1
|
Morin A, Culbert BM, Mehdi H, Balshine S, Turko AJ. Status-dependent metabolic effects of social interactions in a group-living fish. Biol Lett 2024; 20:20240056. [PMID: 39045657 PMCID: PMC11267398 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2024.0056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Social interactions can sometimes be a source of stress, but social companions can also ameliorate and buffer against stress. Stress and metabolism are closely linked, but the degree to which social companions modulate metabolic responses during stressful situations-and whether such effects differ depending on social rank-is poorly understood. To investigate this question, we studied Neolamprologus pulcher, a group-living cichlid fish endemic to Lake Tanganyika and measured the metabolic responses of dominant and subordinate individuals when they were either visible or concealed from one another. When individuals could see each other, subordinates had lower maximum metabolic rates and tended to take longer to recover following an exhaustive chase compared with dominants. In contrast, metabolic responses of dominants and subordinates did not differ when individuals could not see one another. These findings suggest that the presence of a dominant individual has negative metabolic consequences for subordinates, even in stable social groups with strong prosocial relationships.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- André Morin
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, 75 Pigdons Road, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Brett M. Culbert
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hossein Mehdi
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sigal Balshine
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Andy J. Turko
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Culbert BM, Barnett JB, Ligocki IY, Salena MG, Wong MYL, Hamilton IM, Balshine S. Colorful facial markings are associated with foraging rates and affiliative relationships in a wild group-living cichlid fish. Curr Zool 2024; 70:70-78. [PMID: 38476131 PMCID: PMC10926260 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoac100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Many animals use color to signal their quality and/or behavioral motivations. Colorful signals have been well studied in the contexts of competition and mate choice; however, the role of these signals in nonsexual, affiliative relationships is not as well understood. Here, we used wild social groups of the cichlid fish Neolamprologus pulcher to investigate whether the size of a brightly colored facial patch was related to 1) individual quality, 2) social dominance, and/or 3) affiliative relationships. Individuals with larger patches spent more time foraging and tended to perform more aggressive acts against conspecific territory intruders. We did not find any evidence that the size of these yellow patches was related to social rank or body size, but dominant males tended to have larger patches than dominant females. Additionally, patch size had a rank-specific relationship with the number of affiliative interactions that individuals engaged in. Dominant males with large patches received fewer affiliative acts from their groupmates compared to dominant males with small patches. However, subordinates with large patches tended to receive more affiliative acts from their groupmates while performing fewer affiliative acts themselves. Taken together, our results suggest that patch size reflects interindividual variation in foraging effort in this cichlid fish and offer some of the first evidence that colorful signals may shape affiliative relationships within wild social groups.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brett M Culbert
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - James B Barnett
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Isaac Y Ligocki
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Biology, Millersville University, Millersville, PA, USA
| | - Matthew G Salena
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Marian Y L Wong
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ian M Hamilton
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Mathematics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Sigal Balshine
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Morris-Drake A, Cobb B, Kern JM, Radford AN. A positive effect of cumulative intergroup threat on reproductive success. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231853. [PMID: 37964527 PMCID: PMC10646463 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Outgroup conflict is a powerful selective force across all social taxa. While it is well documented that individual outgroup contests can have a range of direct and indirect fitness consequences, the cumulative pressure of outgroup threats could also potentially impact reproductive success. Here, we use long-term life-history data from a wild population of dwarf mongooses (Helogale parvula) to investigate how intergroup interaction (IGI) rate might influence breeding and offspring survival. IGI rate did not predict the number of litters produced in a season or the inter-litter interval. Unexpectedly, IGI rate was positively associated with the number of pups alive three months after emergence from the breeding burrow. This was not due to a difference in how many pups emerged but because those in groups experiencing more IGIs had a higher survival likelihood post-emergence. Detailed natural observations revealed that both IGI occurrence and the threat of intergroup conflict led to more sentinel behaviour by adults, probably reducing the predation risk to young. Our results contrast the previously documented negative effects of outgroup interactions on reproductive success and highlight the need to assess cumulative threat, rather than just the impact of physical contests, when considering outgroup conflict as a social driver of fitness.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy Morris-Drake
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Benjamin Cobb
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Julie M. Kern
- School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale 2351, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Andrew N. Radford
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Braga Goncalves I, Radford AN. Experimental evidence that chronic outgroup conflict reduces reproductive success in a cooperatively breeding fish. eLife 2022; 11:72567. [PMID: 36102799 PMCID: PMC9473690 DOI: 10.7554/elife.72567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Conflicts with conspecific outsiders are common in group-living species, from ants to primates, and are argued to be an important selective force in social evolution. However, whilst an extensive empirical literature exists on the behaviour exhibited during and immediately after interactions with rivals, only very few observational studies have considered the cumulative fitness consequences of outgroup conflict. Using a cooperatively breeding fish, the daffodil cichlid (Neolamprologus pulcher), we conducted the first experimental test of the effects of chronic outgroup conflict on reproductive investment and output. ‘Intruded’ groups received long-term simulated territorial intrusions by neighbours that generated consistent group-defence behaviour; matched ‘Control’ groups (each the same size and with the same neighbours as an Intruded group) received no intrusions in the same period. Intruded groups had longer inter-clutch intervals and produced eggs with increasingly less protein than Control groups. Despite the lower egg investment, Intruded groups provided more parental care and achieved similar hatching success to Control groups. Ultimately, however, Intruded groups had fewer and smaller surviving offspring than Control groups at 1-month post-hatching. We therefore provide experimental evidence that outgroup conflict can decrease fitness via cumulative effects on reproductive success, confirming the selective potential of this empirically neglected aspect of sociality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew N Radford
