"I Have to Push Him with a Wheelbarrow to the Clinic": Community Health Workers' Roles, Needs, and Strategies to Improve HIV Care in Rural South Africa

The Hepatoprotective Effects of Moringa oleifera against Antiretroviral-Induced Cytotoxicity in HepG2 Cells: A Review

The untreated human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a lentivirus species that attacks immune cells (CD4+ T cells), causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). HIV-positive people manage HIV/AIDS by using antiretroviral therapy (ART). The ART treatment regimen contains two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and one non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor/integrase strand transfer inhibitor. Tenofovir, an NRTI approved for managing HIV infection, is associated with hepatic steatosis and lactic acidosis, which are linked to mitochondrial toxicity and oxidative stress. Due to side-effects associated with ART, people living with HIV often use medicinal plants or a combination of medicinal plants with ART to promote adherence and diminish the side-effects and cytotoxicity. The Moringa oleifera (MO) tree from the family of Moringaceae is among the medicinal trees studied in managing HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. The MO tree extracts have been reported to have inhibitory activity primarily against HIV due to their bioactive compounds. However, there is a scarcity of knowledge about the use of the MO tree amongst HIV/AIDS patients receiving ART in South Africa and its effect on patient compliance and outcomes. Thus, this review aims to outline the impact of MO aqueous leaf extract on oxidative stress and antioxidant responses in human HepG2 liver cells after exposure to antiretrovirals such as tenofovir. The review will contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the potential protective effect of MO aqueous leaf extract on tenofovir-induced cytotoxicity.

Understanding the role of religious beliefs in adherence to antiretroviral therapy among Pentecostal Christians living with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Optimum adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) is crucial in managing HIV. However, some people's religious beliefs can influence how they deal with HIV and the psychosocial factors influencing their adherence to ART, such as disclosure, acceptance of HIV status, belief in ART, and depression. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the role of religious beliefs in ART adherence is underexplored. We aimed to identify and conceptualize the literature on religious beliefs concerning ART adherence among Pentecostal Christians living with HIV in SSA.

METHODS

We conducted a scoping review of the literature on religious beliefs and ART adherence. We searched papers from PubMed, Web of Science, Medline, Sabinet, Academic Search Complete, CINAHL Plus, Health Source/Nursing Academic, Scopus, and Google Scholar and published papers from conference proceedings and dissertations. Data were extracted according to a predetermined population, concept, context framework, and eligibility criteria for selecting or rejecting studies. We used a narrative synthesis to summarize the data on evidence and the impact of religious beliefs on ART adherence.

RESULTS

Seven papers published between January 2010 and February 2022 met the inclusion criteria. Nineteen aspects of religious beliefs were identified as negatively influencing ART adherence, while eight aspects facilitated optimal adherence. "Being saved" or "born again" enhanced coping strategies for optimal adherence through actions such as less alcohol use, fidelity to a sexual partner(s), disclosure, acceptance of HIV status, reduced depression, and facilitated PLHIV to access social support from church members or other institutions.

CONCLUSION

Religious beliefs are integral to Pentecostal Christians living with HIV and affect their adherence to ART. While some Pentecostal Christians living with HIV on ART use their religious beliefs and practices to access psychosocial support from other church members or organizations and achieve good clinical outcomes, others apply their religious beliefs and practices differently and compromise their commitments to taking ART as prescribed, thus experiencing poor viral suppression and clinical outcomes. However, more research is required to understand and theorize how religious beliefs impact ART adherence among Pentecostals living with HIV to inform guidelines for practitioners.

Lung cancer awareness training experiences of community health workers in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide. Awareness interventions in the developing world remain scarce. Community health workers (CHWs) are a critical component towards ensuring efficient delivery of healthcare services in low- and middle-income countries.

AIM

This study explored the experiences of CHWs of their training as lung cancer awareness intervention implementers.

SETTING

The study was conducted in a resource-poor setting, with CHWs from previously disadvantaged communities.

METHODS

On the last day of training, 10 CHWs were requested to voluntarily participate in a focus group discussion regarding their experiences of the training, utilising a discussion guide.

RESULTS

The participants expressed positive experiences with the training. They cited the amenable and conducive learning environment established by the facilitator. The participants felt empowered through the newly acquired knowledge and wanted to help their communities. However, some participants expressed a desire to have other forms of learning incorporated in future training. The participants were also cognisant of existing gaps in their own knowledge that could be elaborated upon in preparation for potential questions by the community. Some participants confirmed their role as agents of change.

CONCLUSION

The authors propose large-scale intervention studies of lung cancer awareness utilising the CHW programme to gather conclusive evidence regarding their effectiveness at a community level.Contribution: This article provides insight into the training of community health workers on lung cancer awareness and future research on the integration of the intervention into already existing programmes.

Perceptions, preferences, and experiences of tuberculosis education and counselling among patients and providers in Kampala, Uganda: A qualitative study

Tuberculosis (TB) education seeks to increase patient knowledge about TB, while TB counselling seeks to offer tailored advice and support for medication adherence. While universally recommended, little is known about how to provide effective, efficient, patient-centred TB education and counselling (TEC) in low-income, high HIV-TB burden settings. We sought to characterise stakeholder perceptions of TEC in a public, primary care facility in Kampala, Uganda, by conducting focus group discussions with health workers and TB patients in the TB and HIV clinics. Participants valued TEC but reported that high-quality TEC is rarely provided, because of a lack of time, space, staff, planning, and prioritisation given to TEC. To improve TEC, they recommended adopting practices that have proven effective in the HIV clinic, including better specifying educational content, and employing peer educators focused on TEC. Patients and health workers suggested that TEC should not only improve TB patient knowledge and adherence, but should also empower and assist all those undergoing evaluation for TB, whether confirmed or not, to educate their households and communities about TB. Community-engaged research with patients and front-line providers identified opportunities to streamline and standardise the delivery of TEC using a patient-centred, peer-educator model.

