Effect of Withania somnifera root extract on haloperidol-induced orofacial dyskinesia: possible mechanisms of action

Nano-cubosomes of the phyto-active principle in Withania somnifera: LC-MS-NMR, anti-microbial, and insights of the anti-neuropathic and anti-inflammatory mechanism

Withania somnifera (W. somnifera) has a long history of safety in the amelioration of neuro-active ailments. The current study aims to explore Withania somnifera phyto-active principle anti-microbial, ant-neuropathic, and anti-inflammatory activities, and to modify these activities utilizing nano-cubosomes exploiting their mechanisms of action. Bio-guided fractionation technique was utilized, to identify the most phyto-active compound, using LC-MS-NMR online technique and biological models of diabetes, neuropathy, and inflammation. In-vitro antibacterial activity was also monitored. The HbA1c, in-vivo antioxidant (serum-catalase, TBARS, and GSH), serum insulin, and pro-inflammatory serum cytokines (TNF alpha, IL-six, and IL-ten) levels have been assessed to establish the anti-neuropathic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. The nano-cubosomal formulations (CUB 1-3) were utilized to improve the W. somnifera most active compound efficacy. W. somnifera has shown ten major peaks; coagulin Q (10.2 %), dihydrowithanolide A (2.4 %), dihydrowithaferin D (1.8 %), physagulin D (7.6 %), withanoside V (2.3 %), withanolide A (WDA, 10.3 %), withafrin A (4.9 %), withaferin D (7.7 %), withanone 9 (9.9 %), withanolide D (4.8 %). The bio-guided fractionation technique utilizing LC-MS-NMR technique has proved that withanolide A (WDA) is the most phyto-active compound in W. somnifera. The latter has shown better results than WDA, which might be due to other effective compounds in Ws. However, CUB 3 (WDA nano-cubosomes dispersion) has shown more prominent anti-diabetic, anti-neuropathic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-bacterial potentials than Ws and WDA. Thus, CUB 3 modified WDA activity, and improved its efficacy. The normalization of HbA1c levels, increased insulin secretagogue potential, and the amelioration of the oxidative-stress may be the underlying Ws, WDA, and CUB 3 antidiabetic neuropathy mechanism. Moreover, the Ws, WDA, and CUB 1-3 anti-inflammatory mechanism might be due to the amelioration of the pro-inflammatory serum cytokines (decreasing TNF alpha and IL-six levels and increasing IL-ten). Thus, CUB 3 might be a powerful tool in augmenting Withania somnifera activity as an oral drug-delivery system and improving its efficacy against neuropathy and inflammation.

Phytochemical and biological characterization of aqueous extract of Vassobia breviflora on proliferation and viability of melanoma cells: involvement of purinergic pathway

Vassobia breviflora belongs to the Solanaceae family, possessing biological activity against tumor cells and is a promising alternative for therapy. The aim of this investigation was to determine the phytochemical properties V. breviflora using ESI-ToF-MS. The cytotoxic effects of this extract were examined in B16-F10 melanoma cells and the relationship if any to purinergic signaling was involved. The antioxidant activity of total phenols, (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) was analyzed, as well as production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) was determined. Genotoxicity was assessed by DNA damage assay. Subsequently, the structural bioactive compounds were docked against purinoceptors P2X7 and P2Y1 receptors. The bioactive compounds found in V. breviflora were N-methyl-(2S,4 R)-trans-4-hydroxy-L-proline, calystegine B, 12-O-benzoyl- tenacigenin A and bungoside B. In vitro cytotoxicity was demonstrated at concentration ranges of 0.1-10 mg/ml, and plasmid DNA breaks only at the concentration of 10 mg/ml. V. breviflora extracts affected hydrolysis by ectoenzymes, such as ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase) and ectoadenosine deaminase (E-ADA) which control levels of degradation and formation of nucleosides and nucleotides. In the presence of substrates ATP, ADP, AMP and adenosine, the activities of E-NTPDase, 5´-NT or E-ADA were significantly modulated by V. breviflora. N-methyl-(2S,4 R)-trans-4-hydroxy-L-proline presented higher binding affinity (according to receptor-ligand complex estimated binding affinity as evidenced by ∆G values) to bind to both P2X7 and P2Y1purinergic receptors.Our results suggest a putative interaction of V. breviflora bioactive compounds with growth inhibitory potential in B16-F10 melanoma and suggest that may be considered as promising compounds in melanoma and cancer treatment.

Detection of new phytochemical compounds from Vassobia breviflora (Sendtn.) Hunz: antioxidant, cytotoxic, and antibacterial activity of the hexane extract

Vassobia breviflora (Sendtn.) Hunz is a plant of the Solanaceae family from South America and there are no apparent studies reported on the biological activity of the hexane extract. The aim of this investigation was to conduct phytochemical analyses using ESI-TOF-MS, while antioxidant activities were evaluated by the following methods 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) 2,2"-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical capture (ABTS), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and total oxidant status (TOS). Antimicrobial activities were performed by determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and antibiofilm formed. Cytotoxicity was measured by MTT and dsDNA PicoGreen tests, beyond the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) determined by Dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA). The hexane extract showed the presence of 5 (choline, pantothenic acid, calystegine B, lanciphodylactone I, and 15"-cis-zeaxanthin) compounds detected. V. breviflora extract demonstrated reliable results utilizing different antioxidant methods. In antibacterial activity, V. breviflora extract exhibited inhibitory, bactericidal, and antibiofilm action in biofilm-forming bacteria. The hexane extract exhibited cytotoxicity against melanoma, lung cancer, glioblastoma, leukemia, uterine colon, and hepatocarcinoma tumor cells. In addition, all tested strains resulted in increased production of ROS. This plant extract may be considered in future as an alternative for development of new therapeutic options aimed at the treatment of diverse pathologies.