- School of Biological Sciences/Life Sciences, University of Bristol
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Braga Goncalves I, Radford AN. Intraspecific variation in audience effects during outgroup conflict in a cooperatively breeding fish. Anim Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
6
|
Ghaskadbi P, Nigam P, Habib B. Stranger Danger: Differential response to strangers and neighbors by a social carnivore, the Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03188-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
|
7
|
Morris-Drake A, Kennedy P, Braga Goncalves I, Radford AN. Variation between species, populations, groups and individuals in the fitness consequences of out-group conflict. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210148. [PMID: 35369741 PMCID: PMC8977661 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Out-group conflict is rife in the natural world, occurring from primates to ants. Traditionally, research on this aspect of sociality has focused on the interactions between groups and their conspecific rivals, investigating contest function and characteristics, which group members participate and what determines who wins. In recent years, however, there has been increasing interest in the consequences of out-group conflict. In this review, we first set the scene by outlining the fitness consequences that can arise immediately to contest participants, as well as a broader range of delayed, cumulative and third-party effects of out-group conflict on survival and reproductive success. For the majority of the review, we then focus on variation in these fitness consequences of out-group conflict, describing known examples both between species and between populations, groups and individuals of the same species. Throughout, we suggest possible reasons for the variation, provide examples from a diverse array of taxa, and suggest what is needed to advance this burgeoning area of social evolution. This article is part of the theme issue 'Intergroup conflict across taxa'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy Morris-Drake
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Patrick Kennedy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Ines Braga Goncalves
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Andrew N Radford
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
De Dreu CKW, Triki Z. Intergroup conflict: origins, dynamics and consequences across taxa. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210134. [PMID: 35369751 PMCID: PMC8977662 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Although uniquely destructive and wasteful, intergroup conflict and warfare are not confined to humans. They are seen across a range of group-living species, from social insects, fishes and birds to mammals, including nonhuman primates. With its unique collection of theory, research and review contributions from biology, anthropology and economics, this theme issue provides novel insights into intergroup conflict across taxa. Here, we introduce and organize this theme issue on the origins and consequences of intergroup conflict. We provide a coherent framework by modelling intergroup conflicts as multi-level games of strategy in which individuals within groups cooperate to compete with (individuals in) other groups for scarce resources, such as territory, food, mating opportunities, power and influence. Within this framework, we identify cross-species mechanisms and consequences of (participating in) intergroup conflict. We conclude by highlighting crosscutting innovations in the study of intergroup conflict set forth by individual contributions. These include, among others, insights on how within-group heterogeneities and leadership relate to group conflict, how intergroup conflict shapes social organization and how climate change and environmental degradation transition intergroup relations from peaceful coexistence to violent conflict. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Intergroup conflict across taxa’.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carsten K W De Dreu
- Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Center for Research in Experimental Economics and Political Decision Making, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Zegni Triki
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Traniello IM, Hamilton AR, Gernat T, Cash-Ahmed AC, Harwood GP, Ray AM, Glavin A, Torres J, Goldenfeld N, Robinson GE. Context-dependent influence of threat on honey bee social network dynamics and brain gene expression. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:jeb243738. [PMID: 35202460 PMCID: PMC9001921 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Adverse social experience affects social structure by modifying the behavior of individuals, but the relationship between an individual's behavioral state and its response to adversity is poorly understood. We leveraged naturally occurring division of labor in honey bees and studied the biological embedding of environmental threat using laboratory assays and automated behavioral tracking of whole colonies. Guard bees showed low intrinsic levels of sociability compared with foragers and nurse bees, but large increases in sociability following exposure to a threat. Threat experience also modified the expression of caregiving-related genes in a brain region called the mushroom bodies. These results demonstrate that the biological embedding of environmental experience depends on an individual's societal role and, in turn, affects its future sociability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ian M. Traniello
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Adam R. Hamilton
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Tim Gernat
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Swarm Intelligence and Complex Systems Group, Department of Computer Science, Leipzig University, Liepzig D-04109, Germany
| | - Amy C. Cash-Ahmed
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Gyan P. Harwood
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Allyson M. Ray
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Abigail Glavin
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Jacob Torres
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Nigel Goldenfeld
- Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Gene E. Robinson
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Morris-Drake A, Linden JF, Kern JM, Radford AN. Extended and cumulative effects of experimentally induced intergroup conflict in a cooperatively breeding mammal. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20211743. [PMID: 34875195 PMCID: PMC8651417 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.1743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Conflict between rival groups is rife in nature. While recent work has begun exploring the behavioural consequences of this intergroup conflict, studies have primarily considered just the 1-2 h immediately after single interactions with rivals or their cues. Using a habituated population of wild dwarf mongooses (Helogale parvula), we conducted week-long manipulations to investigate longer-term impacts of intergroup conflict. Compared to a single presentation of control herbivore faeces, one rival-group faecal presentation (simulating a territorial intrusion) resulted in more within-group grooming the following day, beyond the likely period of conflict-induced stress. Repeated presentations of outsider cues led to further changes in baseline behaviour by the end of the week: compared to control weeks, mongooses spent less time foraging and foraged closer to their groupmates, even when there had been no recent simulated intrusion. Moreover, there was more baseline territorial scent-marking and a higher likelihood of group fissioning in intrusion weeks. Consequently, individuals gained less body mass at the end of weeks with repeated simulated intrusions. Our experimental findings provide evidence for longer-term, extended and cumulative, effects of an elevated intergroup threat, which may lead to fitness consequences and underpin this powerful selective pressure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy Morris-Drake
