IL-2 and Beyond in Cancer Immunotherapy

Structural identification and immunostimulatory effect of Bacillus velezensis GV1 polysaccharides via TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in RAW264.7 macrophages

Microbial polysaccharides derived from bacterial sources possess unique properties because of their structural complexity contributing to exceptional characteristics, including potent immunostimulatory effects. In this study, we extracted crude polysaccharide from Bacillus velezensis GV1 (BPS) which was isolated from Korean ginseng vinegar, and subsequently characterized for sugar composition and functional groups using FT-IR and methylation method. Structural analysis indicated that BPS was composed of mannan and glucan in a ratio of 7.5:2.5. The immunostimulatory effect of BPS was investigated in RAW264.7 macrophages. The results revealed that BPS significantly increased NO production, as well as the secretion and expression of key cytokines, such as IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β. These effects were confirmed using a TLR4 antagonist (TAK-242). Moreover, BPS exhibited immunostimulatory potential by promoting the NF-κB signaling pathway. In conclusion, this study establishes a foundation for the potential application of BPS as an immunostimulatory adjuvant or alternative component in functional foods, particularly for enhancing innate immune responses.

Pan-cancer analysis suggests that LY6H is a potential biomarker of diagnosis, immunoinfiltration, and prognosis

LY6H, a member of the lymphocyte antigen-6(LY6) gene family, is located on human chromosomes 6, 8, 11 and 19. This superfamily is characterized by the presence of LU domains. It has demonstrated its emerging significance in various cancers including adenocarcinoma, bladder cancer, ovarian cancer and skin cancer. However, comprehensive pan-cancer analyses have not been conducted to investigate its role in diagnosis, prognosis and immunological prediction. By conducting comprehensive analysis of patient data obtained from publicly available databases, including The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx), University of Alabama at Birmingham (UALCAN), The Comparative Toxicological Genomics Database (CTD), cBioportal, cancerSEA, and UCSC, we systematically investigated the differential expression of LY6H in 33 different types of human tumors. Additionally, we thoroughly analyzed the diagnostic, prognostic, and immunoinfiltration value of LY6H. Simultaneously, we examined the correlation between LY6H and tumor stemness, methylation patterns, drug sensitivity, gene alterations as well as single cell functions. Furthermore, protein-protein interaction networks and gene-gene interaction networks for LY6H were constructed. Moreover, we also explored the network relationship between LY6H and chemical compounds or genes. The results revealed that LY6H exhibited high expression levels in most cancers which were further validated through Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) and Immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis using Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) samples. Moreover, LY6H displayed early diagnostic potential in 12 tumors while also showing positive or negative correlations with prognosis across different tumor types. Additionally, it was found that LY6H played a pivotal role in regulating immune-infiltrating cells across multiple cancers whereas the correlation between LY6H expression and immune-related genes varied depending on their specific types. Furthermore, the expression of LY6H was significantly associated with DNA methylation patterns in 21 cancers. Therefore, LY6H could serve as an adjunctive biomarker for early tumor detection as well as a prognostic indicator for diverse malignancies.

Natural killer cells: a future star for immunotherapy of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

The interplay between immune components and the epithelium plays a crucial role in the development and progression of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Natural killer (NK) cells, one of the main tumor-killing immune cell populations, have received increasing attention in HNSCC immunotherapy. In this review, we explore the mechanism underlying the interplay between NK cells and HNSCC. A series of immune evasion strategies utilized by cancer cells restrict HNSCC infiltration of NK cells. Overcoming these limitations can fully exploit the antineoplastic potential of NK cells. We also investigated the tumor-killing efficacy of NK cell-based immunotherapies, immunotherapeutic strategies, and new results from clinical trials. Notably, cetuximab, the most essential component of NK cell-based immunotherapy, inhibits the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling pathway and activates the immune system in conjunction with NK cells, inducing innate effector functions and improving patient prognosis. In addition, we compiled information on other areas for the improvement of patient prognosis using anti-EGFR receptor-based monoclonal antibody drugs and the underlying mechanisms and prognoses of new immunotherapeutic strategies for the treatment of HNSCC.

Analysis of polyfunctionality for enhanced BAFF-R CAR T-cell therapy for hematologic malignancies

ABSTRACT

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy has emerged as a promising immunotherapeutic strategy for eradicating human cancers. Their therapeutic success and durability of clinical responses hinges, in large part, on their functional capacity, including the ability of these engineered cells to simultaneously expand and persist after infusion into patients. CD19 CAR T-cell polyfunctionality, assessing the simultaneous functions of cytokine production, proliferation, and cytotoxicity has been reported to correlate with clinical outcomes. Assay optimization is potentially limited by the heterogeneous nature of CAR T-cell infusion products and target specificity. We optimized a single-cell platform for polyfunctionality using CAR T-cell products manufactured from healthy donors, engineered against a novel target, B-cell-activating factor receptor (BAFF-R) and validated the protocol using CD19 CAR T cells. We observed distinct qualitative differences between BAFF-R and CD19 CAR T cells relative to the proportions of stimulatory vs effector cytokines, based on target antigen density, and, generally, CD19 CAR T cells exhibited lower indices of polyfunctionality. Finally, we applied our assay to the autologous BAFF-R CAR T-cell product generated from the first patient with non-Hodgkin lymphoma treated in an ongoing clinical trial who had progressed after prior CD19 CAR T-cell therapy. We observed robust indicators of polyfunctionality, which correlated with successful CAR T-cell expansion after infusion and achievement of durable complete remission ongoing after 18 months. The precise identification of factors determining the role of BAFF-R CAR T-cell fitness in toxicity and clinical outcome will require the application of this robust assay in the analysis of additional treated patients. This trial was registered at www.ClinicalTrials.gov as #NCT05370430.

Immune-inflammatory modulation by natural products derived from edible and medicinal herbs used in Chinese classical prescriptions

BACKGROUND

Edible and medicinal herbs1 (EMHs) refer to a class of substances with dual attribution of food and medicine. These substances are traditionally used as food and also listed in many international pharmacopoeias, including the European Pharmacopoeia, the United States Pharmacopoeia, and the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Some classical formulas that are widely used in traditional Chinese medicine include a series of EMHs, which have been shown to be effective with obvious characteristics and advantages. Notably, these EMHs and Chinese classical prescriptions2 (CCPs) have also attracted attention in international herbal medicine research because of their low toxicity and high efficiency as well as the rich body of experience for their long-term clinical use.

PURPOSE

Our purpose is to explore the potential therapeutic effect of EMHs with immune-inflammatory modulation for the study of modern cancer drugs.

STUDY DESIGN

In the present study, we present a detailed account of some EMHs used in CCPs that have shown considerable research potential in studies exploring modern drugs with immune-inflammatory modulation.

METHODS

Approximately 500 publications in the past 30 years were collected from PubMed, Web of Science and ScienceDirect using the keywords, such as natural products, edible and medicinal herbs, Chinese medicine, classical prescription, immune-inflammatory, tumor microenvironment and some related synonyms. The active ingredients instead of herbal extracts or botanical mixtures were focused on and the research conducted over the past decade were discussed emphatically and analyzed comprehensively.

