial- and the subterranean rodents have acquired various pulmonary structural specializations that relate to habitats occupied.

Distinct metabolic adjustments arise from acclimation to constant hypoxia and intermittent hypoxia in estuarine killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus)

Many fish experience daily cycles of hypoxia in the wild, but the physiological strategies for coping with intermittent hypoxia are poorly understood. We examined how killifish adjust O2 supply and demand during acute hypoxia, and how these responses are altered after prolonged acclimation to constant or intermittent patterns of hypoxia exposure. We acclimated killifish to normoxia (∼20 kPa O2), constant hypoxia (2 kPa) or intermittent cycles of nocturnal hypoxia (12 h:12 h normoxia:hypoxia) for 28 days, and then compared whole-animal O2 consumption rates (ṀO2) and tissue metabolites during exposure to 12 h of hypoxia followed by reoxygenation in normoxia. Normoxia-acclimated fish experienced a pronounced 27% drop in ṀO2 during acute hypoxia, and modestly increased ṀO2 upon reoxygenation. They strongly recruited anaerobic metabolism during acute hypoxia, indicated by lactate accumulation in plasma, muscle, liver, brain, heart and digestive tract, as well as a transient drop in intracellular pH, and they increased hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1α protein abundance in muscle. Glycogen, glucose and glucose-6-phosphate levels suggested that glycogen supported brain metabolism in hypoxia, while the muscle used circulating glucose. Acclimation to constant hypoxia caused a stable ∼50% decrease in ṀO2 that persisted after reoxygenation, with minimal recruitment of anaerobic metabolism, suggestive of metabolic depression. By contrast, fish acclimated to intermittent hypoxia maintained sufficient O2 transport to support normoxic ṀO2, modestly recruited lactate metabolism and increased ṀO2 dramatically upon reoxygenation. Both groups of hypoxia-acclimated fish had similar glycogen, ATP, intracellular pH and HIF-1α levels as normoxic controls. We conclude that different patterns of hypoxia exposure favour distinct strategies for matching O2 supply and O2 demand.

Paralytic hypo-energetic state facilitates anoxia tolerance despite ionic imbalance in adult Drosophila melanogaster

Oxygen limitation plays a key role in many pathologies; yet, we still lack a fundamental understanding of the mechanisms responsible for variation in anoxia tolerance. Most vertebrate studies suggest that anoxia tolerance involves the ability to maintain cellular ATP despite the loss of aerobic metabolism. However, insects such as adult Drosophila melanogaster are able to survive long periods of anoxia (LT₅₀: ∼8 h) in a hypo-energetic state characterized by low [ATP]. In this study, we tested for possible mechanisms that allow D. melanogaster adults to survive long periods of anoxia. Adults are paralyzed within 30 s, and after 2 h of anoxia, ATP was 3% of normal, extracellular potassium concentration ([K⁺]_o) increased threefold, pH dropped 1 unit, yet survival was 100%. With 0.5-6 h of anoxia, adults maintained low but constant ATP levels while [K⁺]_o and pH_o continued to change. When returned to normoxia, adults restored [K⁺]_o and activity. With longer durations of anoxia, ATP levels decreased and [K⁺]_o rose further, and both correlated tightly with decreased survival. This response contrasts with the anoxia-sensitive larval stage (LT₅₀: ∼1 h). During anoxia, larvae attempted escape for up to 30 min and after 2 h of anoxia, ATP was <1% of resting, [K⁺]_o increased by 50%, hemolymph pH fell by 1 unit, and survival was zero. The superior anoxia tolerance of adult D. melanogaster appears to be due to the capacity to maintain a paralytic hypometabolic state with low but non-zero ATP levels, and to be able to tolerate extreme extracellular ionic variability.