Exploring how outreach team leaders perceive community health workers' experiences of providing HIV services in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Objectives: In 2018, the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Health launched the ward-based primary health care outreach teams policy framework which sought to expand the community health worker (CHW) programme's provision of longitudinal patient support, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) services in communities. This study sought to explore the perceptions of outreach team leaders who supervise CHWs on their experiences of providing HIV services in the province.Study design: This was a qualitative, phenomenology study.Methods: Convenience sampling was done to select one outreach team leader from each of the 11 KwaZulu-Natal health districts to be interviewed using an interview guide. Thematic analysis, guided by the Ritchie and Spencer framework analysis, was used to analyse the data.Results: The challenges faced by CHWs in delivering HIV services were: the absence of individuals when CHWs visited their homes, self-HIV stigma, rejection of CHWs' HIV services due to traditional beliefs, CHW shortages, lack of other resources, low levels of CWH education and a lack of training. On the other hand, the provision of HIV services was fascilitated by: supportive supervision, training, having cell phones and having a positive attitude towards providing HIV services by CHWs that were HIV-positive.Conclusion: The CHWs in KwaZulu-Natal face more challenges than enablers in the provision of HIV services. The delegation of HIV services to CHWs should be aligned with their holistic empowerment by eliminating barriers to the provision of HIV services.

Understanding older peoples' chronic disease self-management practices and challenges in the context of grandchildren caregiving: A qualitative study in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

While chronic diseases are amongst the major health burdens of older South Africans, the responsibilities of caring for grandchildren, by mostly grandmothers, may further affect older people's health and well-being. There is a paucity of information about chronic disease self-management for older people in the context of grandchildren caregiving in sub-Saharan Africa. Guided by the Self-Management Framework, the purpose of this qualitative methods study was to explore the chronic disease self-management practices and challenges of grandparent caregivers in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Eighteen repeat in-depth interviews were carried out with six grandparent caregivers aged 56 to 80 years over 12 months. Thematic analysis was conducted based on the Self-Management Framework. Pathways into self-management of chronic illnesses were identified: living with a chronic illness, focusing on illness needs, and activating resources. Self-perceptions of caregiving dictated that grandmothers, as women, have the responsibility of caring for grandchildren when they themselves needed care, lived in poverty, and with chronic illnesses that require self-management. However, despite the hardship, the gendered role of caring for grandchildren brought meaning to the grandmothers' lives and supported self-management due to the reciprocal relationship with grandchildren, although chronic illness self-management was complicated where relationships between grandmothers and grandchildren were estranged. The study findings demonstrate that grandchildren caregiving and self-management of chronic conditions are inextricably linked. Optimal self-management of chronic diseases must be seen within a larger context that simultaneously addresses chronic diseases, while paying attention to the intersection of socio-cultural factors with self-management.

Role of religious beliefs in adherence to antiretroviral therapy in the Cape Town metropole: a study protocol

INTRODUCTION

There are presently over four million people living with HIV (PLHIV) in the South African national antiretroviral therapy (ART) programme. However, some ART programmes are battling poor ART adherence emanating from patient-related factors, including their religious beliefs. In this paper, we outline a study protocol to understand the adherence behaviours of Pentecostal Christians living with HIV to ART and to develop guidelines that can be used to strengthen ART adherence.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

We propose an exploratory multimethod research design. In phase 1, a scoping review will be conducted. The data captured in this phase will be put into charting forms, analysed qualitatively, and then collated and summarised to hypothesise the relationship between religious beliefs and ART adherence. In phase 2, an explanatory qualitative approach will be used. Semistructured interviews will be conducted with purposefully selected religious leaders, Pentecostal Christians living with HIV who are not adhering to ART and healthcare workers delivering ART at selected healthcare facilities in the Milnerton subhealth district. The qualitative data obtained in this phase will be transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically using the ATLAS.ti V.8 software program towards strengthening the hypothesised relationship between religious beliefs and ART adherence. In phase 3, intervention mapping and nominal group techniques will be applied with purposefully selected stakeholders to develop guidelines to strengthen ART adherence among PLHIV.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Phase 1 of the study will not require ethics approval. Ethics approval for phases 2 and 3 has been received from the University of the Western Cape Biomedical Research and Ethics Committee and the Western Cape Department of Health. Informed consent forms will be obtained from all participants at the different phases of the study. The study findings will be disseminated through publications in scientific journals, presentations at conferences and workshops aimed at improving ART adherence.

"If it weren't for my traditional healer, I would be dead": Engaging traditional healers to support people living with HIV in rural Mozambique

Across rural sub-Saharan Africa, people living with HIV (PLHIV) commonly seek out treatment from traditional healers. We report on the clinical outcomes of a community health worker intervention adapted for traditional healers with insight into our results from qualitative interviews. We employed a pre-post intervention study design and used sequential mixed methods to assess the impact of a traditional healer support worker intervention in Zambézia province, Mozambique. After receiving a positive test result, 276 participants who were newly enrolled in HIV treatment and were interested in receiving home-based support from a traditional healer were recruited into the study. Those who enrolled from February 2016 to August 2016 received standard of care services, while those who enrolled from June 2017 to May 2018 received support from a traditional healer. We conducted interviews among healers and participants to gain insight into fidelity of study activities, barriers to support, and program improvement. Medication possession ratio at home (based on pharmacy pick-up dates) was not significantly different between pre- and post-intervention participants (0.80 in the pre-intervention group compared to 0.79 in the post-intervention group; p = 0.96). Participants reported receiving educational and psychosocial support from healers. Healers adapted their support protocol to initiate directly observed therapy among participants with poor adherence. Traditional healers can provide community-based psychosocial support, education, directly observed therapy, and disclosure assistance for PLHIV. Multiple factors may hinder patients' desire and ability to remain adherent to treatment, including poverty, confusion about medication side effects, and frustration with wait times at the health facility.