RESULTS

More than ten natural products derived from EMHs used in CCPs are discussed and their immune-inflammatory modulation activities, including enhancing antitumor immunity, regulating inflammatory signaling pathways, lowering the proportion of immunosuppressive cells, inhibiting the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, immunosuppressive factors, and inflammatory mediators, are summarized.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrate the immune-inflammatory modulating role of those EMHs used in CCPs and provide new ideas for cancer treatment in clinical settings.

rhIL-7-hyFc, a long-acting interleukin-7, improves efficacy of CAR-T cell therapy in solid tumors

BACKGROUND

Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy has achieved remarkable remission in patients with B-cell malignancies. However, its efficacy in treating solid tumors remains limited. Here, we investigated a combination therapy approach using an engineered long-acting interleukin (IL)-7 (rhIL-7-hyFc or NT-I7) and CAR-T cells targeting three antigens, glypican-2 (GPC2), glypican-3 (GPC3), and mesothelin (MSLN), against multiple solid tumor types including liver cancer, neuroblastoma, ovarian cancer, and pancreatic cancer in mice.

METHODS

CAR-T cells targeting GPC2, GPC3, and MSLN were used in combination with NT-I7 to assess the anticancer activity. Xenograft tumor models, including the liver cancer orthotopic model, were established using NOD scid gamma mice engrafted with cell lines derived from hepatocellular carcinoma, neuroblastoma, ovarian cancer, and pancreatic cancer. The mice were monitored by bioluminescence in vivo tumor imaging and tumor volume measurement using a caliper. Immunophenotyping of CAR-T cells on NT-I7 stimulation was evaluated for memory markers, exhaust markers, and T-cell signaling molecules by flow cytometry and western blotting.

RESULTS

Compared with the IL-2 combination, preclinical evaluation of NT-I7 exhibited regression of solid tumors via enhanced occupancy of CD4+ CAR-T, improved T-cell expansion, reduced exhaustion markers (programmed cell death protein 1 or PD-1 and lymphocyte-activation gene 3 or LAG-3) expression, and increased generation of stem cell-like memory CAR-T cells. The STAT5 pathway was demonstrated to be downstream of NT-I7 signaling, mediated by increased expression of the IL-7 receptor expression in CAR-T cells. Furthermore, CAR-T cells improved efficacy against tumors with low antigen density when combined with NT-I7 in mice, presenting an avenue for patients with heterogeneous antigenic profiles.

CONCLUSION

This study provides a rationale for NT-I7 plus CAR-T cell combination therapy for solid tumors in humans.

The potential contribution of aberrant cathepsin K expression to gastric cancer pathogenesis

The role of cathepsin K (CTSK) expression in the pathogenesis and progression of gastric cancer (GC) remains unclear. Hence, the primary objective of this study is to elucidate the precise expression and biological role of CTSK in GC by employing a combination of bioinformatics analysis and in vitro experiments. Our findings indicated a significant upregulation of CTSK in GC. The bioinformatics analysis revealed that GC patients with a high level of CTSK expression exhibited enrichment of hallmark gene sets associated with angiogenesis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), inflammatory response, KRAS signaling up, TNFα signaling via KFκB, IL2-STAT5 signaling, and IL6-JAK-STAT3 signaling. Additionally, these patients demonstrated elevated levels of M2-macrophage infiltration, which was also correlated with a poorer prognosis. The results of in vitro experiments provided confirmation that the over-expression of CTSK leads to an increase in the proliferative and invasive abilities of GC cells. However, further evaluation was necessary to determine the impact of CTSK on the migration capability of these cells. Our findings suggested that CTSK has the potential to facilitate the initiation and progression of GC by augmenting the invasive capacity of GC cells, engaging in tumor-associated EMT, and fostering the establishment of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME).

Translational PK/PD and the first-in-human dose selection of a PD1/IL15: an engineered recombinant targeted cytokine for cancer immunotherapy

Introduction

Interleukin 15 (IL-15) is a potential anticancer agent and numerous engineered IL-15 agonists are currently under clinical investigation. Selective targeting of IL-15 to specific lymphocytes may enhance therapeutic effects while helping to minimize toxicities.

Methods

We designed and built a heterodimeric targeted cytokine (TaCk) that consists of an anti-programmed cell death 1 receptor antibody (anti-PD-1) and an engineered IL-15. This "PD1/IL15" selectively delivers IL-15 signaling to lymphocytes expressing PD-1. We then investigated the pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) effects of PD1/IL15 TaCk on immune cell subsets in cynomolgus monkeys after single and repeat intravenous dose administrations. We used these results to determine the first-in-human (FIH) dose and dosing frequency for early clinical trials.

Results

The PD1/IL15 TaCk exhibited a nonlinear multiphasic PK profile, while the untargeted isotype control TaCk, containing an anti-respiratory syncytial virus antibody (RSV/IL15), showed linear and dose proportional PK. The PD1/IL15 TaCk also displayed a considerably prolonged PK (half-life range ∼1.0-4.1 days) compared to wild-type IL-15 (half-life ∼1.1 h), which led to an enhanced cell expansion PD response. The PD was dose-dependent, durable, and selective for PD-1+ lymphocytes. Notably, the dose- and time-dependent PK was attributed to dynamic TMDD resulting from test article-induced lymphocyte expansion upon repeat administration. The recommended first-in-human (FIH) dose of PD1/IL15 TaCk is 0.003 mg/kg, determined based on a minimum anticipated biological effect level (MABEL) approach utilizing a combination of in vitro and preclinical in vivo data.

Conclusion

This work provides insight into the complex PK/PD relationship of PD1/IL15 TaCk in monkeys and informs the recommended starting dose and dosing frequency selection to support clinical evaluation of this novel targeted cytokine.

Mathematical model for IL-2-based cancer immunotherapy

A basic mathematical model for IL-2-based cancer immunotherapy is proposed and studied. Our analysis shows that the outcome of therapy is mainly determined by three parameters, the relative death rate of CD4+ T cells, the relative death rate of CD8+ T cells, and the dose of IL-2 treatment. Minimal equilibrium tumor size can be reached with a large dose of IL-2 in the case that CD4+ T cells die out. However, in cases where CD4+ and CD8+ T cells persist, the final tumor size is independent of the IL-2 dose and is given by the relative death rate of CD4+ T cells. Two groups of in silico clinical trials show some short-term behaviors of IL-2 treatment. IL-2 administration can slow the proliferation of CD4+ T cells, while high doses for a short period of time over several days transiently increase the population of CD8+ T cells during treatment before it recedes to its equilibrium. IL-2 administration for a short period of time over many days suppresses the tumor population for a longer time before approaching its steady-state levels. This implies that intermittent administration of IL-2 may be a good strategy for controlling tumor size.

A workflow for targeted proteomics assay development using a versatile linear ion trap

Advances in proteomics and mass spectrometry have enabled the study of limited cell populations, such as single-cell proteomics, where high-mass accuracy instruments are typically required. While triple quadrupoles offer fast and sensitive nominal resolution measurements, these instruments are effectively limited to targeted proteomics. Linear ion traps (LITs) offer a versatile, cost-effective alternative capable of both targeted and global proteomics. We demonstrate a workflow using a newly released, hybrid quadrupole-LIT instrument for developing targeted proteomics assays from global data-independent acquisition (DIA) measurements without needing high-mass accuracy. Gas-phase fraction-based DIA enables rapid target library generation in the same background chemical matrix as each quantitative injection. Using a new software tool embedded within EncyclopeDIA for scheduling parallel reaction monitoring assays, we show consistent quantification across three orders of magnitude of input material. Using this approach, we demonstrate measuring peptide quantitative linearity down to 25x dilution in a background of only a 1 ng proteome without requiring stable isotope labeled standards. At 1 ng total protein on column, we found clear consistency between immune cell populations measured using flow cytometry and immune markers measured using LIT-based proteomics. We believe hybrid quadrupole-LIT instruments represent an economic solution to democratizing mass spectrometry in a wide variety of laboratory settings.