Some like it hot: factors impacting thermal preferences of two Ponto-Caspian amphipods Dikerogammarus villosus (Sovinsky, 1894) and Dikerogammarus haemobaphes (Eichwald, 1841)

Temperature is a crucial factor determining biology and ecology of poikilothermic animals. It often constitutes an important barrier for invasive species originating from different climate zones but, on the other hand, may facilitate the invasion process of animals with wide thermal preferences and high resistance to extreme temperatures. In our experimental study, we investigated the thermal behaviour of two Ponto-Caspian amphipod crustaceans-Dikerogammarus villosus and Dikerogammarus haemobaphes. Both species are known to live under a wide range of thermal conditions which may promote their invasion. Moreover, both these amphipods are hosts for microsporidian parasites which co-evolved with them within the Ponto-Caspian region and spread in European waters. As the presence of a parasite may influence the thermal preferences of its host, we expected to observe behavioural changes in infected individuals of the studied amphipods leading to (1) behavioural fever (selecting a warmer habitat) or (2) anapyrexia (selecting a colder habitat). The experiment (N = 20) was carried out for 30 min in a 100 cm. 20 cm from boths sides were not avaliable for amphipods long thermal gradient (0-40 °C), using 30 randomly selected adult amphipod individuals of one species. At the end of each trial, we checked the position of amphipods along the gradient and determined their sex and infection status (uninfected or infected by one of microsporidium species). D. villosus was infected with Cucumispora dikerogammari whereas D. haemobaphes was a host for C. dikerogammari, Dictyocoela muelleri or D. berillonum. Thermal preferences of amphipods depended on their species and sex. Females of D. villosus preferred warmer microhabitats (often much above 30 °C) than conspecific males and females of D. haemobaphes, whereas no significant differences were found among males of both species and both sexes of D. haemobaphes. Moreover, infected males of D. villosus stayed in warmer water more often than uninfected males of this species, selecting temperatures higher than 30 °C, which may be explained either as a behavioural fever constituting a defence mechanism of a host against the infection, or as a parasite manipulation of the host behaviour increasing the parasite fitness. On the other hand, none of the parasite species affected the thermal preferences of D. haemobaphes, including also C. dikerogammari, changing the behaviour of D. villosus. Our research presents the complexity of the thermal behaviour of studied amphipods and the evidence that microsporidia may trigger a change in temperature preferendum of their host species and those observations may be the result of different host-parasite coevolution time which may vary for the two host species (Poulin, 2010).

Tolerance to hypometabolism and arousal induced by hibernation in the apple snail Pomacea canaliculata (Caenogastropoda, Ampullariidae)

Pomacea canaliculata may serve as a model organism for comparative studies of oxidative damage and antioxidant defenses in active, hibernating and arousing snails. Oxidative damage (as TBARS), free radical scavenging capacity (as ABTS⁺ oxidation), uric acid (UA) and glutathione (GSH) concentrations, activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), and the protein expression levels of heat shock proteins (Hsp70, Hsc70, Hsp90) were studied in digestive gland, kidney and foot. Tissue TBARS of hibernating snails (45days) was higher than active snails. Hibernation produced an increase of ABTS⁺ in digestive gland, probably because of the sustained antioxidant defenses (UA and/or GSH and SOD levels). Kidney protection during the activity-hibernation cycle seemed provided by increased UA concentrations. TBARS in the foot remained high 30min after arousal with no changes in ABTS⁺, but this tissue increased ABTS⁺ oxidation at 24h to expenses increased UA and decreased GSH levels, and with no changes in SOD and CAT activities. The level of Hsp70 in kidney showed no changes throughout the activity-hibernation cycle but it increased in the foot after hibernation. The tissue levels of Hsp90 in snails hibernating were higher than active snails and returned to baseline 24h after arousal. Results showed that chronic cooling produces a significant oxidative damage in three studied tissues and that these tissue damages are overcome quickly (between 30min to 24h) with fluctuations in different antioxidant defenses (UA, GSH, CAT) and heat shock proteins (Hsp70 and Hsp90).

Intermittent hypoxia leads to functional reorganization of mitochondria and affects cellular bioenergetics in marine molluscs