Assessment of Protective Effects of Carvacrol on Haloperidol-Induced Oxidative Stress and Genotoxicity in Human Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes

Haloperidol is a first-generation antipsychotic drug that has several indications in a wide range of mental conditions. The extensive prescription of haloperidol is correlated with some less-known adverse effects such as genotoxicity. Carvacrol is a monoterpenoid mainly found in oregano and thyme. It has the potential to scavenge free radicals in addition to increasing antioxidant defense enzyme activities and glutathione levels. In this study, we attempted to explore the possible potential of haloperidol in inducing genotoxicity in human peripheral lymphocytes as well as the protective role of carvacrol against this effect. The lymphocytes were divided into separate groups as follows: control group (cosolvent and NS); carvacrol group (5 μM); haloperidol group (25, 50, and 100 ng/ml); haloperidol (25, 50, and 100 ng/ml) + carvacrol (5 μM); positive control (0.8 μg/ml Cisplatin). After 24 hours of treatment, we conducted a cytokinesis-Block micronucleus test and an alkaline comet assay in order to determine genetic damage. Additionally, we measured glutathione and MDA levels as the biomarkers associated with oxidative stress. Significant increases in the levels of genotoxicity biomarkers (micronucleus frequency, DNA percentage in tail and tail moment) were observed in haloperidol-treated cells. The result of our oxidative stress tests also demonstrated that haloperidol had the potential to induce oxidative stress via reducing the levels of glutathione and increasing lipid peroxidation. Treatment with carvacrol significantly decreased the genotoxic events. It can be presumed that the induction of oxidative stress by haloperidol is the critical event associated with haloperidol-mediated genotoxicity. Therefore, using carvacrol as a natural antioxidant protected human lymphocytes against haloperidol genetic damage.

Potential clinical applications of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) in medicine and neuropsychiatry

INTRODUCTION

Ashwagandha (ASW) is the extract of the plant Withania somnifera. It is widely used in complementary, alternative, and integrative medicine (CAIM) but is little discussed in mainstream modern medical literature.

AREAS COVERED

We performed a review of potential pharmacotherapeutic properties of ASW. Studies were sourced from relevant online and offline databases. In animal models, ASW displays antioxidant activity. It has GABAergic and other neurotransmitter modulatory effects. It reduces apoptosis and promotes synaptic plasticity. It improves cognition and reverses induced cognitive deficits. It attenuates indices of stress. In human subjects, ASW enhances adaptogenesis in healthy adults. It modestly benefits generalized anxiety disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder, and symptom severity in schizophrenia, substance use disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. It improves sleep quality.

EXPERT OPINION

ASW may confer modest benefit in certain neuropsychiatric conditions. Its benefits may arise from induction of neuroplasticity, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and modulation of GABA and glutamate, as well as other neurotransmitters. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions may also benefit neurodegenerative states. Reports of clinical benefit with ASW must be interpreted with caution, given the paucity of randomized clinical trials (RCTs). Greater methodological rigor is necessary before clinical recommendations on ASW can be confidently made.

Effect of Geographical Location and Type of Extract on Total Phenol/Flavon Contents and Antioxidant Activity of Different Fruits Extracts of Withania somnifera

BACKGROUND

Withania somnifera (family solanaceae) is a well-investigated medicinal plant which is also called Indian ginseng due to its wide spectrum of medicinal properties. The contents and activity of the plant may vary depending on the habitat and part of the plant and the solvent used for extraction. The present study deals with the comparative chemical analysis and in vitro antioxidant activity of methanolic fruits extracts and its subfractions (in ethyl acetate, butanol and water) of W. somnifera collected from two different geographical locations.

METHODS

In the present study, Withania somnifera fruits were collected from two different geographical locations (Uttarakhand and Rajasthan). The different fruit extracts were prepared and studied for total phenolic contents and total flavone contents. The in vitro antioxidant activity was assessed by DPPH free radical scavenging assay and peroxide scavenging assay.

RESULTS

Methanol extract of W. somnifera Uttarakhand and ethyl acetate subfraction of W. somnifera Rajasthan showed the highest amount of Total Phenolic Contents (TPC). In W. somnifera Uttarakhand, ethyl acetate extract showed the highest amount of Total flavonoids while in W. somnifera Rajasthan, methanol extract was found to be the richest in flavonoids. Methanolic extract of W. somnifera Uttarakhand showed the highest free radical scavenging activity while in W. somnifera Rajasthan, the highest antioxidant activity was shown by the methanolic extract followed by butanolic extract, water extract and then ethyl acetate. In the peroxide scavenging assay of antioxidant activity, water extract of W. somnifera Uttarakhand showed the highest activity, while in W. somnifera Rajasthan, ethyl acetate extract showed highest scavenging activity.

CONCLUSION

It was concluded that the geographical location exerts a vital effect on the presence of active constituents and also on the antioxidant potential of W. somnifera.

Ashwagandha in brain disorders: A review of recent developments

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Withania somnifera (Family: Solanaceae), commonly known as Ashwagandha or Indian ginseng is distributed widely in India, Nepal, China and Yemen. The roots of plant consist of active phytoconstituents mainly withanolides, alkaloids and sitoindosides and are conventionally used for the treatment of multiple brain disorders.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review aims to critically assess and summarize the current state and implication of Ashwagandha in brain disorders. We have mainly focussed on the reported neuroactive phytoconstituents, available marketed products, pharmacological studies, mechanism of action and recent patents published related to neuroprotective effects of Ashwagandha in brain disorders.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All the information and data was collected on Ashwagandha using keywords "Ashwagandha" along with "Phytoconstituents", "Ayurvedic, Unani and Homeopathy marketed formulation", "Brain disorders", "Mechanism" and "Patents". Following sources were searched for data collection: electronic scientific databases such as Science Direct, Google Scholar, Elsevier, PubMed, Wiley On-line Library, Taylor and Francis, Springer; books such as AYUSH Pharmacopoeia; authentic textbooks and formularies.