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Jennifer F. Linden
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Julie M. Kern
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
- School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia
| | - Andrew N. Radford
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Preston EFR, Thompson FJ, Kyabulima S, Croft DP, Cant MA. The dynamics of social cohesion in response to simulated intergroup conflict in banded mongooses. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:18662-18675. [PMID: 35003700 PMCID: PMC8717285 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Intergroup conflict is widespread in nature and is proposed to have strong impacts on the evolution of social behavior. The conflict-cohesion hypothesis predicts that exposure to intergroup conflict should lead to increased social cohesion to improve group success or resilience in future conflicts. There is evidence to support this prediction from studies of affiliative responses to outgroup threats in some animal societies. However, most of these studies have focused on behavioral changes over short time periods (minutes and hours after exposure to an outgroup), and hence very little is known about the dynamics and durability of responses to intergroup conflict over the longer term. We investigated this question by simulating intergroup encounters in wild banded mongooses (Mungos mungo) and measuring social behavior before, during, and after these encounters over a 5-day period. We also ran control trials with non-threatening stimuli. Banded mongooses reacted immediately to intrusion stimuli by vocalizing, grouping together, and advancing on the stimulus. In the first 5 min after simulated intrusions, we saw an elevation in grooming levels, but in the hour after exposure grooming rates declined sharply, contrary to our expectation. In the two subsequent days, grooming rates remained at this depressed rate. In control trials, the initial increase in grooming was not seen, but grooming declined compared to the longer-term time periods. Grooming changed across time, but not in the same pattern as during intrusions, suggesting that intrusions had an impact above and beyond that of the experimental setup. The dynamics of grooming responses were short lived and more complex than we initially expected. We suggest this unexpected result may be linked to the frequency of aggressive intergroup encounters in this system. As control and experimental trials were run at different times of year, future work would be needed to confirm that these relative patterns are replicable. Our results indicate short-lived impacts of outgroup threat on measures of social cohesion in this species, but cannot confirm longer-term changes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth F. R. Preston
- Centre for Ecology and ConservationCollege of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterExeterUK
| | - Faye J. Thompson
- Centre for Ecology and ConservationCollege of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterExeterUK
| | | | - Darren P. Croft
- Centre for Research in Animal BehaviourCollege of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterExeterUK
| | - Michael A. Cant
- Centre for Ecology and ConservationCollege of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterExeterUK
- Institute for Advanced StudyBerlinGermany
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Humphries DJ, Nelson‐Flower MJ, Bell MBV, Finch FM, Ridley AR. Kinship, dear enemies, and costly combat: The effects of relatedness on territorial overlap and aggression in a cooperative breeder. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:17031-17042. [PMID: 34938490 PMCID: PMC8668771 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Many species maintain territories, but the degree of overlap between territories and the level of aggression displayed in territorial conflicts can vary widely, even within species. Greater territorial overlap may occur when neighboring territory holders are close relatives. Animals may also differentiate neighbors from strangers, with more familiar neighbors eliciting less-aggressive responses during territorial conflicts (the "dear enemy" effect). However, research is lacking in how both kinship and overlap affect territorial conflicts, especially in group-living species. Here, we investigate kinship, territorial overlap, and territorial conflict in a habituated wild population of group-living cooperatively breeding birds, the southern pied babbler Turdoides bicolor. We find that close kin neighbors are beneficial. Territories overlap more when neighboring groups are close kin, and these larger overlaps with kin confer larger territories (an effect not seen for overlaps with unrelated groups). Overall, territorial conflict is costly, causing significant decreases in body mass, but conflicts with kin are shorter than those conducted with nonkin. Conflicts with more familiar unrelated neighbors are also shorter, indicating these neighbors are "dear enemies." However, kinship modulates the "dear enemy" effect; even when kin are encountered less frequently, kin elicit less-aggressive responses, similar to the "dear enemy" effect. Kin selection appears to be a main influence on territorial behavior in this species. Groups derive kin-selected benefits from decreased conflicts and maintain larger territories when overlapping with kin, though not when overlapping with nonkin. More generally, it is possible that kinship extends the "dear enemy" effect in animal societies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David J. Humphries
- Department of Biological SciencesMacquarie UniversitySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- Pied Babbler Research ProjectUniversity of Cape TownRondeboschWestern CapeSouth Africa
| | - Martha J. Nelson‐Flower
- Pied Babbler Research ProjectUniversity of Cape TownRondeboschWestern CapeSouth Africa
- Department of BiologyLangara CollegeVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
| | - Matthew B. V. Bell
- Pied Babbler Research ProjectUniversity of Cape TownRondeboschWestern CapeSouth Africa
- Institute of Evolutionary BiologySchool of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Fiona M. Finch
- Pied Babbler Research ProjectUniversity of Cape TownRondeboschWestern CapeSouth Africa
| | - Amanda R. Ridley
- Pied Babbler Research ProjectUniversity of Cape TownRondeboschWestern CapeSouth Africa
- DST/NRF Centre of ExcellencePercy FitzPatrick Institute for African OrnithologyUniversity of Cape TownRondeboschSouth Africa
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of Western AustraliaPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Garcia de la Chica A, Wood DB, Rotundo M, Fernandez‐Duque E. Responses of a pair‐living, sexually monogamous primate to the simulated presence of solitary individuals: A field playback experiment. Ethology 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - David Bechtel Wood
- Owl Monkey Project‐ Fundación ECO Formosa Argentina
- Yale University New Haven Connecticut USA
| | | | - Eduardo Fernandez‐Duque
- Owl Monkey Project‐ Fundación ECO Formosa Argentina
- Yale University New Haven Connecticut USA
- Universidad de Formosa Formosa Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Credible signalling and social bonds: Ultimately drawing on the same idea. Behav Brain Sci 2021; 44:e102. [PMID: 34588044 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x20001454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The hypotheses in both target articles rely implicitly on much the same logic. For a "social-bonding" device to make sense, there must be an underlying reason why an otherwise-arbitrary behaviour sustains alliances - namely, credible signals of one's value to partners. To illustrate our points, we draw on the parallels with supposed bonding behaviours in nonhuman animals.