Fluctuations in oxygen (O2) concentrations represent a major challenge to aerobic organisms and can be extremely damaging to their mitochondria. Marine intertidal molluscs are well-adapted to frequent O2 fluctuations, yet it remains unknown how their mitochondrial functions are regulated to sustain energy metabolism and prevent cellular damage during hypoxia and reoxygenation (H/R). We used metabolic control analysis to investigate the mechanisms of mitochondrial responses to H/R stress (18 h at <0.1% O2 followed by 1 h of reoxygenation) using hypoxia-tolerant intertidal clams Mercenaria mercenaria and hypoxia-sensitive subtidal scallops Argopecten irradians as models. We also assessed H/R-induced changes in cellular energy balance, oxidative damage and unfolded protein response to determine the potential links between mitochondrial dysfunction and cellular injury. Mitochondrial responses to H/R in scallops strongly resembled those in other hypoxia-sensitive organisms. Exposure to hypoxia followed by reoxygenation led to a strong decrease in the substrate oxidation (SOX) and phosphorylation (PHOS) capacities as well as partial depolarization of mitochondria of scallops. Elevated mRNA expression of a reactive oxygen species-sensitive enzyme aconitase and Lon protease (responsible for degradation of oxidized mitochondrial proteins) during H/R stress was consistent with elevated levels of oxidative stress in mitochondria of scallops. In hypoxia-tolerant clams, mitochondrial SOX capacity was enhanced during hypoxia and continued rising during the first hour of reoxygenation. In both species, the mitochondrial PHOS capacity was suppressed during hypoxia, likely to prevent ATP wastage by the reverse action of FO,F1-ATPase. The PHOS capacity recovered after 1 h of reoxygenation in clams but not in scallops. Compared with scallops, clams showed a greater suppression of energy-consuming processes (such as protein turnover and ion transport) during hypoxia, indicated by inactivation of the translation initiation factor EIF-2α, suppression of 26S proteasome activity and a dramatic decrease in the activity of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase. The steady-state levels of adenylates were preserved during H/R exposure and AMP-dependent protein kinase was not activated in either species, indicating that the H/R exposure did not lead to severe energy deficiency. Taken together, our findings suggest that mitochondrial reorganizations sustaining high oxidative phosphorylation flux during recovery, combined with the ability to suppress ATP-demanding cellular functions during hypoxia, may contribute to high resilience of clams to H/R stress and help maintain energy homeostasis during frequent H/R cycles in the intertidal zone.

Behavioural, physiological and biochemical responses to aquatic hypoxia in the freshwater crayfish, Paranephrops zealandicus

Hypoxia resulting from aquatic eutrophication threatens the population health of the New Zealand freshwater crayfish (koura), Paranephrops zealandicus. An integrated study, combining behavioural, physiological and biochemical approaches, was therefore conducted to characterise the tolerance of this species to hypoxia. When provided with a choice between water flows of high or low dissolved oxygen in short-term laboratory assays, crayfish did not preferentially inhabit waters of higher PO₂. However, when an aerial refuge was provided and dissolved oxygen was progressively decreased, crayfish emersed at a PO₂ of 0.56±0.03kPa, suggesting a relatively high tolerance to hypoxia. Closed-box respirometry delineated a P_crit, the point at which crayfish transition from oxyregulating to oxyconforming, of 6.0kPa. Simultaneous measurement of heart rate showed no changes across the PO₂ range. In response to 6-h exposures to fixed dissolved oxygen levels (normoxia, 19.3kPa; moderate hypoxia, 3.5kPa; and severe hypoxia, 1.7kPa), P. zealandicus showed a haemolymph PO₂ that declined with the magnitude of hypoxia, and while plasma pH declined in severe hypoxia, there were no changes in plasma PCO₂. Plasma glucose concentrations fell, and plasma lactate increased in both hypoxic groups. There were no changes in tissue glucose or lactate concentrations. These data indicate that P. zealandicus is relatively tolerant of hypoxia, and possesses biochemical and physiological mechanisms that facilitate survival during short-term exposures to acute hypoxia. If hypoxia is severe and/or prolonged, then this species is capable of escaping to aerial refugia.

Placental Origins of Chronic Disease

Epidemiological evidence links an individual's susceptibility to chronic disease in adult life to events during their intrauterine phase of development. Biologically this should not be unexpected, for organ systems are at their most plastic when progenitor cells are proliferating and differentiating. Influences operating at this time can permanently affect their structure and functional capacity, and the activity of enzyme systems and endocrine axes. It is now appreciated that such effects lay the foundations for a diverse array of diseases that become manifest many years later, often in response to secondary environmental stressors. Fetal development is underpinned by the placenta, the organ that forms the interface between the fetus and its mother. All nutrients and oxygen reaching the fetus must pass through this organ. The placenta also has major endocrine functions, orchestrating maternal adaptations to pregnancy and mobilizing resources for fetal use. In addition, it acts as a selective barrier, creating a protective milieu by minimizing exposure of the fetus to maternal hormones, such as glucocorticoids, xenobiotics, pathogens, and parasites. The placenta shows a remarkable capacity to adapt to adverse environmental cues and lessen their impact on the fetus. However, if placental function is impaired, or its capacity to adapt is exceeded, then fetal development may be compromised. Here, we explore the complex relationships between the placental phenotype and developmental programming of chronic disease in the offspring. Ensuring optimal placentation offers a new approach to the prevention of disorders such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity, which are reaching epidemic proportions.