Armed with IL-2 based fusion protein improves CAR-T cell fitness and efficacy against solid tumors

Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy is regarded as a potent immunotherapy and has made significant success in hematologic malignancies by eliciting antigen-specific immune responses. However, response rates of CAR-T cell therapy against solid tumors with immunosuppressive microenvironments remain limited. Co-engineering strategies are advancing methods to overcome immunosuppressive barriers and enhance antitumor responses. Here, we engineered an IL-2 mutein co-engineered CAR-T for the improvement of CAR-T cells against solid tumors and the efficient inhibition of solid tumors. We equipped the CAR-T cells with co-expressing both tumor antigen-targeted CAR and a mutated human interleukin-2 (IL-2m), conferring enhanced CAR-T cells fitness in vitro, reshaped immune-excluded TME, enhanced CAR-T infiltration in solid tumors, and improved tumor control without significant systemic toxicity. Overall, this subject demonstrates the universal CAR-T cells armed strategy for the development and optimization of CAR-T cells against solid tumors.

Immunotherapy of Clear-Cell Renal-Cell Carcinoma

Clear-cell Renal-Cell Carcinoma (ccRCC) is the most common type of renal-cell carcinoma (RCC). In many cases, RCC patients manifest the first symptoms during the advanced stage of the disease. For this reason, immunotherapy appears to be one of the dominant treatments to achieve a resolution. In this review, we focus on the presentation of the main immune checkpoint proteins that act as negative regulators of immune responses, such as PD-1, CTLA-4, LAG-3, TIGIT, and TIM-3, and their respective inhibitors. Interleukin-2, another potential component of the treatment of ccRCC patients, has also been covered. The synergy between several immunotherapies is one of the main aspects that unites the conclusions of research in recent years. To date, the combination of several immunotherapies enhances the efficacy of a monotherapy, which often manifests important limitations. Immunotherapy aimed at restoring the anti-cancer immune response in ccRCC, involved in the recognition and elimination of cancer cells, may also be a valid solution for many other types of immunogenic tumors that are diagnosed in the final stages.

Promising Cytokine Adjuvants for Enhancing Tuberculosis Vaccine Immunity

Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis), remains a formidable global health challenge, affecting a substantial portion of the world's population. The current tuberculosis vaccine, bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG), offers limited protection against pulmonary tuberculosis in adults, underscoring the critical need for innovative vaccination strategies. Cytokines are pivotal in modulating immune responses and have been explored as potential adjuvants to enhance vaccine efficacy. The strategic inclusion of cytokines as adjuvants in tuberculosis vaccines holds significant promise for augmenting vaccine-induced immune responses and strengthening protection against M. tuberculosis. This review delves into promising cytokines, such as Type I interferons (IFNs), Type II IFN, interleukins such as IL-2, IL-7, IL-15, IL-12, and IL-21, alongside the use of a granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) as an adjuvant, which has shown effectiveness in boosting immune responses and enhancing vaccine efficacy in tuberculosis models.

Self-Assembly Study of Block Copolypeptoids in Response to pH and Temperature Stimulation

Polypeptoids with well-designed structures have the ability to self-assemble into nanomaterials, which have wide potential applications. In this study, a series of diblock copolypeptoids were synthesized via ring-opening polymerization followed by click chemistry and exhibited both temperature and pH stimulation responsiveness. Under specific temperature and pH conditions, the responsive blocks in the copolypeptoids became hydrophobic and aggregated to form micelles. The self-assembly process was monitored using the UV-Vis and DLS methods, which suggested the reversible transition of free molecules to micelles and bigger aggregates upon instituting temperature and pH changes. By altering the length and proportion of each block, the copolypeptoids displayed varying self-assembly characteristics, and the transition temperature could be tuned. With good biocompatibility, stability, and no cytotoxicity, the polypeptoids reported in this study are expected to be applied as bionanomaterials in fields including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and intelligent biosensing.

Lactococcus lactis as an Interleukin Delivery System for Prophylaxis and Treatment of Inflammatory and Autoimmune Diseases

Target delivery of therapeutic agents with anti-inflammatory properties using probiotics as delivery and recombinant protein expression vehicles is a promising approach for the prevention and treatment of many diseases, such as cancer and intestinal immune disorders. Lactococcus lactis, a Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) widely used in the dairy industry, is one of the most important microorganisms with GRAS status for human consumption, for which biotechnological tools have already been developed to express and deliver recombinant biomolecules with anti-inflammatory properties. Cytokines, for  example, are immune system communication molecules present at virtually all levels of the immune response. They are essential in cellular and humoral processes, such as hampering inflammation or adjuvating in the adaptive immune response, making them good candidates for therapeutic approaches. This review discusses the advances in the development of new therapies and prophylactic approaches using LAB to deliver/express cytokines for the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases in the future.

Influence of Microbiota on Tumor Immunotherapy

The role of the microbiome in immunotherapy has recently garnered substantial attention, with molecular studies and clinical trials providing emerging evidence on the pivotal influence of the microbiota in enhancing therapeutic outcomes via immune response modulation. However, the impact of microbial communities can considerably vary across individuals and different immunotherapeutic approaches, posing prominent challenges in harnessing their potential. In this comprehensive review, we outline the current research applications in tumor immunotherapy and delve into the possible mechanisms through which immune function is influenced by microbial communities in various body sites, encompassing those in the gut, extraintestinal barrier, and intratumoral environment. Furthermore, we discuss the effects of diverse microbiome-based strategies, including probiotics, prebiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation, and the targeted modulation of specific microbial taxa, and antibiotic treatments on cancer immunotherapy. All these strategies potentially have a profound impact on immunotherapy and pave the way for personalized therapeutic approaches and predictive biomarkers.

Is There a Current Role for Combination Chemotherapy or High-Dose Interleukin 2 in Melanoma?

ABSTRACT

Immune checkpoint inhibition and targeted therapies have revolutionized the treatment of melanoma. However, chemotherapy and interleukin 2 (IL-2) therapy may still have a role in the later-line treatment of patients who do not have durable responses to other treatments. Chemotherapy can work transiently in patients whose disease has progressed on immune checkpoint inhibitors and for whom there are no appropriate targeted therapy options. High-dose IL-2 therapy can still be effective for a very small number of patients following progression on other therapies. In addition, modified IL-2 agents and IL-2 in combination with tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte therapy may play a role in future treatments for melanoma.

Overview of tumor immunotherapy based on approved drugs

Tumor immunotherapy has become a new hotspot for cancer treatment. Various immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors, oncolytic viruses (OVs), cytokines, and cancer vaccines, have been used to treat tumors. They operate through different mechanisms, along with certain toxicities and side effects. Understanding the mechanisms by which immunotherapy modulates the immune system is essential for improving the efficacy and managing these adverse effects. This article discusses various currently approved cancer immunotherapy mechanisms and related agents approved by the Food and Drug Administration, the European Medicines Agency, and the Medicines and Medical Devices Agency. We also review the latest progress in immune drugs approved by the National Medical Products Administration, including monoclonal antibodies, cytokines, OVs, and chimeric antigen receptor-T cell therapy, to help understand the clinical application of tumor immunotherapy.