Collapse
|
15
|
Green P, Preston E, Nicholl M, Croft D, Thompson F, Cant M. Collective defence and behavioural homogeneity during simulated territorial intrusions in banded mongooses (
Mungos mungo
). Ethology 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P.A. Green
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK
| | - E.F.R. Preston
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit Department of Zoology University of Oxford Oxford UK
| | - M.H. Nicholl
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK
| | - D.P. Croft
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Exeter UK
| | - F.J. Thompson
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK
| | - M.A. Cant
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK
- Institute for Advanced Study Berlin Germany
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Braga Goncalves I, Richmond E, Harding HR, Radford AN. Impacts of additional noise on the social interactions of a cooperatively breeding fish. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:210982. [PMID: 34350024 PMCID: PMC8316797 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.210982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Anthropogenic noise is a global pollutant known to affect the behaviour of individual animals in all taxa studied. However, there has been relatively little experimental testing of the effects of additional noise on social interactions between conspecifics, despite these forming a crucial aspect of daily life for most species. Here, we use established paradigms to investigate how white-noise playback affects both group defensive actions against an intruder and associated within-group behaviours in a model fish species, the cooperatively breeding cichlid Neolamprologus pulcher. Additional noise did not alter defensive behaviour, but did result in changes to within-group behaviour. Both dominant and subordinate females, but not the dominant male, exhibited less affiliation and showed a tendency to produce more submissive displays to groupmates when there was additional noise compared with control conditions. Thus, our experimental results indicate the potential for anthropogenic noise to affect social interactions between conspecifics and emphasize the possibility of intraspecific variation in the impacts of this global pollutant.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ines Braga Goncalves
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Emily Richmond
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Harry R. Harding
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Andrew N. Radford
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Uniting against a common enemy: Perceived outgroup threat elicits ingroup cohesion in chimpanzees. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246869. [PMID: 33626062 PMCID: PMC7904213 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Outgroup threat has been identified as an important driver of ingroup cohesion in humans, but the evolutionary origin of such a relationship is unclear. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in the wild are notably aggressive towards outgroup members but coordinate complex behaviors with many individuals in group hunting and border patrols. One hypothesis claims that these behaviors evolve alongside one another, where outgroup threat selects for ingroup cohesion and group coordination. To test this hypothesis, 5 groups of chimpanzees (N = 29 individuals) were observed after hearing either pant-hoots of unfamiliar wild chimpanzees or control crow vocalizations both in their typical daily environment and in a context of induced feeding competition. We observed a behavioral pattern that was consistent both with increased stress and vigilance (self-directed behaviors increased, play decreased, rest decreased) and increased ingroup cohesion (interindividual proximity decreased, aggression over food decreased, and play during feeding competition increased). These results support the hypothesis that outgroup threat elicits ingroup tolerance in chimpanzees. This suggests that in chimpanzees, like humans, competition between groups fosters group cohesion.
Collapse
|
18
|
Preston EFR, Thompson FJ, Ellis S, Kyambulima S, Croft DP, Cant MA. Network-level consequences of outgroup threats in banded mongooses: Grooming and aggression between the sexes. J Anim Ecol 2021; 90:153-167. [PMID: 33428240 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Animal groups are heterogeneous assemblages of individuals with differing fitness interests, which may lead to internal conflict over investment in group territorial defence. Differences between individuals may lead to different behavioural responses to intergroup conflict, particularly between the sexes. These potential impacts have been little studied. We used social network analysis to investigate the impact of simulated intergroup conflicts on social relationships in groups of wild banded mongooses Mungos mungo, in which intergroup fights are more costly for males than females. We predicted that social cohesion (specifically male-to-male and female-to-male grooming) would increase after conflict, and aggression would decrease, to minimize conflict between the sexes. Simulated intergroup conflicts were performed by exposing banded mongoose groups to scents, 'war cry' playbacks, and live intruders from a rival group. All grooming and aggression interactions between individuals were recorded, and grooming and aggression social networks were created for the 2 days preceding a simulated intergroup conflict (pre-conflict network) and the 2 days after (post-conflict network). We found no evidence of an increase in social cohesion after simulated conflicts, measured as grooming eigenvector centrality. Male-to-male, male-to-female and female-to-male grooming strength decreased after simulated intrusions compared to female-to-female grooming strength. However, male-female aggression decreased in intrusion trials compared to other interaction types, consistent with the hypothesis that intergroup encounters reduce the level of intragroup conflict between males and females. Males were more affected socially by intergroup encounters than females, which may be because they are investing in defence rather than internal relationships. Focusing on individual relationship changes, using social network analysis, can reveal changes in the directionality of behaviour in response to intergroup encounters, and highlight how individual responses to conflict may scale up to affect social networks and, potentially, group performance. This study highlights the importance of studying both group-level behaviours and individual relationships to more fully understand responses to intergroup encounters.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth F R Preston
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Cornwall, UK
| | - Faye J Thompson
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Cornwall, UK
| | - Samuel Ellis
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | | | - Darren P Croft
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Michael A Cant
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Cornwall, UK
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Culbert BM, Ligocki IY, Salena MG, Wong MYL, Bernier NJ, Hamilton IM, Balshine S. Glucocorticoids do not promote prosociality in a wild group-living fish. Horm Behav 2021; 127:104879. [PMID: 33121993 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2020] [Revised: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Individuals often respond to social disturbances by increasing prosociality, which can strengthen social bonds, buffer against stress, and promote overall group cohesion. Given their importance in mediating stress responses, glucocorticoids have received considerable attention as potential proximate regulators of prosocial behaviour during disturbances. However, previous investigations have largely focused on mammals and our understanding of the potential prosocial effects of glucocorticoids across vertebrates more broadly is still lacking. Here, we assessed whether experimentally elevated glucocorticoid levels (simulating endogenous cortisol responses mounted following disturbances) promote prosocial behaviours in wild groups of the cichlid fish, Neolamprologus pulcher. Using SCUBA in Lake Tanganyika, we observed how subordinate group members adjusted affiliation, helping, and submission (all forms of prosocial behaviour) following underwater injections of either cortisol or saline. Cortisol treatment reduced affiliative behaviours-but only in females-suggesting that glucocorticoids may reduce overall prosociality. Fish with elevated glucocorticoid levels did not increase performance of submission or helping behaviours. Taken together, our results do not support a role for glucocorticoids in promoting prosocial behaviour in this species and emphasize the complexity of the proximate mechanisms that underlie prosociality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brett M Culbert
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Isaac Y Ligocki
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA; Department of Biology, Millersville University, Millersville, PA, USA
| | - Matthew G Salena
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Marian Y L Wong
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Nicholas J Bernier
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ian M Hamilton
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA; Department of Mathematics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Sigal Balshine
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Green PA, Briffa M, Cant MA. Assessment during Intergroup Contests. Trends Ecol Evol 2020; 36:139-150. [PMID: 33187729 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Research on how competitors assess (i.e., gather information on) fighting ability and contested resources, as well as how assessment impacts on contest processes and outcomes, has been fundamental to the field of dyadic (one-on-one) contests. Despite recent growth in studies of contests between social-living groups, there is limited understanding of assessment during these intergroup contests. We adapt current knowledge of dyadic contest assessment to the intergroup case, describing what traits of groups, group members, and resources are assessed, and how assessment is manifested in contest processes (e.g., behaviors) and outcomes. This synthesis helps to explain the role of individual heterogeneity in assessment and how groups are shaped by the selective pressure of contests.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P A Green
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn TR10 9FE, UK.