Hypoxia effects on oxidative stress and immunocompetence biomarkers in the mussel Perna perna (Mytilidae, Bivalvia)

This study investigated the effects of hypoxia on oxidative stress response and immune function in mussels Perna perna exposed to air for 6, 12, 24 and 48 h. In air-exposed mussels, the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione reductase (GR) activities were lower in gill tissues (24-48 h) and digestive gland (12 h), while the glutathione peroxidase and GR activities were increased in the digestive gland (48 h). In both tissues, aerial exposure promoted a rapid (6 h) and persistent (up to 48 h) increase of glutathione levels. Decreased hemocyte count and viability, as well as increased phagocytic activity and cellular adhesion capacity were detected after prolonged aerial exposure (>12 h). In summary, induction of thiol pools, altered antioxidant enzyme activities, and activation of immune responses were detected in hypoxia exposed brown mussels, indicating hypoxia induced tissue-specific responses in both antioxidant and immune systems.

Hypoxia drives apoptosis independently of p53 and metallothionein transcript levels in hemocytes of the whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei

The cellular mechanisms used by the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei to respond to hypoxia have been studied from the energetic metabolism and antioxidant angles. We herein investigated the participation of p53 and metallothionein (MT) in the apoptotic process in response to hypoxia in shrimp hemocytes. The Lvp53 or LvMT genes were efficiently silenced by injection of double stranded RNA for p53 or MT. The effects of silencing on apoptosis were measured as caspase-3 activity and flow cytometry in hemocytes after 24 and 48 h of hypoxia (1.5 mg DO L(-1)). Hemocytes from unsilenced animals had significantly higher apoptosis levels upon both times of hypoxia. The apoptotic levels were diminished but not suppressed in dsp53-silenced but not dsMT-silenced hemocytes after 24 h of hypoxia, indicating a contribution of Lvp53 to apoptosis. Apoptosis in normoxia was significantly higher in dsp53-and dsMT-silenced animals compared to the unsilenced controls, pointing to a possible cytoprotective role of LvMT and Lvp53 during the basal apoptotic program in normoxia. Overall, these results indicate that hypoxia augments apoptosis in shrimp hemocytes and high mRNA levels of Lvp53 and LvMT are not necessary for this response.

(1)H nuclear magnetic resonance-based metabolomics study of earthworm Perionyx excavatus in vermifiltration process

In this study, (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabolomics approach was used to characterize the metabolic response of the earthworm Perionyx excavatus in continuous vermifiltration for two months under hydraulic loading rates of 1m(3)m(-2)d(-1) (VF1) and 1.5m(3)m(-2)d(-1) (VF1.5). Both VF1 and VF1.5 showed higher removal of chemical oxygen demand and total nitrogen than the biofilter without earthworms. Principal component analysis of the NMR spectra of earthworm metabolites showed significant separations between those not subjected to wastewater filtration (control) and VF1 or VF1.5. Temporal variations of earthworm biomass, and the identified metabolites that are significantly different between control, VF1 and VF1.5 revealed that worms underwent increasing metabolic activity within 20days in VF1 and 14days in VF1.5, then decreasing metabolic activity. The use of NMR-based metabolomics in monitoring earthworm metabolism was demonstrated to be a novel approach in studying engineered vermifiltration systems.

Isolation-hypoxia and re-oxygenation of the pallial cavity of female Crepipatella dilatata during estuarine salinity changes requires increased glyoxylase activity and antioxidant metabolism to avoid oxidative damage to female tissues and developing embryos