RESULTS

Identified neuroprotective phytoconstituents of Ashwagandha are sitoindosides VII-X, withaferin A, withanosides IV, withanols, withanolide A, withanolide B, anaferine, beta-sitosterol, withanolide D with key pharmacological effects in brain disorders mainly anxiety, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Schizophrenia, Huntington's disease, dyslexia, depression, autism, addiction, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and bipolar disorders. The literature survey does not highlight any toxic effects of Ashwagandha. Further, multiple available marketed products and patents recognized its beneficial role in various brain disorders; however, very few data is available on mechanistic pathway and clinical studies of Ashwagandha for various brain disorders is scarce and not promising.

CONCLUSION

The review concludes the results of recent studies on Ashwagandha suggesting its extensive potential as neuroprotective in various brain disorders as supported by preclinical studies, clinical trials and published patents. However vague understanding of the mechanistic pathways involved in imparting the neuroprotective effect of Ashwagandha warrants further study to promote it as a promising drug candidate.

High synergistic antibacterial, antibiofilm, antidiabetic and antimetabolic activity of Withania somnifera leaf extract-assisted zinc oxide nanoparticle

Nanotechnology is currently gaining immense attention to combat food borne bacteria, and biofilm. Diabetes is a common metabolic disease affecting majority of people. A better therapy relies on phytomediated nanoparticle synthesis. In this study, W. somnifera leaf extract-assisted ZnO NPs (Ws-ZnO NPs) was synthesized and characterized. From HR-TEM analysis, it has been found that the hexagonal wurtzite particle is 15.6 nm in size and - 12.14 mV of zeta potential. A greater antibacterial effect of Ws-ZnO NPs was noticed against E. faecalis and S. aureus at 100 µg mL^-1. Also, the biofilm of E. faecalis and S. aureus was greatly inhibited at 100 µg mL^-1 compared to E. coli and P. aeruginosa. The activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzyme was inhibited at 100 µg mL^-1 demonstrating its antidiabetic potential. The larval and pupal development was delayed at 25 µg mL^-1 of Ws-ZnO NPs. A complete mortality (100%) was recorded at 25 µg mL^-1. Ws-ZnO NPs showed least LC₅₀ value (9.65 µg mL^-1) compared to the uncoated ZnO NPs (38.8 µg mL^-1) and leaf extract (13.06 µg mL^-1). Therefore, it is concluded that Ws-ZnO NPs are promising to be used as effective antimicrobials, antidiabetic and insecticides to combat storage pests.

Foliar application of elicitors enhanced the yield of withanolide contents in Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (variety, Poshita)

This study involves a detailed investigation about the effect of three elicitors, such as chitosan, jasmonic acid and salicylic acid (SA) on withaferin A and withanolide A contents of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Poshita variety). Moreover, the different environmental regimes were also studied to assess and optimise the accumulation of withaferin A and Withanolide A contents. In an open environment, the total withaferin A content was found to be increased 6.3 and 5.8 times when sprayed with chitosan, 10 ppm and 50 ppm, respectively, as compared to control. Similarly, the total withanolide A content was found to be increased 4.5 and 3.6 times when sprayed with jasmonic acid (400 ppm and 200 ppm, respectively) with respect to control. In a controlled condition, the total withaferin A content was found to be increased 6 and 4.5 times when sprayed with jasmonic acid (400 ppm and 200 ppm, respectively) as compared to control. On the other hand, the total withanolide A content was found to be enhanced by 7 and 4.3 times when sprayed with jasmonic acid (400 ppm) and SA (1 ppm), respectively, as compared to control. Therefore, this study was focussed on the optimisation of enhanced accumulation of withaferin A and withanolide A contents in the aerial parts of the plant in open and controlled environment by foliar application of elicitors in minimal concentrations.

Transcription factor repertoire in Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) through analytics of transcriptomic resources: Insights into regulation of development and withanolide metabolism

Transcription factors (TFs) are important regulators of cellular and metabolic functions including secondary metabolism. Deep and intensive RNA-seq analysis of Withania somnifera using transcriptomic databases provided 3532 annotated transcripts of transcription factors in leaf and root tissues, belonging to 90 different families with major abundance for WD-repeat (174 and 165 transcripts) and WRKY (93 and 80 transcripts) in root and leaf tissues respectively, followed by that of MYB, BHLH and AP2-ERF. Their detailed comparative analysis with Arabidopsis thaliana, Capsicum annum, Nicotiana tabacum and Solanum lycopersicum counterparts together gave interesting patterns. However, no homologs for WsWDR representatives, LWD1 and WUSCHEL, were observed in other Solanaceae species. The data extracted from the sequence read archives (SRA) in public domain databases were subjected to re-annotation, re-mining, re-analysis and validation for dominant occurrence of WRKY and WD-repeat (WDR) gene families. Expression of recombinant LWD1 and WUSCHEL proteins in homologous system led to enhancements in withanolide content indicating their regulatory role in planta in the biosynthesis. Contrasting expression profiles of WsLWD1 and WsWUSCHEL provided tissue-specific insights for their participation in the regulation of developmental processes. The in-depth analysis provided first full-spectrum and comparative characteristics of TF-transcripts across plant species, in the perspective of integrated tissue-specific regulation of metabolic processes including specialized metabolism.