| | - M Briffa
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL3 8AA, UK
| | - M A Cant
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn TR10 9FE, UK
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Interactions with conspecific outsiders as drivers of cognitive evolution. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4937. [PMID: 33024110 PMCID: PMC7538913 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18780-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The social intelligence hypothesis (SIH) posits that within-group interactions drive cognitive evolution, but it has received equivocal support. We argue the SIH overlooks a major component of social life: interactions with conspecific outsiders. Competition for vital resources means conspecific outsiders present myriad threats and opportunities in all animal taxa across the social spectrum (from individuals to groups). We detail cognitive challenges generated by conspecific outsiders, arguing these select for ‘Napoleonic’ intelligence; explain potential influences on the SIH; and highlight important considerations when empirically testing these ideas. Including interactions with conspecific outsiders may substantially improve our understanding of cognitive evolution. The social intelligence hypothesis predicts that social organisms tend to be more intelligent because within-group interactions drive cognitive evolution. Here, authors propose that conspecific outsiders can be just as important in selecting for sophisticated cognitive adaptations.
Collapse
|
22
|
Girard-Buttoz C, Surbeck M, Samuni L, Boesch C, Fruth B, Crockford C, Hohmann G, Wittig RM. Variable use of polyadic grooming and its effect on access to social partners in wild chimpanzees and bonobos. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
23
|
Naef J, Taborsky M. Punishment controls helper defence against egg predators but not fish predators in cooperatively breeding cichlids. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
|
24
|
Thompson FJ, Hunt KL, Wright K, Rosengaus RB, Cole EL, Birch G, Maune AL, Cant MA. Who goes there? Social surveillance as a response to intergroup conflict in a primitive termite. Biol Lett 2020. [PMCID: PMC7423038 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2020.0131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Intergroup conflict has been suggested as a major force shaping the evolution of social behaviour in animal groups. A long-standing hypothesis is that groups at risk of attack by rivals should become more socially cohesive, to increase resilience or protect against future attack. However, it is usually unclear how cohesive behaviours (such as grooming or social contacts) function in intergroup conflict. We performed an experiment in which we exposed young colonies of the dampwood termite,
Zootermopsis angusticollis
, to a rival colony while preventing physical combat with a permeable barrier. We measured social contacts, allogrooming and trophallaxis before, during and after exposure. Termites showed elevated rates of social contacts during exposure to a rival compared to the pre-exposure phase, but rates returned to pre-exposure levels after colonies were separated for 9 days. There was evidence of a delayed effect of conflict on worker trophallaxis. We suggest that social contacts during intergroup conflict function as a form of social surveillance, to check individual identity and assess colony resource holding potential. Intergroup conflict may increase social cohesion in both the short and the long term, improving the effectiveness of groups in competition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Faye J. Thompson
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Kingsley L. Hunt
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Kallum Wright
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Rebeca B. Rosengaus
- Department of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Erin L. Cole
- Department of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Graham Birch
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Avery L. Maune
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Michael A. Cant
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Busia L, Griggio M. The dawn of social bonds: what is the role of shared experiences in non-human animals? Biol Lett 2020; 16:20200201. [PMID: 32673550 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2020.0201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Group-living animals can develop social bonds. Social bonds can be considered a type of social relationship characterized by frequent and consistent affiliative (non-reproductive) interactions. Social bonds with conspecifics bring many advantages, also in terms of direct fitness. A characteristic of social bonds is that they need time to develop. Several studies on humans have emphasized the fact that sharing experiences can affect the strength of social bonds. A similar trend can be spotted in non-human species. For example, a recent experiment showed that if chimpanzees watched a video together with a conspecific, they spent more time in proximity compared to conspecifics with whom they did not actively watch a video. Another experiment on fish showed that individuals who experienced a situation of high predation risk together, showed preference for each other compared to those who did not. As the link between shared experiences and social bonds is not explicitly recognized in non-human animals, the main goal of this work is to propose the exploration of this novel research path. This exploration would contribute to shed light on the evolutionary mechanisms of social bond (or friendship) development and maintenance between individuals in different vertebrate species, from fish to non-human primates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Busia
- School of Sociology and Anthropology, Sun Yat-sen University, Kang Le Lu, Haizhu Qu, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Matteo Griggio
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Yi Y, Fichtel C, Kim E, Choe JC. Impacts of Intergroup Interactions on Intragroup Behavioral Changes in Javan Gibbons (Hylobates moloch). INT J PRIMATOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-019-00116-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
27
|
Samuni L, Mielke A, Preis A, Crockford C, Wittig RM. Intergroup Competition Enhances Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) In-group Cohesion. INT J PRIMATOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-019-00112-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AbstractIn-group cohesion is an essential component of successful intergroup competition in both human and nonhuman animals, likely facilitating group members access to potential benefits. However, when benefits are equally shared among group members, group defense becomes a collective action problem, which might subvert cohesive participation during intergroup competition. There is a lack of consensus across studies and species with regard to the link between in-group cohesion and intergroup competition, likely as a result of species differences in managing the collective action problem. Here, we examine this link in a species with a striking example of collective action during intergroup competition, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus). Using two years of focal-follow data on males and females in two groups at the Taï Forest, Côte d’Ivoire, we investigated the immediate and long-term effects of intergroup competition (border patrols and intergroup encounters) on measures of in-group cohesion, namely modularity, party size, and intergroup aggression. We found that groups’ association patterns were less modular (more cohesive) in months in which they engaged in more border patrols and intergroup encounters. We found that current and greater prior engagement in intergroup competition predicted larger party sizes. Furthermore, current, but not prior engagement in intergroup competition, predicted reduced intragroup aggression by males but not by females. Increased in-group cohesion in chimpanzees likely reduces potential costs of intergroup competition engagement, by facilitating joint participation in current and future intergroup conflicts, overcoming the collective action problem.