Community health workers and health equity in low- and middle-income countries: systematic review and recommendations for policy and practice

Background

The deployment of Community Health Workers (CHWs) is widely promoted as a strategy for reducing health inequities in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). Yet there is limited evidence on whether and how CHW programmes achieve this. This systematic review aimed to synthesise research findings on the following questions: (1) How effective are CHW interventions at reaching the most disadvantaged groups in LMIC contexts? and (2) What evidence exists on whether and how these programmes reduce health inequities in the populations they serve?

Methods

We searched six academic databases for recent (2014–2020) studies reporting on CHW programme access, utilisation, quality, and effects on health outcomes/behaviours in relation to potential stratifiers of health opportunities and outcomes (e.g., gender, socioeconomic status, place of residence). Quantitative data were extracted, tabulated, and subjected to meta-analysis where appropriate. Qualitative findings were synthesised using thematic analysis.

Results

One hundred sixty-seven studies met the search criteria, reporting on CHW interventions in 33 LMIC. Quantitative synthesis showed that CHW programmes successfully reach many (although not all) marginalized groups, but that health inequalities often persist in the populations they serve. Qualitative findings suggest that disadvantaged groups experienced barriers to taking up CHW health advice and referrals and point to a range of strategies for improving the reach and impact of CHW programmes in these groups. Ensuring fair working conditions for CHWs and expanding opportunities for advocacy were also revealed as being important for bridging health equity gaps.

Conclusion

In order to optimise the equity impacts of CHW programmes, we need to move beyond seeing CHWs as a temporary sticking plaster, and instead build meaningful partnerships between CHWs, communities and policy-makers to confront and address the underlying structures of inequity.

Trial registration

PROSPERO registration number CRD42020177333.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12939-021-01615-y.

Role of religious beliefs on antiretroviral treatment adherence among Pentecostal Christians in sub-Saharan Africa: a scoping review protocol

INTRODUCTION

Sub-Saharan Africa continues to be disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS. As such, several countries in sub-Saharan Africa are implementing the UNAIDS' recommendation to test and treat people living with HIV (PLHIV) irrespective of their CD4 count. However, most of the antiretroviral treatment (ART) programmes, in this region, continue to struggle with poor adherence to treatment stemming from patient-related factors including their religious beliefs. Unfortunately, the role of religious beliefs on ART adherence has been underexplored in the literature. In this study protocol, we propose the steps of a scoping review to explore, identify and map the literature on the impact of religious beliefs on adherence to ART among Pentecostals living with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

We will use Arksey and O'Malley's framework and the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology guidelines to conduct this scoping review. The following databases will be searched for relevant literature: Web of Science, PubMed/Medline, Psych-ARTICLES, Academic Search Complete, Cumulative Index of Nursing, Allied Health, Google Scholar and published articles from conference proceedings. Studies published between January 2010 and February 2022 will be eligible. The identified literature will be independently screened for eligibility by two reviewers based on predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. An Excel form will be designed to electronically capture data from studies that meet the inclusion criteria. Finally, we will use a narrative synthesis to summarise the data extracted to report on the nature of existing evidence and the impact of religious beliefs on ART adherence.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical approval will not be required for the scoping review since it will entail synthesising information from already published articles and conference proceedings. The study findings will be disseminated through publication in a scientific journal and presented at conferences and workshops aimed at improving adherence to ART in PLHIV.

Roles, Barriers, and Recommendations for Community Health Workers Providing Community-Based HIV Care in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review

While the impact of Community Health Workers (CHWs) on home-based human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care has been documented, barriers and recommendations have not been systematically reviewed. Following the reporting requirements of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we used an aggregative narrative synthesis approach to summarize the results of qualitative studies published between January 1, 2000, and November 6, 2020 in the following databases: PubMed, CINAHL, PsychINFO, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. In total, 17 studies met the selection criteria and were included in the analysis. They reported on a range of roles played by CHWs in HIV care, including education and health promotion; HIV-specific care (HIV testing services; screening for opportunistic infections and acute illness); medication delivery; tracing persons who had defaulted from care; and support (treatment support; referral; home-based care; and psychosocial support). Many different barriers to community-based HIV care were reported and centered on the following themes: Stigma and nondisclosure; inadequate support (lack of resources, inadequate training, inadequate funding, and inadequate monitoring); and health system challenges (patients' preference for more frequent visits and poor integration of CHWs in the wider health care system). Recommendations to mitigate these barriers included: addressing HIV-related stigma; introducing updated and relevant CHW training; strengthening the supervision of CHWs; coordinating care between the home and facilities; incorporating patient-centered mHealth approaches; and committing to the funding and resources needed for successful community-based care. In summary, CHWs are providing a variety of important community-based HIV services but face challenges with regards to training, resources, and supervision.

Geo-analysis: the distribution of community health workers in relation to the HIV prevalence in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa

BACKGROUND

The South African Ward Based Primary Health Care Outreach Team (WBPHCOT) policy framework states that the distribution of community health workers (CHWs) should be proportional to levels of poverty and disease within the population. We aimed to describe the spatial distribution of CHWs in relation to the prevalence of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which has itself been associated with poverty in previous studies.

METHODS

This was a descriptive, cross-sectional study in which secondary data was used for geospatial analysis. Based on the extrapolation from the norm of one WBPHCOT per 6000 individuals, we utilized geographic information system (GIS) methods to visualize the distribution of CHWs in relation to the prevalence of HIV in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). Dot density mapping was used to visualize the random distribution of CHWs in relation to HIV prevalence and population in the districts. The districts' HIV prevalence, number of PLWH, ratio of CHW: people living with HIV (PLWH), ratio of CHW: population and poverty scores were mapped using choropleth mapping. MapInfo Pro 17.0 was used to map geospatial presentation of the data.