The estuarine slipper limpet Crepipatella dilatata is a gastropod that can survive prolonged periods of low salinities (< 24 PSU) caused by tidal changes and/or prolonged periods of rain. During low salinity events, C. dilatata can isolate its body from the outside environment, by sealing its shell against the substrate on which it grows. Prolonged isolation periods from the surrounding environment can greatly lower available oxygen levels inside of the pallial cavity, impacting on the physiology of both females and their incubated encapsulated embryos. When salinity levels return to normal, isolation is terminated and the inflow of seawater results in re-oxygenation. In this study we show that when re-oxygenation of the pallial cavity takes place, oxidative damage, in the form of increased levels of lipid peroxides and protein carbonyls, occurs in both maternal tissues and in incubated embryos. To avoid terminal oxidative damage both females and their embryos increase their levels of the glyoxalase pathway enzymes (GLX-I and GLX-II) and general antioxidant metabolism (SOD, CAT, GR, GPOX and GST). As a result the levels of oxidative damage decline to basal levels within 24 h of reoxygenation. Thus the combination of isolation, a behavioural strategy, combined with encapsulation of embryos and a capacity to up regulate relatively rapidly the glyoxylase pathway and general antioxidant metabolism, play major roles in facilitating the survival of C. dilatata in the small estuaries of Southern Chile.

Dietary nano-selenium relieves hypoxia stress and, improves immunity and disease resistance in the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis)

Hypoxia is a relevant physiological challenge for crab culture, and the hemolymph plays a crucial role in response to the hypoxia. In a 60 d feeding trial, Chinese mitten crabs (Eriocheir sinensis) fed a diet containing 0.2 mg/kg nano-selenium (nanoSe) showed a significantly increased weight gain rate (WGR) and a reduced feed coefficient (FC) compared to those fed diets with 0, 0.1, 0.4, 0.8, and 1.6 mg/kg nanoSe. Another 90 d feeding trial was conducted to determine the influence of dietary nanoSe on the immune response in juvenile Chinese mitten crabs kept under the condition of hypoxia. The results showed that hypoxia stress resulted in significantly increased hemocyte counts (THC, LGC, SGC, and HC), expression levels of the hemocyanin gene and protein, lactic acid level, and antioxidant capacity (T-AOC activities, SOD activities, GSH-Px and GSH content) in hemolymph supernatant. When these crabs were infected with Aeromonas hydrophila bacteria, hypoxia exposure increased mortality, but it was alleviated by a diet supplemented with 0.2 mg/kg nanoSe. The up-regulative effects of nanoSe (0.2 mg/kg) on antioxidant capacity, hemocyte counts, and hemocyanin expression under hypoxia exposure were further strengthened throughout, whereas lactic acid levels induced by hypoxia stress were restored. Thus, the observations in this study indicate that the level of dietary nanoSe is important in regulating immunity and disease resistance in crabs kept under hypoxia stress.

Improved ROS defense in the swimbladder of a facultative air-breathing erythrinid fish, jeju, compared to a non-air-breathing close relative, traira

The jeju Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus and the traira Hoplias malabaricus are two closely related erythrinid fish, both possessing a two-chambered physostomous swimbladder. In the jeju the anterior section of the posterior bladder is highly vascularized and the swimbladder is used for aerial respiration; the traira, in turn, is a water-breather that uses the swimbladder as a buoyancy organ and not for aerial oxygen uptake. Observation of the breathing behavior under different levels of water oxygenation revealed that the traira started aquatic surface respiration only under severe hypoxic conditions and did not breathe air. In the jeju air-breathing behavior was observed under normoxic conditions, and the frequency of air-breathing was significantly increased under hypoxic conditions. Unexpectedly, even under hyperoxic conditions (30 mg O₂ L⁻¹) the jeju continued to take air breaths, and compared with normoxic conditions the frequency was not reduced. Because the frequently air-exposed swimbladder tissue faces higher oxygen partial pressures than normally experienced by other fish tissues, it was hypothesized that in the facultative air-breathing jeju, swimbladder tissue would have a higher antioxidative capacity than the swimbladder tissue of the water breathing traira. Measurement of total glutathione (GSSG/GSH) concentration in anterior and posterior swimbladder tissue revealed a higher concentration of this antioxidant in swimbladder tissue as compared to muscle tissue in the jeju. Furthermore, the GSSG/GSH concentration in jeju tissues was significantly higher than in traira tissues. Similarly, activities of enzymes involved in the breakdown of reactive oxygen species were significantly higher in the jeju swimbladder as compared to the traira swimbladder. The results show that the jeju, using the swimbladder as an additional breathing organ, has an enhanced antioxidative capacity in the swimbladder as compared to the traira, using the swimbladder only as a buoyancy organ.