Nitrogen treatment enhances sterols and withaferin A through transcriptional activation of jasmonate pathway, WRKY transcription factors, and biosynthesis genes in Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

The medicinal plant Withania somnifera is researched extensively to increase the quantity of withanolides and specifically withaferin A, which finds implications in many pharmacological activities. Due to insufficient knowledge on biosynthesis and unacceptability of transgenic approach, it is preferred to follow alternative physiological methods to increase the yield of withanolides. Prior use of elicitors like salicylic acid, methyl jasmonate, fungal extracts, and even mechanical wounding have shown to increase the withanolide biosynthesis with limited success; however, the commercial viability and logistics of application are debatable. In this investigation, we tested the simple nitrogeneous fertilizers pertaining to the enhancement of withaferin A biosynthesis. Application of ammonium sulfate improved the sterol contents required for the withanolide biosynthesis and correlated to higher expression of pathway genes like FPPS, SMT1, SMT2, SMO1, SMO2, and ODM. Increased expression of a gene homologous to allene oxide cyclase, crucial in jasmonic acid biosynthetic pathway, suggested the involvement of jasmonate signaling. High levels of WRKY gene transcripts indicated transcriptional regulation of the pathway genes. Increase in transcript level could be correlated with a corresponding increase in the protein levels for WsSMT1 and WsWRKY1. The withaferin A increase was also demonstrated in the potted plants growing in the glasshouse and in the open field. These results implicated simple physiological management of nitrogen fertilizer signal to improve the yield of secondary metabolite through probable involvement of jasmonate signal and WRKY transcription factor for the first time, in W. somnifera besides improving the foliage.

Neuroprotective potential of Beta vulgaris L. in Parkinson's disease

Objective:

The objective was to investigate the neuroprotective role of Beta vulgaris in Parkinson's disease (PD).

Materials and Methods:

PD was induced by administration of reserpine (5 mg/kg/day, i.p for 5 consecutive days), haloperidol (1 mg/kg, i.p.), and tacrine (2.5 mg/kg, i.p.) in experimental animals. The symptoms of PD such as tremors, akinesia, rigidity, catalepsy, and vacuous chewing movements (VCMs) were evaluated. Foot shock-induced aggression (FSIA) model was used to confirm anti-parkinsonian activity. The methanolic extract of Beta vulgaris (MEBV) was administered at doses of 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg, p.o. The combination of L-dopa and carbidopa was used as a standard drug. Behavioral studies such as locomotor activity and grip strength were determined, and oxidative stress was evaluated in FSIA model in rat brain.

Results:

Pretreatment with MEBV (200 and 300 mg/kg) significantly reduced the intensity of muscular rigidity, duration of catalepsy, akinesia, the number of tremors, VCMs, and increase fighting behavior. The locomotor activity and grip strength were significantly increased by MEBV. In FSIA, the biochemical analysis of brain revealed the increased level of lipid peroxidation (LPO) and decreased levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT). MEBV significantly reduced LPO level and restored the defensive antioxidant enzymes SOD and CAT in rat brain.

Conclusions:

The results indicated the protective role of B. vulgaris against PD. The mechanism of protection may be due to augmentation of cellular antioxidants.

Cognitive enhancing effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers on learning and memory

Objective:

The present study was designed to investigate cognitive enhancing property of angiotensin-converting enzymes inhibitors (ACEI) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) in rats.

Materials and Methods:

The elevated plus maze (EPM), passive avoidance test (PAT), and water maze test (WMT) were used to assess cognitive enhancing activity in young and aged rats. Ramipril (10 mg/kg, p.o.), perindopril (10 mg/kg, i.p), losartan (20 mg/kg, i.p), and valsartan (20 mg/kg, p.o) were administered to assess their effect on learning and memory. Scopolamine (1 mg/kg, i.p) was used to impair cognitive function. Piracetam (200 mg/kg, i.p) was used as reference drug.

Results:

All the treatments significantly attenuated amnesia induced by aging and scopolamine. In EPM, aged and scopolamine-treated rats showed an increase in transfer latency (TL) whereas, ACEI and ARBs showed a significant decrease in TL. Treatment with ACEI and ARBs significantly increased step down latencies and decreased latency to reach the platform in target quadrant in young, aged and scopolamine-treated animals in PAT and WMT, respectively. The treatments inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme in the brain. Similarly, all the treatments attenuated scopolamine-induced lipid peroxidation and normalize antioxidant enzymes.

Conclusion:

The results suggest that the cognitive enhancing effect of ACEI and ARBs may be due to inhibition of AChE or by regulation of antioxidant system or increase in formation of angiotensin IV.

Effect of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) root extract on amelioration of oxidative stress and autoantibodies production in collagen-induced arthritic rats

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammatory autoimmune disorder. Withania somnifera Dunal (Solanaceae) (WS), is a common medicinal plant used in traditional systems of medicine for the treatment of arthritis, and is an ingredient of anti-arthritic polyherbal formulations such as Habb-e-Asgand® and Arthritin™. In the present study, we evaluated the antioxidant and anti-arthritic activity of aqueous extract of WS root (WSAq) in collagen-induced arthritic (CIA) rats.

METHODS

CIA rats were treated by using three doses of WSAq (100, 200, 300 mg/kg b. wt., orally) and methotrexate (MTX, 0.25 mg/kg b. wt. i.p.) as a standard reference drug for 20 days. The anti-arthritic effect was assayed by measuring the arthritic index, autoantibodies such as rheumatoid factor (RF), anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide antibody (a-CCP), anti-nuclear antibody (ANA), anti-collagen type II antibody (a-CII) and inflammatory marker like C-reactive protein (CRP). The oxidative stress parameters were also measured.