RESULTS

Overall, KZN province showed under allocation of CHWs with a CHW: people ratio of 1: 1156 compared to the estimated norm of 1: 600-1000. At district level, only two of 11 districts met the suggested norm of CHW: PLWH (1: 109-181). This indicates shortages and misallocation of CHWs in the nine remaining districts. Furthermore, our findings showed extensive geospatial heterogeneity with no clear pattern in the distribution of CHWs. There was no relationship between CHW distribution and HIV prevalence or poverty scores in the districts.

CONCLUSION

This study shows inequality in the distribution of CHWs which may be associated with inequalities in the provision of HIV related services. It is critical to strengthen the response to the HIV epidemic through the appropriate distribution of CHWs especially in those districts with high levels of HIV prevalence and poverty.

Stakeholder efforts to mitigate antiretroviral therapy interruption among people living with HIV during the COVID-19 pandemic in China: a qualitative study

Introduction

The COVID‐19 pandemic has affected antiretroviral therapy (ART) continuity among people living with HIV (PLHIV) worldwide. We conducted a qualitative study to explore barriers to ART maintenance and solutions to ART interruption when stringent COVID‐19 control measures were implemented in China, from the perspective of PLHIV and relevant key stakeholders.

Methods

Between 11 February and 15 February 2020, we interviewed PLHIV, community‐based organization (CBO) workers, staff from centres for disease control and prevention (CDC) at various levels whose work is relevant to HIV care (CDC staff), HIV doctors and nurses and drug vendors from various regions in China. Semi‐structured interviews were conducted using a messaging and social media app. Challenges and responses relevant to ART continuity during the COVID‐19 pandemic were discussed. Themes were identified by transcript coding and mindmaps.

Results

Sixty‐four stakeholders were recruited, including 16 PLHIV, 17 CBO workers, 15 CDC staff, 14 HIV doctors and nurses and two drug vendors. Many CDC staff, HIV doctors and nurses responsible for ART delivery and HIV care were shifted to COVID‐19 response efforts. Barriers to ART maintenance were (a) travel restrictions, (b) inadequate communication and bureaucratic obstacles, (c) shortage in personnel, (d) privacy concerns, and (e) insufficient ART reserve. CBO helped PLHIV maintain access to ART through five solutions identified from thematic analysis: (a) coordination to refill ART from local CDC clinics or hospitals, (b) delivery of ART by mail, (c) privacy protection measures, (d) mental health counselling, and (e) providing connections to alternative sources of ART. Drug vendors contributed to ART maintenance by selling out‐of‐pocket ART.

Conclusions

Social and institutional disruption from COVID‐19 contributed to increased risk of ART interruption among PLHIV in China. Collaboration among key stakeholders was needed to maintain access to ART, with CBO playing an important role. Other countries facing ART interruption during current or future public health emergencies may learn from the solutions employed in China.

Barriers and facilitators of rendering HIV services by community health workers in sub-Saharan Africa: a meta-synthesis

OBJECTIVES

To synthesise qualitative studies that address the barriers to and facilitators of providing HIV services by community health workers (CHWs) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

DESIGN

This meta-synthesis was guided by Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. We included studies that were published between 2009 and 2019. The Ritchie and Spencer framework and the Supporting the Use of Research Evidence framework were used for thematic analysis and framework analysis, respectively. The Qualitative Assessment and Review Instrument was used to assess the quality of selected studies.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Qualitative studies published between 2009 and 2019, that included CHWs linked directly or indirectly to the Ministry of Health and providing HIV services in the communities.

INFORMATION SOURCES

An extensive search was conducted on the following databases: EBSCOhost- (ERIC; Health Source-Nursing/Academic Edition; MEDLINE Full Text), Google Scholar and PubMed.

RESULTS

Barriers to rendering of HIV services by CHWs were community HIV stigma; lack of CHW respect, CHWs' poor education and training; poor stakeholders' involvement; poor access to the communities; shortage of CHWs; unsatisfactory incentives; lack of CHW support and supervision, lack of equipment and supplies and social barriers due to culture, language and political structures. The altruistic behaviour of CHWs and the availability of job facilitated the provision of HIV services.

CONCLUSION

The delivery of HIV services by CHWs in SSA is faced by more lingering barriers than facilitators. Planners and policymakers can minimise the barriers by investing in both CHW and community training regarding HIV services. Furthermore, sufficient funding should be allocated to the programme to ensure its efficiency.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020160012.

Stakeholder efforts to mitigate antiretroviral therapy interruption among people living with HIV during the COVID-19 pandemic in China: a qualitative study

INTRODUCTION

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected antiretroviral therapy (ART) continuity among people living with HIV (PLHIV) worldwide. We conducted a qualitative study to explore barriers to ART maintenance and solutions to ART interruption when stringent COVID-19 control measures were implemented in China, from the perspective of PLHIV and relevant key stakeholders.

METHODS

Between 11 February and 15 February 2020, we interviewed PLHIV, community-based organization (CBO) workers, staff from centres for disease control and prevention (CDC) at various levels whose work is relevant to HIV care (CDC staff), HIV doctors and nurses and drug vendors from various regions in China. Semi-structured interviews were conducted using a messaging and social media app. Challenges and responses relevant to ART continuity during the COVID-19 pandemic were discussed. Themes were identified by transcript coding and mindmaps.