Preoperative Management of the Adult Oncology Patient

Anesthesiologists are experiencing first-hand the aging population, given older patients more frequently presenting for surgery, often with geriatric syndromes influencing their anesthetic management. The overall incidence and health burden of cancer morbidity and mortality are also rapidly increasing worldwide. This growth in the cancer population, along with the associated risk factors and comorbidities often accompanying a cancer diagnosis, underscores the need for anesthesiologists to become well versed in the preoperative evaluation and management of the adult patient with cancer. This article will focus on the unique challenges and opportunities for the anesthesiologist caring for the adult oncology patient presenting for surgery.

The Chemokine CXCL14 as a Potential Immunotherapeutic Agent for Cancer Therapy

There is great enthusiasm toward the development of novel immunotherapies for the treatment of cancer, and given their roles in immune system regulation, chemokines stand out as promising candidates for use in new cancer therapies. Many previous studies have shown how chemokine signaling pathways could be targeted to halt cancer progression. We and others have revealed that the chemokine CXCL14 promotes antitumor immune responses, suggesting that CXCL14 may be effective for cancer immunotherapy. However, it is still unknown what mechanism governs CXCL14-mediated antitumor activity, how to deliver CXCL14, what dose to apply, and what combinations with existing therapy may boost antitumor immune responses in cancer patients. Here, we provide updates on the role of CXCL14 in cancer progression and discuss the potential development and application of CXCL14 as an immunotherapeutic agent.

Pan-cancer scRNA-seq analysis reveals immunological and diagnostic significance of the peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) reflect systemic immune response during cancer progression. However, a comprehensive understanding of the composition and function of PBMCs in cancer patients is lacking, and the potential of these features to assist cancer diagnosis is also unclear. Here, the compositional and status differences between cancer patients and healthy donors in PBMCs were investigated by single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), involving 262,025 PBMCs from 68 cancer samples and 14 healthy samples. We observed an enhanced activation and differentiation of most immune subsets in cancer patients, along with reduction of naïve T cells, expansion of macrophages, impairment of NK cells and myeloid cells, as well as tumor promotion and immunosuppression. Based on characteristics including differential cell type abundances and/or hub genes identified from weight gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) modules of each major cell type, we applied logistic regression to construct cancer diagnosis models. Furthermore, we found that the above models can distinguish cancer patients and healthy donors with high sensitivity. Our study provided new insights into using the features of PBMCs in non-invasive cancer diagnosis.

Targeting anticancer immunity in oral cancer: Drugs, products, and nanoparticles

Oral cavity carcinomas are the most frequent malignancies among head and neck malignancies. Oral tumors include not only oral cancer cells with different potency and stemness but also consist of diverse cells, containing anticancer immune cells, stromal and also immunosuppressive cells that influence the immune system reactions. The infiltrated T and natural killer (NK) cells are the substantial tumor-suppressive immune compartments in the tumor. The infiltration of these cells has substantial impacts on the response of tumors to immunotherapy, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Nevertheless, cancer cells, stromal cells, and some other compartments like regulatory T cells (Tregs), macrophages, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) can repress the immune responses against malignant cells. Boosting anticancer immunity by inducing the immune system or repressing the tumor-promoting cells is one of the intriguing approaches for the eradication of malignant cells such as oral cancers. This review aims to concentrate on the secretions and interactions in the oral tumor immune microenvironment. We review targeting tumor stroma, immune system and immunosuppressive interactions in oral tumors. This review will also focus on therapeutic targets and therapeutic agents such as nanoparticles and products with anti-tumor potency that can boost anticancer immunity in oral tumors. We also explain possible future perspectives including delivery of various cells, natural products and drugs by nanoparticles for boosting anticancer immunity in oral tumors.

Phase 1 first-in-human dose-escalation study of ANV419 in patients with relapsed/refractory advanced solid tumors

BACKGROUND

ANV419 is a stable antibody-cytokine fusion protein consisting of interleukin-2 (IL-2) fused to an anti-IL-2 monoclonal antibody that sterically hinders binding of IL-2 to the α subunit of its receptor but has selective affinity for the receptor βγ subunits. Thus, ANV419 preferentially stimulates CD8+ effector T cells and natural killer cells which are associated with tumor killing, while minimizing the activation of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells.

METHODS

ANV419-001 is an open-label, multicenter, phase 1 study to evaluate the safety, tolerability, maximum tolerated dose (MTD) and recommended phase 2 dose (RP2D) of ANV419. Secondary objectives were to characterize the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and tumor response. Adult patients with advanced solid tumors and disease progression after ≥1 previous line of systemic therapy were enrolled. ANV419 was administered by intravenous infusion once every 2 weeks, with a planned treatment duration of 12 months. The dose escalation part of the study explored doses 3, 6 and 12 µg/kg as single patient cohorts followed by 24-364 µg/kg in a 3+3 design. Interim results are reported here (data cut-off: March 22, 2023).

RESULTS

Forty patients were enrolled and received at least one dose of ANV419. The MTD and RP2D were determined to be 243 µg/kg. The most common ANV419-related treatment-emergent adverse events were Grade 1 and 2 fever (31 (77.5%)), chills (23 (57.5%), vomiting (14 (35.0%)), cytokine release syndrome and nausea (12 (30.0%) each). Transient and self-limiting lymphopenia due to lymphocyte redistribution was observed in all patients. In the RP2D cohort, Grade ≥3 thrombocytopenia and fever were reported by one patient (12.5%) each. All events were manageable with standard supportive care. At doses of 243 µg/kg (RP2D/MTD), the estimated T1/2 was approximately 12 hours. At ANV419 doses ≥108 µg/kg, 64% of patients had a best response of at least SD (15 SD and 1 confirmed PR).

CONCLUSIONS

ANV419 at doses up to 243 µg/kg (the RP2D) was well tolerated and showed signs of antitumor activity in a heavily pretreated patient population with advanced solid tumors.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT04855929.

Cytokine Gene Vaccine Therapy for Treatment of a Brain Tumor

A glioma is a malignant brain tumor with a poor prognosis. Attempts at the surgical removal of the tumor are the first approach, but additional treatment strategies, including radiation therapy and systemic or local chemotherapy, are necessary. Furthermore, the treatments are often associated with significant adverse side effects. Normal and malignant cells generally have antigenic differences, and this is the rationale for clinical immunotherapeutic strategies. Cytokines such as IL-15 or IL-2, which stimulate an anti-tumor immune response, have been shown to have a particularly high potential for use in immunotherapy against various tumors. In this review, treatments with either a poxvirus, genetically engineered to secrete IL-15, or allogeneic fibroblasts, transfected with tumor DNA and engineered to secrete IL-2, are shown to be effective strategies in extending the survival of mice with malignant brain tumors upon intracerebral injection of the treatment cells. Future studies with these treatment strategies in patients with intracerebral tumors are urgently needed.