Effects of hypoxia and reoxygenation on the antioxidant defense system of the locomotor muscle of the crab Neohelice granulata (Decapoda, Varunidae)

Crustaceans often occur in areas with variations in oxygen and experience situations known as hypoxia and reoxygenation. Consequences of such situations are increased levels of reactive oxygen species. To avoid oxidative damage intertidal crabs appear to possess an efficient antioxidant defense system (ADS). However, to date, studies have not addressed the strategies that are adopted by the crabs when exposed to hypoxia/reoxygenation cycles. Towards this end we evaluated the ADS and the role of melatonin as an antioxidant in the locomotor muscle of the crab Neohelice granulata under conditions of severe hypoxia and reoxygenation. Total antioxidant capacity against peroxyl radicals and the enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione-S-transferase as well as the key enzyme of glutathione synthesis, glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL), were evaluated. Furthermore, GSH, GSH/GSSG index as well as hemolymph and cellular melatonin levels were evaluated. During hypoxia, increased GPx and GCL activity and decreased GSH and mitochondrial melatonin levels were observed, but during reoxygenation catalase activity increased and cytosolic melatonin levels decreased. It appears that the ADS in the locomotor muscle of N. granulata exert a modulating effect when being confronted with hypoxia and reoxygenation to avoid oxidative stress. During hypoxia, the ADS appear to target GPX activity as well as GSH and mitochondrial melatonin. During reoxygenation, however, evidence suggests that catalase and cytosolic melatonin are involved in the recovery of the locomotor muscle from oxidative damage and the suppression of further damage.

Hypoxia and hypercarbia in endophagous insects: Larval position in the plant gas exchange network is key

Gas composition is an important component of any micro-environment. Insects, as the vast majority of living organisms, depend on O2 and CO2 concentrations in the air they breathe. Low O2 (hypoxia), and high CO2 (hypercarbia) levels can have a dramatic effect. For phytophagous insects that live within plant tissues (endophagous lifestyle), gas is exchanged between ambient air and the atmosphere within the insect habitat. The insect larva contributes to the modification of this environment by expiring CO2. Yet, knowledge on the gas exchange network in endophagous insects remains sparse. Our study identified mechanisms that modulate gas composition in the habitat of endophagous insects. Our aim was to show that the mere position of the insect larva within plant tissues could be used as a proxy for estimating risk of occurrence of hypoxia and hypercarbia, despite the widely diverse life history traits of these organisms. We developed a conceptual framework for a gas diffusion network determining gas composition in endophagous insect habitats. We applied this framework to mines, galls and insect tunnels (borers) by integrating the numerous obstacles along O2 and CO2 pathways. The nature and the direction of gas transfers depended on the physical structure of the insect habitat, the photosynthesis activity as well as stomatal behavior in plant tissues. We identified the insect larva position within the gas diffusion network as a predictor of risk exposure to hypoxia and hypercarbia. We ranked endophagous insect habitats in terms of risk of exposure to hypoxia and/or hypercarbia, from the more to the less risky as cambium mines>borer tunnels≫galls>bark mines>mines in aquatic plants>upper and lower surface mines. Furthermore, we showed that the photosynthetically active tissues likely assimilate larval CO2 produced. In addition, temperature of the microhabitat and atmospheric CO2 alter gas composition in the insect habitat. We predict that (i) hypoxia indirectly favors the evolution of cold-tolerant gallers, which do not perform well at high temperatures, and (ii) normoxia (ambient O2 level) in mines allows miners to develop at high temperatures. Little is known, however, about physiological and morphological adaptations to hypoxia and hypercarbia in endophagous insects. Endophagy strongly constrains the diffusion processes with cascading consequences on the evolutionary ecology of endophagous insects.

Physiological responses of the ghost shrimp Neotrypaea uncinata (Milne Edwards 1837) (Decapoda: Thalassinidea) to oxygen availability and recovery after severe environmental hypoxia

Hypoxia is a common and widespread phenomenon in aquatic ecosystems, imposing a significant challenge for the animals that inhabit such waters. In different habitats, however, the characteristics of these hypoxic events may differ, therefore imposing different challenges. We investigated the tolerance of adult ghost shrimp Neotrypaea uncinata (an intertidal mudflat dweller) to different partial pressures of oxygen (pO2), severe hypoxia (2 kPa) and recovery from hypoxia after different exposure times, mimicking the natural tidal cycle (6 h and 12 h). We calculated critical oxygen tension and categorize the adult ghost shrimps as oxyregulators (R value=75.27%). All physiological measurements (metabolic rate, oxyhemocyanin, hemolymph protein and lactate concentrations) were affected by exposure to low partial pressures of oxygen, but most of them recovered (with exception of metabolic rate) control values (21 kPa) after 6h under normoxic conditions. Low metabolic rate, high release of hemolymphatic proteins and anaerobic metabolism are suggested as response mechanisms to overcome hypoxic events during low tide.