RESULTS

Sixty-four stakeholders were recruited, including 16 PLHIV, 17 CBO workers, 15 CDC staff, 14 HIV doctors and nurses and two drug vendors. Many CDC staff, HIV doctors and nurses responsible for ART delivery and HIV care were shifted to COVID-19 response efforts. Barriers to ART maintenance were (a) travel restrictions, (b) inadequate communication and bureaucratic obstacles, (c) shortage in personnel, (d) privacy concerns, and (e) insufficient ART reserve. CBO helped PLHIV maintain access to ART through five solutions identified from thematic analysis: (a) coordination to refill ART from local CDC clinics or hospitals, (b) delivery of ART by mail, (c) privacy protection measures, (d) mental health counselling, and (e) providing connections to alternative sources of ART. Drug vendors contributed to ART maintenance by selling out-of-pocket ART.

CONCLUSIONS

Social and institutional disruption from COVID-19 contributed to increased risk of ART interruption among PLHIV in China. Collaboration among key stakeholders was needed to maintain access to ART, with CBO playing an important role. Other countries facing ART interruption during current or future public health emergencies may learn from the solutions employed in China.

Implementing 'universal' access to antiretroviral treatment in South Africa: a scoping review on research priorities

‘Universal’ access to antiretroviral treatment (ART) has become the global standard for treating people living with HIV and achieving epidemic control; yet, findings from numerous ‘test and treat’ trials and implementation studies in sub-Saharan Africa suggest that bringing ‘universal' access to ART to scale is more complex than anticipated. Using South Africa as a case example, we describe the research priorities and foci in the literature on expanded ART access. To do so, we adapted Arksey and O’Malley’s six-stage scoping review framework to describe the peer-reviewed literature and opinion pieces on expanding access to ART in South Africa between 2000 and 2017. Data collection included systematic searches of two databases and hand-searching of a sub-sample of reference lists. We used an adapted socio-ecological thematic framework to categorize data according to where it located the challenges and opportunities of expanded ART eligibility: individual/client, health worker–client relationship, clinic/community context, health systems infrastructure and/or policy context. We included 194 research articles and 23 opinion pieces, of 1512 identified, addressing expanded ART access in South Africa. The peer-reviewed literature focused on the individual and health systems infrastructure; opinion pieces focused on changing roles of individuals, communities and health services implementers. We contextualized our findings through a consultative process with a group of researchers, HIV clinicians and programme managers to consider critical knowledge gaps. Unlike the published literature, the consultative process offered particular insights into the importance of researching and intervening in the relational aspects of HIV service delivery as South Africa’s HIV programme expands. An overwhelming focus on individual and health systems infrastructure factors in the published literature on expanded ART access in South Africa may skew understanding of HIV programme shortfalls away from the relational aspects of HIV services delivery and delay progress with finding ways to leverage non-medical modalities for achieving HIV epidemic control.

"Dispense antiretrovirals daily!" restructuring the delivery of HIV services to optimize antiretroviral initiation among men in Malawi

BACKGROUND

Gender disparities exist in the scale-up and uptake of HIV services with men being disproportionately under-represented in the services. In Eastern and Southern Africa, of the people living with HIV infection, more adult women than men were on treatment highlighting the disparities in HIV services. Delayed initiation of antiretroviral treatment creates a missed opportunity to prevent transmission of HIV while increasing HIV and AIDS-associated morbidity and mortality. The main objective of this study was to assess the strategies that men prefer for Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) initiation in Blantyre, Malawi.

METHODS

This was a qualitative study conducted in 7 Health facilities in Blantyre from January to July 2017. We selected participants following purposive sampling. We conducted 20 in-depth interviews (IDIs) with men of different HIV statuses, 17 interviews with health care workers (HCWs), and 14 focus group discussions (FGDs) among men of varying HIV statuses. We digitally recorded all the data, transcribed verbatim, managed using NVivo, and analysed it thematically.

RESULTS

Restructuring the delivery of antiretroviral (ARVs) treatment and conduct of ART clinics is key to optimizing early initiation of treatment among heterosexual men in Blantyre. The areas requiring restructuring included: Clinic days by offering ARVs daily; Clinic hours to accommodate schedules of men; Clinic layout and flow that preserves privacy and establishment of male-specific clinics; ARV dispensing procedures where clients receive more pills to last them longer than 3 months. Additionally there is need to improve the packaging of ARVs, invent ARVs with less dosing frequency, and dispense ARVs from the main pharmacy. It was further suggested that the test-and-treat strategy be implemented with fidelity and revising the content in counseling sessions with an emphasis on the benefits of ARVs.

CONCLUSION

The success in ART initiation among men will require a restructuring of the current ART services to make them accessible and available for men to initiate treatment. The inclusion of people-centered approaches will ensure that individual preferences are incorporated into the initiation of ARVs. The type, frequency, distribution, and packaging of ARVs should be aligned with other medicines readily available within a health facility to minimize stigma.

Are We Using the Right Approach to Change Newborn Care Practices in the Community? Qualitative Evidence From Ethiopia and Northern Nigeria

In Ethiopia, high community-level exposure to consistent messages and the perceptions of community health workers and relationships with them drove newborn care behavior change. In Nigeria, exposure to messages was limited, community health workers were less trusted, and behavior change was reported less frequently.

Changing behaviors is usually a core component of the role of community health workers (CHWs), but little is known about the mechanisms through which they change behavior. We collected qualitative data from 8 sites in Ethiopia and northern Nigeria where CHWs were active to understand how they change newborn care behaviors. In each country, we conducted 12 narrative interviews and 12–13 in-depth interviews with recent mothers and 4 focus group discussions each with mothers, fathers, grandmothers, and CHWs. We identified 2 key mechanisms of behavior change. The first was linked to the frequency and consistency of hearing messages that led to a perception that change had occurred in community-wide behaviors, collective beliefs, and social expectations. The second was linked to trust in the CHW, obligation, and hierarchy. We found little evidence that constructs that often inform the design of counseling approaches, such as knowledge of causality and perceived risks and benefits, were mechanisms of change.