RESULTS

Treatment with WSAq resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in arthritic index, autoantibodies and CRP (p < 0.05) with maximum effect at dose of 300 mg/kg b. wt. and the results were comparable to that of MTX-treated rats. Similarly, oxidative stress in CIA rats was ameliorated by treatment with different doses of WSAq, as evidenced by a decrease in lipid peroxidation and glutathione-S-transferase activity and an increase in the glutathione content and ferric-reducing ability of plasma (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The results showed that WSAq exhibited antioxidant and anti-arthritic activity and reduced inflammation in CIA rats and suggests the potential use of this plant in the treatment of arthritis.

W ithania somnifera (Ashwagandha) in neurobehavioural disorders induced by brain oxidative stress in rodents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objectives

W ithania somnifera has been in use for several thousand years in Ayurveda to treat various neurological disorders. There is, however, not much scientific data on its protective role in neuronal pathology specifically against brain oxidative stress. Hence, an attempt is made in this work for systematic review and meta-analysis of W. somnifera on neurobehavioural disorders induced by brain oxidative stress in rodents.

Methods

A systematic search of the effect of W. somnifera on brain oxidative stress-induced neuronal pathology was performed using electronic databases. The systematic review was performed on neurobehavioural parameters, whereas meta-analysis of W. somnifera effect was done on oxidative stress markers (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione and lipid peroxidation), nitrite, protein carbonyl, AchE, ChAT and Ach of rodent brain. Data were analysed using Review Manager Software.

Key findings

Twenty-eight studies were selected based upon the inclusion and exclusion criteria. W. somnifera appreciably inhibited the neurological abnormalities due to oxidative stress in rodent brain produced by different physical and chemical stimuli. W. somnifera also significantly restored the altered oxidative and other stress markers in different parts of rodent brain.

Summary

The systematic review provides scientific evidence for the traditional claim of W. somnifera use in different neurological aliments. However, future clinical trials are mandated to establish the therapeutic efficacy and safety in human beings.

Oxidative stress and the antipsychotic-induced vacuous chewing movement model of tardive dyskinesia: evidence for antioxidant-based prevention strategies

RATIONALE

Despite decades of research, tardive dyskinesia (TD) remains a poorly understood iatrogenic movement disorder with few effective treatments and no known cure. Accordingly, the development of an innocuous strategy to prevent or mitigate antipsychotic (AP)-associated TD would represent an important clinical advance. Supporting evidence for antioxidant (AX)-based treatment regimens can be found in the preclinical literature, where AP-induced vacuous chewing movements (VCMs) in rats are attenuated by the concurrent administration of direct and indirect AXs.

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to review the preclinical literature examining the role of AX-promoting treatments in the prevention of AP-induced VCMs in rats.

METHODS

A literature search using Google Scholar and PubMed was performed. Relevant results were qualitatively reviewed.

RESULTS

Studies featuring a variety of naturally occurring and synthetic AX treatments were identified and included in the review. The majority of studies used haloperidol (HAL), a typical AP, to induce VCMs. Studies revealed reduced VCMs in co-treated rats, with favorable changes seen in markers of oxidative stress (OS) and AX status, but were limited by their short durations.

CONCLUSIONS

Some preclinical evidence suggests that the inclusion of a naturally occurring and benign AX compound as an adjunct to AP treatment may help guard patients against TD, but additional long-duration studies are needed. This AX-based strategy is further substantiated by accumulating evidence of preexisting OS abnormalities in schizophrenia (SZ).

Prenatal developmental toxicity evaluation of Withania somnifera root extract in Wistar rats

CONTEXT

Withania somnifera (L) Dunal (Solanaceae) is an important traditional herbal medicine used for thousands of years and is considered as the Indian ginseng. Reports on the effect of Withania somnifera root (WSR) extract on the developing foetus of pregnant rats including mortality, structural abnormalities, changes in growth and effects on dams are not available.

OBJECTIVE

The present study was performed to evaluate the prenatal developmental toxicity potential of WSR extract in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

WSR extract was given orally to pregnant rats during the period of major organogenesis and histogenesis (days 5 to 19 of gestation) at the dose levels of 500, 1000 and 2000 mg/kg/day. Clinical observations including mortality, moribundity, behavioural changes, signs of overt toxicity, body weight, gross pathological changes of dams and foetal analyses including external malformations, skeletal and soft tissue malformations were evaluated.

RESULTS

No evidence of maternal or foetal toxicity was observed. WSR extract caused no changes (p < 0.05) in body weight of parental females, number of corpora lutea, implantations, viable foetuses, external, skeletal and visceral malformations.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Under the conditions of the study, the no-observed-effect level (NOEL) of WSR extract for maternal and developmental toxicity was concluded to be at least 2000 mg/kg/day.

Assessment of novel iloperidone- and idebenone-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers: brain targeting efficiency and neuroprotective potential

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the outcome of combining iloperidone with idebenone in the form of brain-targeted nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) on the expression of endogenous antioxidant enzymes present in the brain, and hence establish the neuroprotective activity.

RESULTS

The combination NLC demonstrated good targeting potential (>85%) as compared with pure iloperidone (22.21%). The levels of various endogenous antioxidant enzymes present in the brain were reduced significantly (p < 0.001) in case of 28 days repeated administration of pure iloperidone, while administration of the combination NLC helped to restore the levels of these enzymes.

CONCLUSION

Combining iloperidone with idebenone and converting into NLC has contributed in effectively reducing oxidative stress in the brain and helped in reversing the catalepsy induced by repeated iloperidone administration.