The prognostic role of gene polymorphisms in patients with indolent non-Hodgkin lymphomas and mantle-cell lymphoma receiving bendamustine and rituximab: results of the 5-year follow-up study

The variability in disease outcome for indolent non-Hodgkin lymphomas (iNHL) and mantle-cell lymphoma (MCL) could be related to single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes that affect immune and inflammatory response. We investigated SNPs that could have a prognostic role for patients receiving bendamustine and rituximab (BR). All samples were genotyped for the IL-2 (rs2069762), IL-10 (rs1800890, rs10494879), VEGFA (rs3025039), IL-8 (rs4073), CFH (rs1065489) and MTHFR (rs1801131) SNPs by allelic discrimination assays using TaqMan SNP Genotyping Assays. We report a long-term follow-up analysis of 79 iNHL and MCL patients that received BR. Overall response rate was 97.5% (CR rate 70.9%). After a median follow-up of 63 months, median PFS and OS were not reached. We report a significant association between SNP in IL-2 (rs2069762) and reduced PFS and OS (p<.0001). We suggest a role for cytokine SNPs in disease outcome, while SNPs seem not related to long-term toxicity or secondary malignancies.

Regulating the regulatory T cells as cell therapies in autoimmunity and cancer

Regulatory T cells (Tregs), possess a pivotal function in the maintenance of immune homeostasis. The dysregulated activity of Tregs has been associated with the onset of autoimmune diseases and cancer. Hence, Tregs are promising targets for interventions aimed at steering the immune response toward the desired path, either by augmenting the immune system to eliminate infected and cancerous cells or by dampening it to curtail the damage to self-tissues in autoimmune disorders. The activation of Tregs has been observed to have a potent immunosuppressive effect against T cells that respond to self-antigens, thus safeguarding our body against autoimmunity. Therefore, promoting Treg cell stability presents a promising strategy for preventing or managing chronic inflammation that results from various autoimmune diseases. On the other hand, Tregs have been found to be overactivated in several forms of cancer, and their role as immune response regulators with immunosuppressive properties poses a significant impediment to the successful implementation of cancer immunotherapy. However, the targeting of Tregs in a systemic manner may lead to the onset of severe inflammation and autoimmune toxicity. It is imperative to develop more selective methods for targeting the function of Tregs in tumors. In this review, our objective is to elucidate the function of Tregs in tumors and autoimmunity while also delving into numerous therapeutic strategies for reprogramming their function. Our focus is on reprogramming Tregs in a highly activated phenotype driven by the activation of key surface receptors and metabolic reprogramming. Furthermore, we examine Treg-based therapies in autoimmunity, with a specific emphasis on Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR)-Treg therapy and T-cell receptor (TCR)-Treg therapy. Finally, we discuss key challenges and the future steps in reprogramming Tregs that could lead to the development of novel and effective cancer immunotherapies.

Immunotherapy during the Immediate Perioperative Period: A Promising Approach against Metastatic Disease

Tumor excision is a necessary life-saving procedure in most solid cancers. However, surgery and the days before and following it, known as the immediate perioperative period (IPP), entail numerous prometastatic processes, including the suppression of antimetastatic immunity and direct stimulation of minimal residual disease (MRD). Thus, the IPP is pivotal in determining long-term cancer outcomes, presenting a short window of opportunity to circumvent perioperative risk factors by employing several therapeutic approaches, including immunotherapy. Nevertheless, immunotherapy is rarely examined or implemented during this short timeframe, due to both established and hypothetical contraindications to surgery. Herein, we analyze how various aspects of the IPP promote immunosuppression and progression of MRD, and how potential IPP application of immunotherapy may interact with these deleterious processes. We discuss the feasibility and safety of different immunotherapies during the IPP with a focus on the latest approaches of immune checkpoint inhibition. Last, we address the few past and ongoing clinical trials that exploit the IPP timeframe for anticancer immunotherapy. Accordingly, we suggest that several specific immunotherapies can be safely and successfully applied during the IPP, alone or with supporting interventions, which may improve patients' resistance to MRD and overall survival.

Reigniting hope in cancer treatment: the promise and pitfalls of IL-2 and IL-2R targeting strategies

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) and its receptor (IL-2R) are essential in orchestrating immune responses. Their function and expression in the tumor microenvironment make them attractive targets for immunotherapy, leading to the development of IL-2/IL-2R-targeted therapeutic strategies. However, the dynamic interplay between IL-2/IL-2R and various immune cells and their dual roles in promoting immune activation and tolerance presents a complex landscape for clinical exploitation. This review discusses the pivotal roles of IL-2 and IL-2R in tumorigenesis, shedding light on their potential as diagnostic and prognostic markers and their therapeutic manipulation in cancer. It underlines the necessity to balance the anti-tumor activity with regulatory T-cell expansion and evaluates strategies such as dose optimization and selective targeting for enhanced therapeutic effectiveness. The article explores recent advancements in the field, including developing genetically engineered IL-2 variants, combining IL-2/IL-2R-targeted therapies with other cancer treatments, and the potential benefits of a multidimensional approach integrating molecular profiling, immunological analyses, and clinical data. The review concludes that a deeper understanding of IL-2/IL-2R interactions within the tumor microenvironment is crucial for realizing the full potential of IL-2-based therapies, heralding the promise of improved outcomes for cancer patients.

Clinical and molecular overview of immunotherapeutic approaches for malignant skin melanoma: Past, present and future

Traditional therapeutic approaches for malignant melanoma, have proved to be limited and/or ineffective, especially with respect to their role in improving patient survival and tumor recurrence. In this regard, immunotherapy has been demonstrated to be a promising therapeutic alternative, boosting antitumor responses through the modulation of cell signaling pathways involved in the effector mechanisms of the immune system, particularly, the so-called "immunological checkpoints". Clinical studies on the efficacy and safety of immunotherapeutic regimens, alone or in combination with other antitumor approaches, have increased dramatically in recent decades, with very encouraging results. Hence, this review will discuss the current immunotherapeutic regimens used to treat malignant melanoma, as well as the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved. In addition, current clinical studies that have investigated the use, efficacy, and adverse events of immunotherapy in melanoma will also be discussed.

Synergistic effects of combined immunotherapy strategies in a model of multifocal hepatocellular carcinoma

Immune checkpoint-inhibitor combinations are the best therapeutic option for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients, but improvements in efficacy are needed to improve response rates. We develop a multifocal HCC model to test immunotherapies by introducing c-myc using hydrodynamic gene transfer along with CRISPR-Cas9-mediated disruption of p53 in mouse hepatocytes. Additionally, induced co-expression of luciferase, EGFP, and the melanosomal antigen gp100 facilitates studies on the underlying immunological mechanisms. We show that treatment of the mice with a combination of anti-CTLA-4 + anti-PD1 mAbs results in partial clearance of the tumor with an improvement in survival. However, the addition of either recombinant IL-2 or an anti-CD137 mAb markedly improves both outcomes in these mice. Combining tumor-specific adoptive T cell therapy to the aCTLA-4/aPD1/rIL2 or aCTLA-4/aPD1/aCD137 regimens enhances efficacy in a synergistic manner. As shown by multiplex tissue immunofluorescence and intravital microscopy, combined immunotherapy treatments enhance T cell infiltration and the intratumoral performance of T lymphocytes.

Immunotherapy of Equine Sarcoids—From Early Approaches to Innovative Vaccines

Horses and other equid species are frequently affected by bovine papillomavirus type 1 and/or 2 (BPV1, BPV2)-induced skin tumors termed sarcoids. Although sarcoids do not metastasize, they constitute a serious health problem due to their BPV1/2-mediated resistance to treatment and propensity to recrudesce in a more severe, multiple form following accidental or iatrogenic trauma. This review provides an overview on BPV1/2 infection and associated immune escape in the equid host and presents early and recent immunotherapeutic approaches in sarcoid management.