The cost of the training and supervision of community health workers to improve exclusive breastfeeding amongst mothers in a cluster randomised controlled trial in South Africa

Background

Interventions targeting community health workers (CHWs) aim to optimise the delivery of health services to underserved rural areas. Whilst interventions are evaluated against their objectives, there remains limited evidence on the economic costs of these interventions, and the practicality and value of scale up. The aim of this paper is to undertake a cost analysis on a CHW training and supervision intervention using exclusive breastfeeding rates amongst mothers as an outcome measure.

Methods

This is a retrospective cost analysis, from an implementer’s perspective, of a cluster randomised controlled trial investigating the effectiveness of a continuous quality improvement (CQI) intervention aimed at CHWs providing care and support to pregnant women and women with babies aged < 1 year in South Africa.

Results

One of the outcomes of the RCT revealed that the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) significantly improved, with the cost per mother EBF in the control and intervention arm calculated at US$760,13 and US$1705,28 respectively. The cost per additional mother practicing EBF was calculated to be US$7647, 88, with the supervision component of the intervention constituting 64% of the trial costs. In addition, women served by the intervention CHWs were more likely to have received a CHW visit and had significantly better knowledge of childcare practices.

Conclusion

Whilst the cost of this intervention is high, adapted interventions could potentially offer an economical alternative for achieving selected maternal and child health (MCH) outcomes. The results of this study should inform future programmes aimed at providing adapted training and supervision to CHWs with the objective of improving community-level health outcomes.

Community health care workers in pursuit of TB: Discourses and dilemmas

Community-led tuberculosis (TB) active case finding is widely promoted, heavily funded, but many efforts fail to meet expectations. The underlying reasons why TB symptom screening programs underperform are poorly understood. This study examines Nigerian stakeholders' insights to characterize the mechanisms, enabling structures and influences that lead programs to succeed or fail. Eight focus group discussions were held with Community Health Workers (CWs) from four models of community-based TB screening and referral. In-depth interviews were conducted with 2 State TB program managers, 8 Community based organizations (CBOs), and 6 state TB and Leprosy Local Government supervisors. Transcripts were coded using Framework Analysis to assess how divergent understandings of CWs' roles, expectations, as well as design, political and structural factors contributed to the observed underperformance. Altruism, religious faith, passion, and commitment to the health and well-being of their communities were reasons CWs gave for starting TB symptom screening and referral. Yet politicized or donor-driven CWs' selection processes at times yielded implementers without a firm grounding in TB or the social, cultural, and physical terrain. CWs encountered suspicion, stigma, and hostility in both health facilities and communities. As the interface between the TB program and communities, CWs often bore the brunt of frustrations with inadequate TB services and CBO/iNGO collaboration. Some CWs expended their own social and financial capital to cover gaps in the active case finding (ACF) programs and public health services or curtailed their screening activities. Effective community-led TB active case finding is challenging to design, implement and sustain. Contrary to conventional wisdom, CWs did not experience it as inherently empowering. Sustainable, supportive models that combine meaningful engagement for communities with effective program stewardship and governance are needed. Crucially effective and successful implementation of community-based TB screening and referral requires a functional public health system to which to refer.

Factors influencing adherence to antiretroviral treatment among adults accessing care from private health facilities in Malawi

BACKGROUND

Private health facilities are increasingly being recognized as the neglected partner in the provision of HIV services. The non-adherence rate in the study sites ranged from 19 to 22%. This study explored the factors associated with non-adherence from antiretroviral therapy (ART) among adult patients accessing ART services at two privately owned urban health facilities in Malawi.

METHODS

We conducted a descriptive qualitative approach employing in-depth interviews among adults who either defaulted or were retained in HIV care in two privately owned facilities in Malawi from March to July 2017. We purposively selected participants and interviewed a total of 6 ART providers and 24 ART clients. Data were analyzed manually using a thematic approach.

RESULTS

Overall, participants identified four facilitators for retention in care and four broad categories of barriers namely individual, psychological, drug related and human resource related factors. The factors that facilitated retention in care included follow up visits after missing a visit, adequate information education and counseling, and supportive relationships.

CONCLUSION

The main reason for defaulting from antiretrovirals (ARVs) was fear of disclosing an HIV status to avert potential stigma and discrimination. In implementing ART clinics due consideration and strategies need to be adopted to ensure that privacy and confidentiality is preserved. Although adoption of all the key Malawi Implementing strategies like expert clients and a guardian may optimize retention in care, there is need for prior analysis of how those may lead to unintended disclosure which inadvertently affects adherence. Furthermore, private facilities should orient their clients to the public facilities within the catchment area so that clients have an option for alternative access to HIV care in the event of financial constraints.

Challenges Facing Home-Based Caregivers in the Management of Health Care Risk Waste

The quadruple burden of diseases, early discharge from hospital and hospital at home have resulted in home-based care services becoming a requirement in South Africa. These home-based care services generate a significant amount of health care risk waste that is mismanaged. More attention is given to the health care risk waste generated in hospitals and clinics than to health care risk waste generated by home-based caregivers. Therefore, this study investigates the health care risk waste management practices by home-based caregivers. The study adopted a mixed research approach, qualitative and quantitative methods, using a literature review, interviews, and questionnaires as means of data collection. Results show that there are different types of health care risk waste generated as a result of different activities performed by home-based caregivers, but that the waste was found to be managed in an unsafe manner. The majority of households receiving home-based care did not have basic sanitation facilities such as toilets, running water and waste removal services, aggravating the issue of health care risk waste mismanagement. The study recommends a new policy framework that will lead to safe management practices of generated health care risk waste to be adopted by home-based caregivers.

Factors enabling community health workers and volunteers to overcome socio-cultural barriers to behaviour change: meta-synthesis using the concept of social capital

BACKGROUND

Community-based health workers and volunteers are not just low-level health workforce; their effectiveness is also due to their unique relationship with the community and is often attributed to social capital, an area not well studied or acknowledged in the literature.