Drosophila anti-nematode and antibacterial immune regulators revealed by RNA-Seq

Background

Drosophila melanogaster activates a variety of immune responses against microbial infections. However, information on the Drosophila immune response to entomopathogenic nematode infections is currently limited. The nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora is an insect parasite that forms a mutualistic relationship with the gram-negative bacteria Photorhabdus luminescens. Following infection, the nematodes release the bacteria that quickly multiply within the insect and produce several toxins that eventually kill the host. Although we currently know that the insect immune system interacts with Photorhabdus, information on interaction with the nematode vector is scarce.

Results

Here we have used next generation RNA-sequencing to analyze the transcriptional profile of wild-type adult flies infected by axenic Heterorhabditis nematodes (lacking Photorhabdus bacteria), symbiotic Heterorhabditis nematodes (carrying Photorhabdus bacteria), and Photorhabdus bacteria alone. We have obtained approximately 54 million reads from the different infection treatments. Bioinformatic analysis shows that infection with Photorhabdus alters the transcription of a large number of Drosophila genes involved in translational repression as well in response to stress. However, Heterorhabditis infection alters the transcription of several genes that participate in lipidhomeostasis and metabolism, stress responses, DNA/protein sythesis and neuronal functions. We have also identified genes in the fly with potential roles in nematode recognition, anti-nematode activity and nociception.

Conclusions

These findings provide fundamental information on the molecular events that take place in Drosophila upon infection with the two pathogens, either separately or together. Such large-scale transcriptomic analyses set the stage for future functional studies aimed at identifying the exact role of key factors in the Drosophila immune response against nematode-bacteria complexes.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1690-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Expression of fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase and phosphofructokinase is induced in hepatopancreas of the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei by hypoxia

Marine organisms are exposed to hypoxia in natural ecosystems and during farming. In these circumstances marine shrimp survive and synthesize ATP by anaerobic metabolism. Phosphofructokinase (PFK) and fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase (FBP) are key enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism. Here we report the cDNA of FBP from the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei hepatopancreas and expression of PFK and FBP under normoxia and hypoxia. Hypoxia induces PFK and FBP expression in hepatopancreas but not in gills and muscle. Induction in hepatopancreas of the glycolytic and gluconeogenic key enzymes, PFK and FBP, suggests that PFK could be a key factor for increasing anaerobic rate, while FBP is probably involved in the activation of gluconeogenesis or the pentose-phosphates pathway during hypoxia in the highly active metabolism of hepatopancreas.

Hydrogen sulfide as an oxygen sensor

SIGNIFICANCE

Although oxygen (O2)-sensing cells and tissues have been known for decades, the identity of the O2-sensing mechanism has remained elusive. Evidence is accumulating that O2-dependent metabolism of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is this enigmatic O2 sensor.

RECENT ADVANCES

The elucidation of biochemical pathways involved in H2S synthesis and metabolism have shown that reciprocal H2S/O2 interactions have been inexorably linked throughout eukaryotic evolution; there are multiple foci by which O2 controls H2S inactivation, and the effects of H2S on downstream signaling events are consistent with those activated by hypoxia. H2S-mediated O2 sensing has been demonstrated in a variety of O2-sensing tissues in vertebrate cardiovascular and respiratory systems, including smooth muscle in systemic and respiratory blood vessels and airways, carotid body, adrenal medulla, and other peripheral as well as central chemoreceptors.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Information is now needed on the intracellular location and stoichometry of these signaling processes and how and which downstream effectors are activated by H2S and its metabolites.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Development of specific inhibitors of H2S metabolism and effector activation as well as cellular organelle-targeted compounds that release H2S in a time- or environmentally controlled way will not only enhance our understanding of this signaling process but also provide direction for future therapeutic applications.