Collapse
|
28
|
Braga Goncalves I, Radford AN. Experimental evidence that intruder and group member attributes affect outgroup defence and associated within-group interactions in a social fish. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20191261. [PMID: 31594516 PMCID: PMC6790772 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
In many social species, individuals communally defend resources from conspecific outsiders. Participation in defence and in associated within-group interactions, both during and after contests with outgroup rivals, is expected to vary between group members because the threat presented by different outsiders is not the same to each individual. However, experimental tests examining both the contributions to, and the consequences of, outgroup conflict for all group members are lacking. Using groups of the cichlid Neolamprologus pulcher, we simulated territorial intrusions by different-sized female rivals and altered the potential contribution of subordinate females to defence. Dominant females and subordinate females defended significantly more against size- and rank-matched intruders, while males displayed lower and less variable levels of defence. Large and small, but not intermediate-sized, intruders induced increased levels of within-group aggression during intrusions, which was targeted at the subordinate females. Preventing subordinate females from helping in territorial defence led to significant decreases in post-contest within-group and female-specific submissive and affiliative displays. Together, these results show that the defensive contributions of group members vary greatly depending both on their own traits and on intruder identity, and this variation has significant consequences for within-group social dynamics both during and in the aftermath of outgroup contests.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ines Braga Goncalves
- School of Biological Sciences/Life Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Andrew N Radford
- School of Biological Sciences/Life Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Abstract
Living in groups affords individuals many benefits, including the opportunity to reduce stress. In mammals, such 'social buffering' of stress is mediated by affiliative relationships and production of the neuropeptide oxytocin, but whether these mechanisms facilitate social buffering across vertebrates remains an open question. Therefore, we evaluated whether the social environment influenced the behavioural and physiological recovery from an acute stressor in a group-living cichlid, Neolamprologus pulcher. Individual fish that recovered with their social group displayed lower cortisol levels than individuals that recovered alone. This social buffering of the stress response was associated with a tendency towards lower transcript abundance of arginine vasotocin and isotocin in the preoptic area of the brain, suggesting reduced neural activation of the stress axis. Individuals that recovered with their social group quickly resumed normal behaviour but received fewer affiliative acts following the stressor. Further experiments revealed similar cortisol levels between individuals that recovered in visual contact with their own social group and those in visual contact with a novel but non-aggressive social group. Collectively, our results suggest that affiliation and familiarity per se do not mediate social buffering in this group-living cichlid, and the behavioural and physiological mechanisms responsible for social buffering may vary across vertebrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brett M Culbert
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Kathleen M Gilmour
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1N 6N5
| | - Sigal Balshine
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Culbert BM, Gilmour KM, Balshine S. Social buffering of stress in a group-living fish. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20191626. [PMID: 31506060 DOI: 10.5061/dryad.7v93210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Living in groups affords individuals many benefits, including the opportunity to reduce stress. In mammals, such 'social buffering' of stress is mediated by affiliative relationships and production of the neuropeptide oxytocin, but whether these mechanisms facilitate social buffering across vertebrates remains an open question. Therefore, we evaluated whether the social environment influenced the behavioural and physiological recovery from an acute stressor in a group-living cichlid, Neolamprologus pulcher. Individual fish that recovered with their social group displayed lower cortisol levels than individuals that recovered alone. This social buffering of the stress response was associated with a tendency towards lower transcript abundance of arginine vasotocin and isotocin in the preoptic area of the brain, suggesting reduced neural activation of the stress axis. Individuals that recovered with their social group quickly resumed normal behaviour but received fewer affiliative acts following the stressor. Further experiments revealed similar cortisol levels between individuals that recovered in visual contact with their own social group and those in visual contact with a novel but non-aggressive social group. Collectively, our results suggest that affiliation and familiarity per se do not mediate social buffering in this group-living cichlid, and the behavioural and physiological mechanisms responsible for social buffering may vary across vertebrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brett M Culbert
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Kathleen M Gilmour
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1N 6N5
| | - Sigal Balshine
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Culbert BM, Gilmour KM, Balshine S. Social buffering of stress in a group-living fish. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20191626. [PMID: 31506060 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Living in groups affords individuals many benefits, including the opportunity to reduce stress. In mammals, such 'social buffering' of stress is mediated by affiliative relationships and production of the neuropeptide oxytocin, but whether these mechanisms facilitate social buffering across vertebrates remains an open question. Therefore, we evaluated whether the social environment influenced the behavioural and physiological recovery from an acute stressor in a group-living cichlid, Neolamprologus pulcher. Individual fish that recovered with their social group displayed lower cortisol levels than individuals that recovered alone. This social buffering of the stress response was associated with a tendency towards lower transcript abundance of arginine vasotocin and isotocin in the preoptic area of the brain, suggesting reduced neural activation of the stress axis. Individuals that recovered with their social group quickly resumed normal behaviour but received fewer affiliative acts following the stressor. Further experiments revealed similar cortisol levels between individuals that recovered in visual contact with their own social group and those in visual contact with a novel but non-aggressive social group. Collectively, our results suggest that affiliation and familiarity per se do not mediate social buffering in this group-living cichlid, and the behavioural and physiological mechanisms responsible for social buffering may vary across vertebrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brett M Culbert
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Kathleen M Gilmour
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1N 6N5
| | - Sigal Balshine