METHODS

A qualitative meta-synthesis was conducted using the SPIDER framework and based on critical interpretive synthesis. The protocol was registered with PROSPERO, ID = CRD42018084130. This article reports on the qualitative data extracted from the final 33 articles selected from 147 full-text articles on social capital and community-based health systems.

RESULTS

Three constructs were identified that enable community health workers to bring about changes in behaviour in the community: seeing their role as a service or a calling motivated by altruistic values, accompanying community members on their journey and the aim of the journey being empowerment rather than health. Community health workers feel under-resourced to provide for expectations from the community, to fulfil their non-health needs, to meet the expectations of their employers and to be able to deliver health services.

CONCLUSION

The dichotomy of needs between the community and health services can be resolved if policy makers and programme designers examine the possibility of two cadres of community-based health workforce: full-time workers and part-time volunteers, with clear scopes of practice and supervision. Community health workers would primarily be concerned with task shifting roles demanded by programmes, and volunteers can focus on the wider empowerment-based needs of communities.

"If you are here at the clinic, you do not know how many people need help in the community": Perspectives of home-based HIV services from health care workers in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa in the era of universal test-and-treat

Background

Limited engagement in clinic-based care is affecting the HIV response. We explored the field experiences and perceptions of local health care workers regarding home-based strategies as opportunities to improve the cascade of care of people living with HIV in rural South Africa as part of a Universal Test-and-Treat approach.

Methods

In Hlabisa sub-district, home-based HIV services, including rapid HIV testing and counselling, and support for linkage to and retention in clinic-based HIV care, were implemented by health care workers within the ANRS 12249 Treatment-as-Prevention (TasP) trial. From April to July 2016, we conducted a mixed-methods study among health care workers from the TasP trial and from local government clinics, using self-administrated questionnaires (n = 90 in the TasP trial, n = 56 in government clinics), semi-structured interviews (n = 13 in the TasP trial, n = 5 in government clinics) and three focus group discussions (n = 6–10 health care workers of the TasP trial per group). Descriptive statistics were used for quantitative data and qualitative data were analysed thematically.

Results

More than 90% of health care workers assessed home-based testing and support for linkage to care as feasible and acceptable by the population they serve. Many health care workers underlined how home visits could facilitate reaching people who had slipped through the cracks of the clinic-based health care system and encourage them to successfully access care. Health care workers however expressed concerns about the ability of home-based services to answer the HIV care needs of all community members, including people working outside their home during the day or those who fear HIV-related stigmatization. Overall, health care workers encouraged policy-makers to more formally integrate home-based services in the local health system. They promoted reshaping the disease-specific and care-oriented services towards more comprehensive goals.

Conclusion

Because home-based services allow identification of people early during their infection and encourage them to take actions leading to viral suppression, HCWs assessed them as valuable components within the panel of UTT interventions, aiming to reach the 90-90-90 UNAIDS targets, especially in the rural Southern African region.

Trial registration

The registration number of the ANRS 12249 TasP trial on ClinicalTrials.gov is NCT01509508.

"I will not stop visiting!" a qualitative study of community health workers' reluctance to withdraw household support following the end of a community-based intervention in Zimbabwe

BACKGROUND

Community Health Worker (CHW) programmes are increasingly important in HIV service delivery. CHWs' familiarity with the local context can improve intervention acceptability and sustainability but concerns have been raised about potential exploitation and "burnout" of CHWs as they become emotionally involved in clients' lives. Little attention has been paid to what happens at the end of time-limited CHW interventions. This study aimed to examine the experience of CHWs' withdrawal from clients and their families.

METHODS

We conducted a qualitative study of CHWs' experiences of "exiting" from households during the ZENITH (Zimbabwe Study for Enhancing Testing and Improving Treatment of HIV in Children) intervention, which provided 12 structured home visits over 72 weeks to families with children recently diagnosed with HIV. We conducted semi-structured interviews at 12 and 18 months with all 19 CHWs delivering the intervention and 36 purposively selected caregivers who received home visits. Analysis focused on perceptions of the end of the trial, when CHWs completed the scheduled home-based visits and there was no guarantee of programme continuation beyond the study.

RESULTS

Termination of scheduled home visits caused significant distress to both CHWs and the households they visited. We identify 3 thematic "lessons learned" for CHW programmes. First, CHWs derived pride and self-worth from emotional labour as they became integral to families' improved ability to cope, motivating them to go beyond formal job requirements. Second, clients' growing dependence on CHWs led to "exit" being interpreted as abandonment by both CHWs and households, causing distress on both sides. Finally, in response to anxiety about "abandoning" families, CHWs maintained contact with families long after scheduled withdrawal of services.

CONCLUSIONS

CHWs can forge genuine bonds with households, creating expectations of long-term engagement. On the positive side, CHW derive pride from their work, attach social responsibility to their roles, and feel personal fulfilment in supporting families. If CHWs do not disengage from interventions as planned, or become demoralised by "exits", interventions will prove less sustainable. CHWs are often lauded for their ability to develop trust with peers, yet this willingness and ability to create enduring emotional bonds could threaten programme delivery.