Protective effect of nebivolol on reserpine-induced neurobehavioral and biochemical alterations in rats

Reserpine-induced orofacial dyskinesia is a model that shares some mechanists' aspects with tardive dyskinesia whose pathophysiology has been related to oxidative stress. The present study was aimed to explore neuroprotective effects of nebivolol, an antihypertensive agent, on reserpine-induced neurobehavioral and biochemical alterations in rats. Reserpine (1mg/kg, s.c.) was used to induce neurotoxicity. Administration of reserpine for 3 days every other day significantly increased the vacuous chewing movements (VCMs), tongue protrusions (TPs) and reduced the locomotor activity in rats. Pre-treatment with nebivolol (5 and 10mg/kg, p.o. for 5 days) showed dose dependant decrease in VCMs and TP induced by reserpine. Nebivolol also showed significant improvement in locomotor activity. Reserpine significantly increased lipid peroxidation and reduced the levels of defensive antioxidant enzymes like catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and reduced glutathione (GSH) in rat brain. Nebivolol reversed these effects of reserpine on oxidative stress indices; indicating amelioration of oxidative stress in rat brains. The results of the present study indicated that nebivolol has a protective role against reserpine-induced orofacial dyskinesia. Thus, the use of nebivolol as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia may be considered.

Cognitive enhancing and antioxidant activity of ethyl acetate soluble fraction of the methanol extract of Hibiscus rosa sinensis in scopolamine-induced amnesia

Objective:

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the cognitive enhancing and antioxidant activity of Hibiscus rosa sinensis.

Materials and Methods:

The learning and memory was impaired by administration of scopolamine (1 mg/kg, i.p.) in mice which is associated with altered brain oxidative status. The object recognition test (ORT) and passive avoidance test (PAT) were used to assess cognitive enhancing activity. Animals were treated with an ethyl acetate soluble fraction of the methanol extract of H. sinensis (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg, p.o).

Results:

The ethyl acetate soluble fraction of the methanol extract of H. sinensis (EASF) attenuated amnesia induced by scopolamine and aging. The discrimination index (DI) was significantly decreased in the aged and scopolamine group in ORT. Pretreatment with EASF significantly increased the DI. In PAT, scopolamine-treated mice exhibited significantly shorter step-down latencies (SDL). EASF treatment showed a significant increase in SDL in young, aged as well as in scopolamine-treated animals. The biochemical analysis of brain revealed that scopolamine treatment increased lipid peroxidation and decreased levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione reductase (GSH). Administration of extract significantly reduced LPO and reversed the decrease in brain SOD and GSH levels. The administration of H. sinensis improved memory in amnesic mice and prevented the oxidative stress associated with scopolamine. The mechanism of such protection of H. sinensis may be due to augmentation of cellular antioxidants.

Conclusion:

The results of the present study suggested that H. sinensis had a protective role against age and scopolamine-induced amnesia, indicating its utility in management of cognitive disorders.

Anti-stress effect of ethyl acetate soluble fraction of Morus alba in chronic restraint stress

CONTEXT

Restraint stress is a well-known method to induce chronic stress which leads to alterations in various behavioral and biochemical parameters.

OBJECTIVE

The present work was designed to study anti-stress effects of Morus alba in chronic restraint stress (RS)-induced perturbations in behavioral, biochemical and brain oxidative stress status.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The stress was produced by restraining the animals inside an adjustable cylindrical plastic tube for 3 h once daily for ten consecutive days. The ethyl acetate soluble fraction of Morus alba (EASF) 25, 50, 100 mg/kg and diazepam (1 mg/kg) per day was administered 60 min prior to the stress procedure. The behavioral and biochemical parameters such as open field, cognitive dysfunction; leucocytes count; blood glucose and corticosteroid levels were determined. On day 10, the rats were sacrificed and biochemical assessment of superoxide dismutase (SOD), lipid peroxidation (LPO), catalase (CAT), and glutathione reductase (GSH) in whole rat brain were performed.

RESULTS

Chronic restraint stress produced cognitive dysfunction, altered behavioral parameters, increased leucocytes count, SOD, LPO, glucose and corticosterone levels, with concomitant decrease in CAT and GSH activities. Gastric ulceration, adrenal gland and spleen weights were also used as the stress indices. All these RS induced perturbations were attenuated by EASF of Morus alba.

DISCUSSION

The results of the study suggest that in addition to its classically established pharmacological activities, the plant also has immense potential as an anti-stress agent of great therapeutic relevance.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates the beneficial role of Morus alba for the treatment of oxidative stress-induced disorders.

Neuroprotective effect of Hibiscus rosa sinensis in an oxidative stress model of cerebral post-ischemic reperfusion injury in rats

CONTEXT

The ischemic brain lesions induced in rats by temporary occlusion of the bilateral common carotid arteries and restoration of blood flow to an ischemic brain region is associated with generation of reactive oxygen species with consequent reperfusion injury.

OBJECTIVE

The present study investigated the neuroprotective potential of Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. (Malvaceae) in a bilateral common carotid artery (BCCA) occlusion model of global cerebral ischemic reperfusion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The animals underwent 30 min BCCA occlusion and 45 min reperfusion. The methanol extract of H. sinensis (100, 200, 300 mg/kg/day for 6 days, p.o.) was administered 30 min before induction of BCCA occlusion.

RESULTS

The bilateral common carotid artery occlusion resulted in increase in lipid peroxidation, and reduction in superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione reductase (GSH) activity. The extract attenuated the ischemic reperfusion-induced increase in lipid peroxidation and fall in SOD, CAT, and GSH levels. The cerebral hypoperfusion caused a propensity towards anxiety and was accompanied by deficits of learning and memory. The extract ameliorated anxiety and there was improvement of learning and memory.