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Morris-Drake A, Christensen C, Kern JM, Radford AN. Experimental field evidence that out-group threats influence within-group behavior. Behav Ecol 2019; 30:1425-1435. [PMID: 31579132 PMCID: PMC6765380 DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arz095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Revised: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In social species, conspecific outsiders present various threats to groups and their members. These out-group threats are predicted to affect subsequent within-group interactions (e.g., affiliation and aggression) and individual behavior (e.g., foraging and vigilance decisions). However, experimental investigations of such consequences are rare, especially in natural conditions. We used field-based call playbacks and fecal presentations on habituated wild dwarf mongooses (Helogale parvula)-a cooperatively breeding, territorial species-to examine postinteraction responses to the simulated threat of a rival group. Dwarf mongooses invested more in grooming of groupmates, foraged closer together, and more regularly acted as sentinels (a raised guard) after encountering indicators of rival-group presence compared to control conditions. These behavioral changes likely arise from greater anxiety and, in the case of increased vigilance, the need to seek additional information about the threat. The influence of an out-group threat lasted at least 1 h but individuals of different dominance status and sex responded similarly, potentially because all group members suffer costs if a contest with rivals is lost. Our results provide field-based experimental evidence from wild animals that out-group threats can influence within-group behavior and decision making, and suggest the need for greater consideration of the lasting impacts of social conflict.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy Morris-Drake
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | | | - Julie M Kern
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Andrew N Radford
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Between-group attack and defence in an ecological setting: Insights from nonhuman animals. Behav Brain Sci 2019; 42:e137. [PMID: 31407982 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x19000773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Attempts to understand the fundamental forces shaping conflict between attacking and defending groups can be hampered by a narrow focus on humans and reductionist, oversimplified modelling. Further progress depends on recognising the striking parallels in between-group conflict across the animal kingdom, harnessing the power of experimental tests in nonhuman species and modelling the eco-evolutionary feedbacks that drive attack and defence.
Collapse
|
34
|
Schindler S, Radford AN. Factors influencing within-group conflict over defence against conspecific outsiders seeking breeding positions. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:20181669. [PMID: 30963887 PMCID: PMC6304047 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.1669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
In social species, groups face a variety of threats from conspecific outsiders. Defensive actions are therefore common, but there is considerable variation in which individuals contribute and to what extent. There has been some theoretical exploration of this variation when the defence is of shared resources, but the relative contributions when a single intruder threatens a particular breeding position have received less attention. Defensive actions are costly, both for the individual and dependent young, and contributions are likely to differ depending on individual sex, rank and size, current breeding stage, infanticide risk and relatedness levels. Here, we model analytically the relative fitness benefits of different group members to engaging in defence against individual intruders and determine when within-group conflicts of interest might arise over these defensive contributions. Conflicts of interest between the challenged breeder and other group members depend on relatedness to the brood and the potential relatedness reduction if an intruder acquires breeding status. Conflicts are more likely to occur when there is a low chance of winning the contest, low infanticide rates, inefficient defence from helpers, a long remaining brood-dependency period and high external (non-contest-related) mortality. Our work can help explain variation in defensive actions against out-group threats.
Collapse
|
35
|
Stamps JA. Criteria for studies of dear enemy and nasty neighbor effects: a comment on Christensen and Radford. Behav Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ary033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Judy A Stamps
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Hellmann JK, Hamilton IM. Intragroup social dynamics vary with the presence of neighbors in a cooperatively breeding fish. Curr Zool 2018; 65:21-31. [PMID: 30697235 PMCID: PMC6347054 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoy025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Conflict is an inherent part of social life in group-living species. Group members may mediate conflict through submissive and affiliative behaviors, which can reduce aggression, stabilize dominance hierarchies, and foster group cohesion. The frequency and resolution of within-group conflict may vary with the presence of neighboring groups. Neighbors can threaten the territory or resources of the whole group, promoting behaviors that foster within-group cohesion. However, neighbors may also foster conflict of interests among group members: opportunities for subordinate dispersal may alter conflict among dominants and subordinates while opportunities for extra-pair reproduction may increase conflict between mates. To understand how neighbors mediate within-group conflict in the cooperatively breeding fish Neolamprologus pulcher, we measured behavioral dynamics and social network structure in isolated groups, groups recently exposed to neighbors, and groups with established neighbors. Aggression and submission between the dominant male and female pair were high in isolated groups, but dominant aggression was directly primarily at subordinates when groups had neighbors. This suggests that neighbors attenuate conflict between mates and foster conflict between dominants and subordinates. Further, aggression and submission between similarly sized group members were most frequent when groups had neighbors, suggesting that neighbors induce rank-related conflict. We found relatively little change in within-group affiliative networks across treatments, suggesting that the presence of neighbors does not alter behaviors associated with promoting group cohesion. Collectively, these results provide some of the first empirical insights into the extent to which intragroup behavioral networks are mediated by intergroup interactions and the broader social context.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer K Hellmann
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Ian M Hamilton
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Mathematics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Christensen C, Radford AN. Dear enemies or nasty neighbors? Causes and consequences of variation in the responses of group-living species to territorial intrusions. Behav Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ary010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew N Radford