The role of community health workers in improving HIV treatment outcomes in children: lessons learned from the ZENITH trial in Zimbabwe

Reliance on community health workers (CHWs) for HIV care continues to increase, particularly in resource-limited settings. CHWs can improve HIV service use and adherence to treatment, but effectiveness of these programmes relies on providing an enabling work environment for CHWs, including reasonable workload, supportive supervision and adequate training and supplies. Although criteria for effective CHW programmes have been identified, these have rarely been prospectively applied to design and evaluation of new interventions. For the Zimbabwe study for Enhancing Testing and Improving Treatment of HIV in Children (ZENITH) randomized controlled trial, we based our intervention on an existing evidence-based framework for successful CHW programmes. To assess CHWs’ experiences delivering the intervention, we conducted longitudinal, qualitative semi-structured interviews with all 19 CHWs at three times during implementation. The study aimed to explore CHWs’ perceptions of how the intervention’s structure and management affected their performance, and consider implications for the programme’s future scale-up and adoption in other settings. CHWs expressed strong motivation, commitment and job satisfaction. They considered the intervention acceptable and feasible to deliver, and levels of satisfaction rose over interview rounds. Intensive supervision and mentoring emerged as critical to ensuring CHWs’ long-term satisfaction. Provision of job aids, standardized manuals and refresher training were also important, as were formalized links between clinics and CHWs. Concerns raised by CHWs included poor remuneration, their reluctance to stop providing support to individual families following the requisite number of home visits, and disappointment at the lack of programme sustainability following completion of the trial. Furthermore, intensive supervision and integration with clinical services may be difficult to replicate outside a trial setting. This study shows that existing criteria for designing successful CHW programmes are useful for maximizing effectiveness, but challenges remain for ensuring long-term sustainability of ‘task shifting’ strategies.

Ethics of task shifting in the health workforce: exploring the role of community health workers in HIV service delivery in low- and middle-income countries

Background

Task shifting is increasingly used to address human resource shortages impacting HIV service delivery in low- and middle-income countries. By shifting basic tasks from higher- to lower-trained cadres, such as Community Health Workers (CHWs), task shifting can reduce overhead costs, improve community outreach, and provide efficient scale-up of essential treatments like antiretroviral therapies. Although there is rich evidence outlining positive outcomes that CHWs bring into HIV programs, important questions remain over their place in service delivery. These challenges often reflect concerns over whether CHWs can mitigate HIV through a means that does not overlook the ethical and practical constraints that undergird their work. Ethical and practical guidance thus needs to become the cornerstone of CHW deployment. This paper analyzes such challenges through the lens of Ethical Principlism.

Methods

We examined papers identifying substantive and ethical challenges impacting CHWs as they provide HIV services in low- and middle-income contexts. To do this, we analyzed papers written in English and published from year 2000 or later. These articles were identified using MEDLINE, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Google Scholar databases. In total, 465 articles were identified, 78 of which met our inclusion criteria. Article reference lists and grey literature were also examined.

Results

CHWs experience specific challenges while carrying out their duties, such as conducting emotionally- and physically-demanding tasks with often inadequate training, supervision and compensation. CHWs have also been poorly integrated into health systems, which not only impacts quality of care, but can hinder their prospects for promotion and lead to CHW disempowerment. As we argue, these challenges can be addressed if a set of ethical principles is prioritized, which specifically entail the principles of respect for persons, justice, beneficence, proportionality and cultural humility.

Conclusions

CHWs play a crucial role in HIV service delivery, yet the ethical challenges that can accompany their work cannot be overlooked. By prioritizing ethical principles, policymakers and program implementers can better ensure that CHWs are combatting HIV through a means that does not exploit or take their critical role within service delivery for granted.

Predictors of loss to follow-up among patients on ART at a rural hospital in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

INTRODUCTION

Improved HIV outcomes as a result of expanded antiretroviral therapy (ART) access is threatened by increasing rates of loss to follow up (LTFU) among those on ART, largely reported in urban populations. Some reports suggest that LTFU rates are overestimated due to patient movement to other facilities and inadequate medical records.

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To define the proportion disengaging from HIV care as well as the characteristics of those LTFU in order to design and implement appropriate interventions to increase retention.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of patients who discontinued ART at a central hospital ART clinic in rural South Africa and compared with patients receiving care at the 15 primary health clinics (PHCs) to determine the true proportion of those who were LTFU. We also compared those who discontinued ART with those who did not at the central hospital ART clinic to determine predictors of loss to follow up.

RESULTS

Among 3242 patients on ART, 820 were originally marked as LTFU. Among all patients, 272 (8.4%) were found at a clinic on treatment, 56 (1.7%) were found at a clinic from which they had since discontinued treatment, and 10 (0.3%) returned to care between June and July 2016, leaving 475 (14.7%) unaccounted for and thus categorized as 'true' LTFU. Factors found to be associated with discontinuation include being male, age 18-35, having a CD4 count under 200 cells/μL, and being on ART for under six months.

CONCLUSIONS

Young men with low CD4 counts early after ART initiation are at highest risk of ART disengagement in this rural South African HIV clinic. Novel interventions targeting this group are needed to improve retention in care.

The Health Promotion Model in HIV Care

Un tratamiento médico eficaz con un compromiso ininterrumpido en el cuidado es crítico para mejorar la supervivencia y la calidad de vida de los pacientes infectados con el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH). Objetivos: se han llevado a cabo múltiples intervenciones conductuales para promover comportamientos de adherencia. Sin embargo, la adhesión a los medicamentos contra el VIH y las citas médicas siguen siendo un tema de preocupación mundial. Método: el modelo de promoción de la salud (HPM) es una adaptación de enfermería del modelo de creencias de salud. El HPM se centra en características y experiencias individuales, así como cogniciones y resultados específicos del comportamiento. La integración del HPM en el abordaje de los comportamientos de adherencia podría ser uno de los pilares del éxito en el cambio del comportamiento de la salud. Resultados: una búsqueda en la literatura no mostró ningún estudio que aplicó el HPM en los estudios de comportamiento de adherencia realizados entre las poblaciones infectadas por el VIH. Conclusión: este artículo presenta al lector la disponibilidad de las actuales intervenciones de adherencia-comportamiento y estrategias que se alinean con los componentes del modelo HPM. Además, propone la necesidad de que los miembros del equipo de tratamiento médico adopten el HPM en la práctica clínica actual con el fin de abordar eficazmente los problemas de comportamiento de adherencia.