Analyzing the mechanism by which oyster peptides target IL-2 in melanoma cell apoptosis based on RNA-seq and m6A-seq

Melanoma is a kind of skin cancer with high malignancy and strong proliferation and invasion abilities. Chemotherapy drugs in the clinic have the disadvantages of high price and high toxicity. Peptides are natural active ingredients that have many functions and are safe and effective. Previous studies have shown that oysters are rich in protein and have antitumor effects. In this study, a high-throughput strategy combined with MALDI TOF/TOF-MS and molecular docking was developed to screen peptides with antitumor functions from oyster hydrolysate. Three dominant peptides were predicted to have similar functions to IL-2 via molecular docking. Then, the activity of the peptides was confirmed in B16 cells, and we found that the three peptides increased the apoptosis of B16 cells. Furthermore, via RNA-seq and m6A-seq of B16 cells treated with the peptides, we found that ILADSAPR downregulates the expression of Pcna, Tlr4, and Ncbp2 and upregulates the expression of Bax, Bad, Pak4, Rasa2, Cct6, and Gbp2. ILADSAPR inhibited B16 cell proliferation and promoted cell apoptosis by regulating the expression of these genes. In addition, the result of metabolic pathway analysis also proved this point. This study provides a preliminary reference for antitumor research on oyster peptides.

Advances in Intralesional Therapy for Locoregionally Advanced and Metastatic Melanoma: Five Years of Progress

Locoregionally advanced and metastatic melanoma are complex diagnoses with a variety of available treatment options. Intralesional therapy for melanoma has been under investigation for decades; however, it has advanced precipitously in recent years. In 2015, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), the only FDA-approved intralesional therapy for advanced melanoma. There has been significant progress since that time with other oncolytic viruses, toll-like receptor agonists, cytokines, xanthene dyes, and immune checkpoint inhibitors all under investigation as intralesional agents. Further to this, there has been exploration of numerous combinations of intralesional therapies and systemic therapies as various lines of therapy. Several of these combinations have been abandoned due to their lack of efficacy or safety concerns. This manuscript presents the various types of intralesional therapies that have reached phase 2 or later clinical trials in the past 5 years, including their mechanism of action, therapeutic combinations under investigation, and published results. The intention is to provide an overview of the progress that has been made, discuss ongoing trials worth following, and share our opinions on opportunities for further advancement.

Dietary omega-3 fatty acids and endometrial cancer risk in the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium: An individual-participant meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Limited data from prospective studies suggest that higher dietary intake of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCn3PUFA), which hold anti-inflammatory properties, may reduce endometrial cancer risk; particularly among certain subgroups characterized by body mass and tumor pathology.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data from 12 prospective cohort studies participating in the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium were harmonized as nested case-control studies, including 7268 endometrial cancer cases and 26,133 controls. Habitual diet was assessed by food frequency questionnaire, from which fatty acid intakes were estimated. Two-stage individual-participant data mixed effects meta-analysis estimated adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) through logistic regression for associations between study-specific energy-adjusted quartiles of LCn3PUFA and endometrial cancer risk.

RESULTS

Women with the highest versus lowest estimated dietary intakes of docosahexaenoic acid, the most abundant LCn3PUFA in diet, had a 9% increased endometrial cancer risk (Quartile 4 vs. Quartile 1: OR 1.09, 95% CI: 1.01-1.19; P trend = 0.04). Similar elevated risks were observed for the summary measure of total LCn3PUFA (OR 1.07, 95% CI: 0.99-1.16; P trend = 0.06). Stratified by body mass index, higher intakes of LCn3PUFA were associated with 12-19% increased endometrial cancer risk among overweight/obese women and no increased risk among normal-weight women. Higher associations appeared restricted to White women. The results did not differ by cancer grade.

CONCLUSION

Higher dietary intakes of LCn3PUFA are unlikely to reduce endometrial cancer incidence; rather, they may be associated with small to moderate increases in risk in some subgroups of women, particularly overweight/obese women.

Cell Immunotherapy against Melanoma: Clinical Trials Review

Melanoma is one of the most aggressive and therapy-resistant types of cancer, the incidence rate of which grows every year. However, conventional methods of chemo- and radiotherapy do not allow for completely removing neoplasm, resulting in local, regional, and distant relapses. In this case, adjuvant therapy can be used to reduce the risk of recurrence. One of the types of maintenance cancer therapy is cell-based immunotherapy, in which immune cells, such as T-cells, NKT-cells, B cells, NK cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells are used to recognize and mobilize the immune system to kill cancer cells. These cells can be isolated from the patient's peripheral blood or biopsy material and genetically modified, cultured ex vivo, following infusion back into the patient for powerful induction of an anti-tumor immune response. In this review, the advantages and problems of the most relevant methods of cell-based therapy and ongoing clinical trials of adjuvant therapy of melanoma are discussed.

Targeted Cytokine Delivery for Cancer Treatment: Engineering and Biological Effects

Anti-tumor properties of several cytokines have already been investigated in multiple experiments and clinical trials. However, those studies evidenced substantial toxicities, even at low cytokine doses, and the lack of tumor specificity. These factors significantly limit clinical applications. Due to their high specificity and affinity, tumor-specific monoclonal antibodies or their antigen-binding fragments are capable of delivering fused cytokines to tumors and, therefore, of decreasing the number and severity of side effects, as well as of enhancing the therapeutic index. The present review surveys the actual antibody-cytokine fusion protein (immunocytokine) formats, their targets, mechanisms of action, and anti-tumor and other biological effects. Special attention is paid to the formats designed to prevent the off-target cytokine-receptor interactions, potentially inducing side effects. Here, we describe preclinical and clinical data and the efficacy of the antibody-mediated cytokine delivery approach, either as a single therapy or in combination with other agents.

Mutations Status of NOTCH Signaling Pathway Predict Prognosis of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Colorectal Cancer

Purpose

In recent years, tumour immunotherapy has ushered in a new era of oncology treatment. However, the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in the treatment of CRC remains limited. There is an urgent clinical need for precise biomarkers that can aid in the screening and treatment of CRC subtypes. Therefore, we focused on the NOTCH pathway mutation status and conducted a systematic analysis for its predictive value of ICI therapy efficacy.

Methods

We collected mutational and clinical data from cohorts of CRC patients treated with ICIs. The relationship between NOTCH pathway mutations (NOTCH-MT) and CRC immunotherapy prognosis was analysed using univariate and multivariate Cox regression models. CRC cohort data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database were combined to obtain a comprehensive overview of immunogenicity and tumour microenvironment (TME) differences among different NOTCH pathway mutation statuses.

Results

We observed greater infiltration of M1 macrophages, CD8+ T cells, neutrophils, and activated natural killer (NK) cells with NOTCH-MT status. Immunogenicity was also significantly higher in patients with NOTCH-MT, as were tumour mutational burden (TMB), neoantigen load (NAL), and the number of mutations in DNA damage repair (DDR) pathways.

Conclusion

NOTCH-MT status was strongly associated with the prognosis of CRC patients treated with ICIs and is expected to serve as a novel biomarker and therapeutic target for CRC.