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Radford AN, Majolo B, Aureli F. Within-group behavioural consequences of between-group conflict: a prospective review. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 283:rspb.2016.1567. [PMID: 27903869 PMCID: PMC5136580 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.1567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Conflict is rife in group-living species and exerts a powerful selective force. Group members face a variety of threats from extra-group conspecifics, from individuals looking for reproductive opportunities to rival groups seeking resources. Theory predicts that such between-group conflict should influence within-group behaviour. However, compared with the extensive literature on the consequences of within-group conflict, relatively little research has considered the behavioural impacts of between-group conflict. We give an overview of why between-group conflict is expected to influence subsequent behaviour among group members. We then use what is known about the consequences of within-group conflict to generate testable predictions about how between-group conflict might affect within-group behaviour in the aftermath. We consider the types of behaviour that could change and how the role of different group members in the conflict can exert an influence. Furthermore, we discuss how conflict characteristics and outcome, group size, social structure and within-group relationship quality might modulate post-conflict behavioural changes. Finally, we propose the need for consistent definitions, a broader range of examined behaviours and taxa, individual-focused data collection, complementary observational and experimental approaches, and a consideration of lasting effects if we are to understand fully the significant influence of between-group conflict on social behaviour.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew N Radford
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Bonaventura Majolo
- School of Psychology, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 7TS, UK
| | - Filippo Aureli
- Instituto de Neuroetologia, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa 91000 Veracruz, Mexico.,Research Centre in Evolutionary Anthropology and Palaeoecology, Liverpool John Moore University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Fischer S, Bohn L, Oberhummer E, Nyman C, Taborsky B. Divergence of developmental trajectories is triggered interactively by early social and ecological experience in a cooperative breeder. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E9300-E9307. [PMID: 29078289 PMCID: PMC5676887 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1705934114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cooperative breeders feature the highest level of social complexity among vertebrates. Environmental constraints foster the evolution of this form of social organization, selecting for both well-developed social and ecological competences. Cooperative breeders pursue one of two alternative social trajectories: delaying reproduction to care for the offspring of dominant breeders or dispersing early to breed independently. It is yet unclear which ecological and social triggers determine the choice between these alternatives and whether diverging developmental trajectories exist in cooperative vertebrates predisposing them to dispersal or philopatry. Here we experimentally reared juveniles of cooperatively breeding cichlid fish by varying the social environment and simulated predation threat in a two-by-two factorial long-term experiment. First, we show that individuals develop specialized behavioral competences, originating already in the early postnatal phase. Second, these specializations predisposed individuals to pursue different developmental trajectories and either to disperse early or to extend philopatry in adulthood. Thus, our results contrast with the proposition that social specializations in early ontogeny should be restricted to eusocial species. Importantly, social and ecological triggers were both required for the generation of divergent life histories. Our results thus confirm recent predictions from theoretical models that organisms should combine relevant information from different environmental cues to develop integrated phenotypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Fischer
- Department of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland;
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom
- Mammalian Behaviour and Evolution Group, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Neston CH64 7TE, United Kingdom
| | - Lena Bohn
- Department of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
| | - Evelyne Oberhummer
- Department of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
| | - Cecilia Nyman
- Department of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Taborsky
- Department of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Early life experiences have complex and long-lasting effects on behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:11571-11573. [PMID: 29078413 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1716037114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
|
41
|
|
42
|
De Jaegher K. By-product mutualism with evolving common enemies. J Theor Biol 2017; 420:158-173. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Revised: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
43
|
|
44
|
Kavaliers M, Choleris E. Out-Group Threat Responses, In-Group Bias, and Nonapeptide Involvement Are Conserved across Vertebrates: (A Comment on Bruintjes et al., "Out-Group Threat Promotes Within-Group Affiliation in a Cooperative Fish"). Am Nat 2017; 189:453-458. [PMID: 28350495 DOI: 10.1086/690838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The challenges and threats posed by out-groups have major effects on human social behavior and how individuals interact with one another. We briefly review evidence here that out-group threat similarly affects nonhuman animal behavior. Actual and potential threats posed by out-group individuals (unfamiliar and genetically nonrelated individuals of the same species) affect social behavior promoting "out-group" avoidance and "in-group" bias and enhancing in-group (familiar and/or genetically related individuals) affiliation and interactions. Individuals from out-groups present risks of pathogen exposure as well as being threats to resources, territory, and offspring. All of these threats function to promote in-group bias in humans and nonhumans. There are also striking similarities in the underlying neurobiological mechanisms mediating the responses to out-group threat and the expression of in-group bias. In particular, the evolutionarily conserved, hormone-regulated nonapeptide systems (oxytocin, arginine-vasopressin, and homologous neuropeptides and their receptors) are involved in the mediation of the detection and avoidance of out-groups and response to in-groups and facilitation of in-group responses across multiple vertebrate species. Consequently, comparative investigations of both the behavioral expression of and the mechanism underlying out-group avoidance and in-group bias are necessary for a full understanding of the evolution of social behavior and responses to in- and out-groups.
Collapse
|
45
|
Radford AN, Bruintjes R. Expanding the Link between Out-Group Threats and In-Group Behavior: (A Reply to Kavaliers and Choleris). Am Nat 2017; 189:459-462. [PMID: 28350494 DOI: 10.1086/690837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
In social species, groups and their members face a variety of threats from conspecific outsiders. Such out-group conflict is predicted to influence within-group behavior, with empirical work demonstrating this link in humans, primates, and birds. In our note "Out-Group Threat Promotes Within-Group Affiliation in a Cooperative Fish," appearing in The American Naturalist in February 2016, we provided experimental evidence that simulated territorial intrusions result in subsequent increases in affiliation among groupmates in a cichlid fish (Neolamprologus pulcher). Martin Kavaliers and Elena Choleris, in their comment "Out-Group Threat Responses, In-Group Bias, and Nonapeptide Involvement Are Conserved Across Vertebrates," appearing in this issue, commented on our cichlid-fish article; they consider the conserved nature of the link between out-group threat and in-group behavior and bias in vertebrates, the influence of pathogens in the process, and the potential underpinning hormonal mechanisms. Here, we provide clarification and expansion of some of the core points that are discussed in the comment by Kavaliers and Choleris.
Collapse
|
46
|
Christensen C, Kern JM, Bennitt E, Radford AN. Rival group scent induces changes in dwarf mongoose immediate behavior and subsequent movement. Behav Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arw092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|