DISCUSSION

The administration of H. sinensis prevented the oxidative stress and the biochemical changes associated with cerebral ischemic reperfusion injury. The mechanism of such protection of H. sinensis may be due to cerebral adaptation, through augmentation of cellular antioxidants such as GSH, SOD and CAT. The results suggest the protective role of H. sinensis in ischemic reperfusion injury.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates the beneficial role of H. sinensis in cerebrovascular insufficiency states and dementia.

Evaluation of toxicological and antioxidant potential of Nardostachys jatamansi in reversing haloperidol-induced catalepsy in rats

An aqueous root extract from Nardostachys jatamansi was investigated for its antioxidant and anticataleptic effects in the haloperidol-induced catalepsy rat model of the disease by measuring various behavioral and biochemical parameters. Catalepsy was induced by administration of haloperidol (1 mg/kg, ip) in male albino rats. A significant (P < 0.01) reduction in the cataleptic scores were observed in all the drug-treated groups as compared to the haloperidol-treated group; with maximum reduction observed in the Nardostachys jatamansi (250 and 500 mg/kg body weight) administered group. To estimate biochemical parameters: the generation of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS); reduced glutathione (GSH) content and glutathione-dependent enzymes; catalase; and superoxide dismutase (SOD), in the brain were assessed. Haloperidol administration increased generation of TBARS and significantly reduced GSH, which were restored to near normal level with the Nardostachys jatamansi treatment. Catalase and SOD levels were also increased to normal levels, having been reduced significantly by haloperidol administration. Our findings of behavioral studies and biochemical estimations show that Nardostachys jatamansi reversed the haloperidol-induced catalepsy in rats. We conclude that the antioxidant potential has contributed to the reduction in the oxidative stress and catalepsy induced by haloperidol administration.

Protective effect of Morus alba leaves on haloperidol-induced orofacial dyskinesia and oxidative stress

Long-term treatment with haloperidol, a typical neuroleptic, induces neurodegeneration caused by excitotoxicity and oxidative stress, which play an important role in the development of orofacial dyskinesia. In the present investigation, an attempt has been made to examine the effect of a concomitant treatment of methanol extract of Morus alba Linn. (Moraceae) leaves (100-300 mg/kg, i.p.) and haloperidol (1 mg/kg, i.p.) on an animal model of tardive dyskinesia. Rats were treated for 21 days with haloperidol and Morus alba extract; vacuous chewing movements and tongue protrusions were counted. The extract attenuated the increase in vacuous chewing movements and tongue protrusions induced by haloperidol, which were quantified on day 22. The extract showed a marked effect on behavioral parameters altered by haloperidol treatment. Similar treatment with extract attenuated haloperidol-induced lipid peroxidation and nitrite and normalized superoxide dismutase, catalase, and protein in comparison to the control group. The results suggest a protective effect of Morus alba extract against haloperidol-induced orofacial dyskinesia and oxidative stress.

Possible neuroprotective effect of Withania somnifera root extract against 3-nitropropionic acid-induced behavioral, biochemical, and mitochondrial dysfunction in an animal model of Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that results from the destruction of neurons in the basal ganglia, and oxidative stress has been implicated in its pathogenesis. 3-Nitropropionic acid (3-NP), a potent neurotoxin, has been reported to induce oxidative/nitrosative stress and causes neurobehavioral and biochemical changes that mimic HD in humans. It also inhibits complex II of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, thereby causing cellular energy deficit. In the present work, we evaluated the effects of a well-known antioxidant on behavioral, biochemical, and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by 3-NP. The study was designed to investigate the effects of Withania somnifera root extract against 3-NP-induced gait abnormalities, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction in striatum and cortex of rat brain. Intraperitoneal administration of 3-NP (10 mg/kg for 14 days) caused a loss in body weight and a decline in motor function (locomotor activity and impaired rotarod activity). Chronic treatment with W. somnifera root extracts (100 and 200 mg/kg) for a period of 2 weeks dose-dependently improved 3-NP-induced behavioral, biochemical, and enzymatic changes (P < .05). Biochemical analysis revealed that systemic 3-NP administration significantly increased lipid peroxidation and nitrite and lactate dehydrogenase enzyme levels, depleted antioxidant enzyme (superoxide dismutase and catalase) levels, and blocked ATP synthesis by inhibiting the mitochondrial complex activity in the different regions (striatum and cortex) of the brain. Chronic administration of W. somnifera root extract (100 and 200 mg/kg) dose-dependently restored biochemical alterations induced by chronic 3-NP treatment (P < .05). These findings suggest that neuroprotective actions of W. somnifera are mediated via its antioxidant activity. However, further studies are required to elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved in order to support the clinical use of the plant extract as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of HD.

Antioxidant effects of some drugs on ethanol-induced ulcers

The aim of this work was to investigate the antioxidant potential of some commonly used drugs (bromocriptine, haloperidol and azithromycin) on alcohol-induced ulcers in the rat. The following parameters were determined: content of reduced glutathione, activities of catalase, xanthine oxidase, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, peroxidase, and lipid peroxidation intensity. A battery of biochemical assays were used and the resulting data was statistically analyzed. Alcohol stress caused gastric ulcerations and hemorrhages and changed all the examined parameters except glutathione peroxidase activity. All drugs reduced the ulcer index and hemorrhages, with azithromycin showing the strongest effects. The drugs in combination with alcohol showed different effects on biochemical parameters. Our results indicate that the gastroprotective effects of the investigated drugs on experimental lesions induced by 100% ethanol could not be correlated with their antioxidative properties.

Withania somnifera: an Indian ginseng

Withania somnifera, popularly known as Ashwagandha is widely considered as the Indian ginseng. In Ayurveda, it is classified as a rasayana (rejuvenation) and expected to promote physical and mental health, rejuvenate the body in debilitated conditions and increase longevity. Having wide range of activity, it is used to treat almost all disorders that affect the human health. The present review discusses the pharmacological basis of the use of W. somnifera in various central nervous system (CNS) disorders, particularly its indication in epilepsy, stress and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disorders, tardive dyskinesia, cerebral ischemia, and even in the management of drug addiction.