Patient-derived xenografts or organoids in the discovery of traditional and self-assembled drug for tumor immunotherapy

In addition to the rapid development of immune checkpoint inhibitors, there has also been a surge in the development of self-assembly immunotherapy drugs. Based on the immune target, traditional tumor immunotherapy drugs are classified into five categories, namely immune checkpoint inhibitors, direct immune modulators, adoptive cell therapy, oncolytic viruses, and cancer vaccines. Additionally, the emergence of self-assembled drugs with improved precision and environmental sensitivity offers a promising innovation approach to tumor immunotherapy. Despite rapid advances in tumor immunotherapy drug development, all candidate drugs require preclinical evaluation for safety and efficacy, and conventional evaluations are primarily conducted using two-dimensional cell lines and animal models, an approach that may be unsuitable for immunotherapy drugs. The patient-derived xenograft and organoids models, however, maintain the heterogeneity and immunity of the pathological tumor heterogeneity.

CD8+ T cell exhaustion in anti-tumour immunity: The new insights for cancer immunotherapy

CD8⁺ T cells play a crucial role in anti-tumour immunity, but they often undergo exhaustion, which affects the anti-tumour activity of CD8⁺ T cells. The effect and mechanism of exhausted CD8⁺ T cells have become the focus of anti-tumour immunity research. Recently, a large number of studies have confirmed that long-term antigen exposure can induce exhaustion. Cytokines previously have identified their effects (such as IL-2 and IL-10) may play a dual role in the exhaustion process of CD8⁺ T cells, suggesting a new mechanism of inducing exhaustion. This review just focuses our current understanding of the biology of exhausted CD8⁺ T cells, including differentiation pathways, cellular characteristics and signalling pathways involved in inducing exhaustion, and summarizes how these can be applied to tumour immunotherapy.

The application of Interleukin-2 family cytokines in tumor immunotherapy research

The Interleukin-2 Family contains six kinds of cytokines, namely IL-2, IL-15, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, and IL-21, all of which share a common γ chain. Many cytokines of the IL-2 family have been reported to be a driving force in immune cells activation. Therefore, researchers have tried various methods to study the anti-tumor effect of cytokines for a long time. However, due to the short half-life, poor stability, easy to lead to inflammatory storms and narrow safety treatment window of cytokines, this field has been tepid. In recent years, with the rapid development of protein engineering technology, some engineered cytokines have a significant effect in tumor immunotherapy, showing an irresistible trend of development. In this review, we will discuss the current researches of the IL-2 family and mainly focus on the application and achievements of engineered cytokines in tumor immunotherapy.

The emerging role of regulatory cell-based therapy in autoimmune disease

Autoimmune disease, caused by unwanted immune responses to self-antigens, affects millions of people each year and poses a great social and economic burden to individuals and communities. In the course of autoimmune disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, type 1 diabetes mellitus, and multiple sclerosis, disturbances in the balance between the immune response against harmful agents and tolerance towards self-antigens lead to an immune response against self-tissues. In recent years, various regulatory immune cells have been identified. Disruptions in the quality, quantity, and function of these cells have been implicated in autoimmune disease development. Therefore, targeting or engineering these cells is a promising therapeutic for different autoimmune diseases. Regulatory T cells, regulatory B cells, regulatory dendritic cells, myeloid suppressor cells, and some subsets of innate lymphoid cells are arising as important players among this class of cells. Here, we review the roles of each suppressive cell type in the immune system during homeostasis and in the development of autoimmunity. Moreover, we discuss the current and future therapeutic potential of each one of these cell types for autoimmune diseases.

Pro- and Anti-Tumoral Factors Involved in Total Body Irradiation and Interleukin-2 Conditioning in Adoptive T Cell Therapy of Melanoma-Bearing Rag1 Knock-Out Mice

In adoptive T cell therapy (ACT), the transfer of tumor-specific T cells is paralleled by the conditioning regimen to increase therapeutic efficacy. Pre-conditioning depletes immune-suppressive cells and post-conditioning increases homeostatic signals to improve the persistence of administered T cells. Identifying the favorable immunological factors involved in a conditioning regimen is important to design effective strategies in ACT. Here, by using an ACT model of murine melanoma, we evaluate the effect of the total body irradiation (TBI) and interleukin-2 (IL-2) treatment combination. The use of a Rag1 knock-out strain, which lacks endogenous T cells, enables the identification of factors in a way that focuses more on transferred T cells. We demonstrate that the TBI/IL-2 combination has no additive effect in ACT, although each conditioning improves the therapeutic outcome. While the combination increases the frequency of transferred T cells in lymphoid and tumor tissues, the activation intensity of the cells is reduced compared to that of the sole TBI treatment. Notably, we show that in the presence of TBI, the IL-2 treatment reduces the frequency of intra-tumoral dendritic cells, which are crucial for T cell activation. The current study provides insights into the immunological events involved in the TBI/IL-2 combination in ACT.

Harnessing NK Cells to Control Metastasis

In recent years, tumor immunotherapy has produced remarkable results in tumor treatment. Nevertheless, its effects are severely limited in patients with low or absent pre-existing T cell immunity. Accordingly, metastasis remains the major cause of tumor-associated death. On the other hand, natural killer (NK) cells have the unique ability to recognize and rapidly act against tumor cells and surveil tumor cell dissemination. The role of NK cells in metastasis prevention is undisputable as an increase in the number of these cells mostly leads to a favorable prognosis. Hence, it is reasonable to consider that successful metastasis involves evasion of NK-cell-mediated immunosurveillance. Therefore, harnessing NK cells to control metastasis is promising. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are the seeds for distant metastasis, and the number of CTCs detected in the blood of patients with tumor is associated with a worse prognosis, whereas NK cells can eliminate highly motile CTCs especially in the blood. Here, we review the role of NK cells during metastasis, particularly the specific interactions of NK cells with CTCs, which may provide essential clues on how to harness the power of NK cells against tumor metastasis. As a result, a new way to prevent or treat metastatic tumor may be developed.

Machine learning based identification of hub genes in renal clear cell carcinoma using multi-omics data

Renal cell carcinoma is one of the most universal urinary system cancers in the world. The most common renal cell carcinoma subtype is renal clear cell carcinoma. It is usually associated with high rates of metastasis and mortality. Therefore, finding effective therapeutic targets and prognostic molecular markers is of great significance to improve the early diagnosis rate and prognostic accuracy of renal clear cell carcinoma. In this work, we successfully identified six hub genes that are closely related to the occurrence, development and prognosis of renal clear cell carcinoma and proposed three new potential prognostic markers, namely ATP4B, AC144831.1 and Tfcp2l1 through differentially expressed genes (DEGs) analysis, GO functional enrichment and KEGG pathway analysis, WGCNA analysis, and survival analysis. In addition, we established machine learning models to predict the occurrence of tumors through the gene expression data of patients. It is expected that the results of this study can provide reference value for the treatment of renal clear cell carcinoma.