Effect ofWithania somnifera root extract on haloperidol-induced catalepsy in albino mice

The objective of the study was to evaluate the anticataleptic effect of Withania somnifera (WS) extract, on haloperidol-induced catalepsy in albino mice. Catalepsy was induced with haloperidol (1 mg/kg) i.p. in five groups of male albino mice (n = 6). Three groups received Withania somnifera extract (1.7, 4.25, 8.5 mg/kg) respectively, one group received scopolamine (1 mg/kg) and one group received the vehicle (1% gum acacia) orally, 30 min prior to haloperidol administration. Catalepsy was measured by using standard bar test at 30, 60, 90, 120 and 240 min. This constituted the acute study. For the chronic study, the drugs were administered for 6 more days. Catalepsy was again measured on day 7. Animals were then sacrificed by cervical dislocation and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was estimated in the brain. In this study, Withania somnifera extract treated groups showed a dose dependent reduction in cataleptic scores, both in the acute and chronic study. The SOD activity in brain was also found to be lowered in the WS (4.25 mg, 8.5 mg/kg) treated groups. In conclusion, Withania somnifera was found to be more efficacious than scopolamine in reversing haloperidol induced catalepsy. A clear correlation between the SOD levels and cataleptic scores was observed. We believe that the antioxidant properties of this drug could have contributed to the anticataleptic effect.

Acute reserpine and subchronic haloperidol treatments change synaptosomal brain glutamate uptake and elicit orofacial dyskinesia in rats

Reserpine- and haloperidol-induced orofacial dyskinesia are putative animal models of tardive dyskinesia (TD) whose pathophysiology has been related to free radical generation and oxidative stress. In the present study, the authors induced orofacial dyskinesia by acute reserpine and subchronic haloperidol administration to rats. Reserpine injection (one dose of 1 mg/kg s.c.) every other day for 3 days caused a significant increase in vacuous chewing, tongue protrusion and duration of facial twitching, compared to the control. Haloperidol administration (one dose of 12 mg/kg once a week s.c.) for 4 weeks caused an increase in vacuous chewing, tongue protrusion and duration of facial twitching observed in four weekly evaluations. After the treatments and behavioral observation, glutamate uptake by segments of the brain was analyzed. A decreased glutamate uptake was observed in the subcortical parts of animals treated with reserpine and haloperidol, compared to the control. Importantly, a decrease in glutamate uptake correlates negatively with an increase in the incidence of orofacial diskinesia. These results indicate that early changes in glutamate transport may be related to the development of vacuous chewing movements in rats.

Effects of age on reserpine-induced orofacial dyskinesia and possible protection of diphenyl diselenide

Acute reserpine administration produces persistent oral dyskinesia in rats, an alleged animal model of tardive dyskinesia. The pathophysiology of the syndrome remains unclear, but experimental evidence suggests that neurodegeneration in the basal ganglia caused by oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in TD development. In this paper, the authors examined whether diphenyl diselenide, an organochalcogen with antioxidant properties, changes the behavioral and neurochemical effect of acute reserpine administration in old rats. The basal vacuous chewing movements (VCMs) and facial twitching (FT) duration was higher in old rats (15 months of age), when compared with adult rats (3 months of age; 0.01). Basal thiobarbituric acid-reactive species (TBARS) levels were increased only in the cortex of old rats, when compared to adult animals (p < .05). Reserpine injection (1mg/kg, s.c. for 3 days every other day) caused a significant increase on the tongue protusion (TP) frequency (p < .01) and facial twitching duration (p < .01) in old rats. Diphenyl diselenide (10 mg/kg, i.p. for 4 days, starting the day before reserpine) reversed only reserpine-induced TP increase (p < .01). Reserpine caused a significant increase in striatal TBARS levels (p < .01) and diselenide reversed (p < .01) the effect of reserpine on TBARS levels in the striatum. In subcortical parts, isolated reserpine or diselenide administration significantly increased (p < .01) the levels of TBARS, while simultaneous treatment with reserpine and diselenide reverted this effect (p < .01). The results of the present study confirmed the effects of age on orofacial dyskinesia. Diphenyl diselenide, an organochalcogen with antioxidant properties, showed modest effects on reserpine-induced orofacial dyskinesia. However, additional studies are still necessary to establish whether this compound can be considered an effective antioxidant in other models of neurotoxicity.

Therapeutic effects of herbal extracts and constituents in animal models of psychiatric disorders

A search for novel pharmacotherapy from medicinal plants for psychiatric illnesses has progressed significantly in the past decade. This is reflected in the large number of herbal preparations for which psychotherapeutic potential has been evaluated in a variety of animal models. The objective of this review is to provide an overview of herbal extracts and constituents that have significant therapeutic effects in animal models of psychiatric illnesses. Eighty five individual herbs reviewed were classified as anxiolytic, antidepressant, neuroleptic, antidementia, or anti-substance abuse herbs. The full scientific name of each herb, herbal part used, active constituent, extract, dose range and route, animal model, possible mechanisms of action, and pertinent references are presented via synoptic tables. The herbal mixtures were also mentioned. A considerable number of herbal constituents whose behavioral effects and pharmacological actions have been well characterized may be good candidates for further investigations that may ultimately result in clinical use. The investigation of a large portion of the herbal extracts and herbal mixtures is in its infancy. Herbal remedies that have demonstrable psychotherapeutic activities have provided a potential to psychiatric pharmaceuticals and deserve increased attention in future studies.