In situ release of IL-2/IL-12 from SiO2-engineered dendritic cells for synergistic immunotherapy

Herein, a synergistic therapy strategy of cytokine and dendritic cell (DC) vaccine was developed via the chemical conjugation of cytokine-loaded SiO₂ directly on the plasma membrane of DCs. Firstly, IL-2/IL-12-loaded SiO₂ was prepared and modified with MAL-PEG-NHS, and then coupled on the membrane of mature DCs through the coupling of -MAL and -SH groups. The large surface area and bimodal pores of SiO₂ endowed it with high cytokine loading capacity and entrapment efficiency (EE%), with EE_IL-2% of 95.8% and EE_IL-12% of 86.4%. SiO₂ was stably attached to the surface of DCs, and thus not internalized by mature DCs, and the SiO₂ conjugation blocked only 4.37% of the total available cell surface thiol groups. After SiO₂ attachment, the cell viability, membrane integrity and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) of DCs were not affected. Furthermore, this strategy avoids the systemic toxicity of cytokines and improves the ability of DCs to target lymph nodes. IL-2 and IL-12 were only released locally around DCs, enabling the pseudo-autocrine stimulation of the transferred DCs in vivo. Moreover, the long-term anti-tumor protection in a B16 tumor model was demonstrated. This strategy is a facile and generalizable dendritic cell-based cancer immunotherapy strategy to augment bioavailability, while minimizing the side effects of cytokines.

Stem Cell Therapy and Innate Lymphoid Cells

Innate lymphoid cells have the capability to communicate with other immune cell types to coordinate the immune system functioning during homeostasis and inflammation. However, these cells behave differently at the functional level, unlike T cells, these cells do not need antigen receptors for activation because they are activated by the interaction of their receptor ligation. In hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), T cells and NK cells have been extensively studied but very few studies are available on ILCs. In this review, an attempt has been made to provide current information related to NK and ILCs cell-based stem cell therapies and role of the stem cells in the regulation of ILCs as well. Also, the latest information on the differentiation of NK cells and ILCs from CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells is covered in the article.

TransCon IL-2 β/γ: a novel long-acting prodrug with sustained release of an IL-2Rβ/γ-selective IL-2 variant with improved pharmacokinetics and potent activation of cytotoxic immune cells for the treatment of cancer

BACKGROUND

Recombinant interleukin-2 (IL-2, aldesleukin) is an approved cancer immunotherapy but causes severe toxicities including cytokine storm and vascular leak syndrome (VLS). IL-2 promotes antitumor function of IL-2Rβ/γ⁺ natural killer (NK) cells and CD8⁺, CD4⁺ and gamma delta (γδ) T cells. However, IL-2 also potently activates immunosuppressive IL-2Rα⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) and IL-2Rα⁺ eosinophils and endothelial cells, which may promote VLS. Aldesleukin is rapidly cleared requiring frequent dosing, resulting in high C_max likely potentiating toxicity. Thus, IL-2 cancer immunotherapy has two critical drawbacks: potent activation of undesired IL-2Rα⁺ cells and suboptimal pharmacokinetics with high C_max and short half-life.

METHODS

TransCon IL-2 β/γ was designed to optimally address these drawbacks. To abolish IL-2Rα binding yet retain strong IL-2Rβ/γ activity, IL-2 β/γ was created by permanently attaching a small methoxy polyethylene glycol (mPEG) moiety in the IL-2Rα binding site. To improve pharmacokinetics, IL-2 β/γ was transiently attached to a 40 kDa mPEG carrier via a TransCon (transient conjugation) linker creating a prodrug, TransCon IL-2 β/γ, with sustained release of IL-2 β/γ. IL-2 β/γ was characterized in binding and primary cell assays while TransCon IL-2 β/γ was studied in tumor-bearing mice and cynomolgus monkeys.

RESULTS

IL-2 β/γ demonstrated selective and potent human IL-2Rβ/γ binding and activation without IL-2Rα interactions. TransCon IL-2 β/γ showed slow-release pharmacokinetics with a low C_max and a long (>30 hours) effective half-life for IL-2 β/γ in monkeys. In mouse tumor models, TransCon IL-2 β/γ promoted CD8⁺ T cell and NK cell activation and antitumor activity. In monkeys, TransCon IL-2 β/γ induced robust activation and expansion of CD8⁺ T cells, NK cells and γδ T cells, relative to CD4⁺ T cells, Tregs and eosinophils, with no evidence of cytokine storm or VLS. Similarly, IL-2 β/γ enhanced proliferation and cytotoxicity of primary human CD8⁺ T cells, NK cells and γδ T cells.

SUMMARY

TransCon IL-2 β/γ is a novel long-acting prodrug with sustained release of an IL-2Rβ/γ-selective IL-2. It has remarkable and durable pharmacodynamic effects in monkeys and potential for improved clinical efficacy and tolerability compared with aldesleukin. TransCon IL-2 β/γ is currently being evaluated in a Phase 1/2 clinical trial (NCT05081609).

Electroporation and Immunotherapy-Unleashing the Abscopal Effect

Simple Summary

Electrochemotherapy and irreversible electroporation are primarily used for treating patients with cutaneous and subcutaneous tumors and pancreatic cancer, respectively. Increasing numbers of studies have shown that the treatments may elicit an immune response in addition to eliminating the tumor cells. The purpose of this review is to give an in-depth introduction to the electroporation-induced immune response and the local and peripheral immune systems, and to describe the various studies investigating the combination of electroporation and immunotherapy. The review may help guide and inspire the design of future clinical trials investigating the potential synergy of electroporation and immunotherapy in cancer treatment.

Abstract

The discovery of electroporation in 1968 has led to the development of electrochemotherapy (ECT) and irreversible electroporation (IRE). ECT and IRE have been established as treatments of cutaneous and subcutaneous tumors and locally advanced pancreatic cancer, respectively. Interestingly, the treatment modalities have been shown to elicit immunogenic cell death, which in turn can induce an immune response towards the tumor cells. With the dawn of the immunotherapy era, the potential of combining ECT and IRE with immunotherapy has led to the launch of numerous studies. Data from the first clinical trials are promising, and new combination regimes might change the way we treat tumors characterized by low immunogenicity and high levels of immunosuppression, such as melanoma and pancreatic cancer. In this review we will give an introduction to ECT and IRE and discuss the impact on the immune system. Additionally, we will present the results of clinical and preclinical trials, investigating the combination of electroporation modalities and immunotherapy.

A Micro-Immunotherapy Sequential Medicine MIM-seq Displays Immunomodulatory Effects on Human Macrophages and Anti-Tumor Properties towards In Vitro 2D and 3D Models of Colon Carcinoma and in an In Vivo Subcutaneous Xenograft Colon Carcinoma Model

In this study, the immunomodulatory effects of a sequential micro-immunotherapy medicine, referred as MIM-seq, were appraised in human primary M1 and M2 macrophages, in which the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-12, IL-23, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, was inhibited. In addition, the potential anti-proliferative effects of MIM-seq on tumor cells was assessed in three models of colorectal cancer (CRC): an in vitro two-dimensions (2D) model of HCT-116 cells, an in vitro tri-dimensional (3D) model of spheroids, and an in vivo model of subcutaneous xenografted mice. In these models, MIM-seq displayed anti-proliferative effects when compared with the vehicle. In vivo, the tumor growth was slightly reduced in MIM-seq-treated animals. Moreover, MIM-seq could slightly reduce the growth of our spheroid models, especially under serum-deprivation. When MIM-seq was combined with two well-known anti-cancerogenic agents, either resveratrol or etoposide, MIM-seq could even further reduce the spheroid’s volume, pointing up the need to further assess whether MIM-seq could be beneficial for CRC patients as an adjuvant therapy. Altogether, these data suggest that MIM-seq could have anti-tumor properties against CRC and an immunomodulatory effect towards the mediators of inflammation, whose systemic dysregulation is considered to be a poor prognosis for patients.