Possible neuroprotective effect of Withania somnifera root extract against 3-nitropropionic acid-induced behavioral, biochemical, and mitochondrial dysfunction in an animal model of Huntington's disease

Pathomechanisms of behavioral abnormalities in Huntington disease: an update

Huntington disease (HD), a devastating autosomal-dominant neurodegenerative disease caused by an expanded CAG trinucleotide repeat, is clinically characterized by a triad of symptoms including involuntary motions, behavior problems and cognitive deficits. Behavioral symptoms with anxiety, irritability, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, apathy and other neuropsychiatric symptoms, occurring in over 50% of HD patients are important features of this disease and contribute to impairment of quality of life, but their pathophysiology is poorly understood. Behavior problems, more frequent than depression, can be manifest before obvious motor symptoms and occur across all HD stages, usually correlated with duration of illness. While specific neuropathological data are missing, the relations between gene expression and behavior have been elucidated in transgenic models of HD. Disruption of interneuronal communications, with involvement of prefronto-striato-thalamic networks and hippocampal dysfunctions produce deficits in multiple behavioral domains. These changes that have been confirmed by multistructural neuroimaging studies are due to a causal cascade linking molecular pathologies (glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunctions inducing multiple biochemical and structural alterations) and deficits in multiple behavioral domains. The disruption of large-scale connectivities may explain the variability of behavior profiles and is useful in understanding the biological backgrounds of functional decline in HD. Such findings offer new avenues for targeted treatments in terms of minimizing neurobehavioral impairment in HD.

Clinical pharmacokinetic evaluation of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal root extract in healthy human volunteers: A non-randomized, single dose study utilizing UHPLC-MS/MS analysis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal; (Solanaceae), commonly known as Ashwagandha, is one of the most significant medicinal herbs in 'Ayurveda', a traditional Indian medicine used for centuries with evidence in scriptures. Ashwagandha was mentioned in old Ayurvedic medical literature such as Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita for improving weight and strength, with multiple citations for internal and exterior usage in emaciation and nourishing the body. Ethnopharmacological evidence revealed that it was used to relieve inflammation, reduce abdominal swelling, as a mild purgative, and treat swollen glands. The root was regarded as a tonic, aphrodisiac, and emmenagogue in the Unani tradition of the Indian medicinal system. Further, Ashwagandha has been also described as an Ayurvedic medicinal plant in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India extending informed therapeutic usage and formulations. Despite the widespread ethnopharmacological usage of Ashwagandha, clinical pharmacokinetic parameters are lacking in the literature; hence, the findings of this study will be relevant for calculating doses for future clinical evaluations of Ashwagandha root extract.

AIM

This study aimed to develop a validated and highly sensitive bioanalytical method for quantifying withanosides and withanolides of the Ashwagandha root extract in human plasma to explore its bioaccessibility. Further to apply a developed method to perform pharmacokinetics of standardized Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal root extract (WSE; AgeVel®/Witholytin®) capsules in healthy human volunteers.

METHODS

A sensitive, reliable, and specific ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the simultaneous quantification of five major withanosides and withanolides (withanoside IV, withanoside V, withanolide A, withaferin A, and 12-deoxy-withastramonolide) in human plasma. Further for the study, eighteen healthy male volunteers (18-45 years) were enrolled in a non-randomized, open-label, single period, single treatment, clinical pharmacokinetic study and given a single dose (500 mg) of WSE (AgeVel®/Witholytin®) capsules containing not less than 7.5 mg of total withanolides under fasting condition. Later, pharmacokinetic profiles were assessed using the plasma concentration of each bioactive constituent Vs. time data.

RESULTS

For all five constituents, the bioanalytical method demonstrated high selectivity, specificity, and linearity. There was no carryover, and no matrix effect was observed. Furthermore, the inter-day and intra-day precision and accuracy results fulfilled the acceptance criteria. Upon oral administration of WSE capsules, Cmax was found to be 0.639 ± 0.211, 2.926 ± 1.317, 2.833 ± 0.981, and 5.498 ± 1.986 ng/mL for withanoside IV, withanolide A, withaferin A, and 12-deoxy-withastramonolide with Tmax of 1.639 ± 0.993, 1.361 ± 0.850, 0.903 ± 0.273, and 1.375 ± 0.510 h respectively. Further, withanoside V was also detected in plasma; but its concentration was found below LLOQ.

CONCLUSION

The novel and first-time developed bioanalytical method was successfully applied for the quantification of five bio-active constituents in human volunteers following administration of WSE capsules, indicating that withanosides and withanolides were rapidly absorbed from the stomach, have high oral bioavailability, and an optimum half-life to produce significant pharmacological activity. Further, AgeVel®/Witholytin® was found safe and well tolerated after oral administration, with no adverse reaction observed at a 500 mg dose.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, a Potential Source of Phytochemicals for Treating Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Systematic Review

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal is a medicinal plant belonging to the traditional Indian medical system, showing various therapeutic effects such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-diabetic, and hepatoprotective activity. Of great interest is W. somnifera's potential beneficial effect against neurodegenerative diseases, since the authorized medicinal treatments can only delay disease progression and provide symptomatic relief and are not without side effects. A systematic search of PubMed and Scopus databases was performed to identify preclinical and clinical studies focusing on the applications of W. somnifera in preventing neurodegenerative diseases. Only English articles and those containing the keywords (Withania somnifera AND "neurodegenerative diseases", "neuroprotective effects", "Huntington", "Parkinson", "Alzheimer", "Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis", "neurological disorders") in the title or abstract were considered. Reviews, editorials, letters, meta-analyses, conference papers, short surveys, and book chapters were not considered. Selected articles were grouped by pathologies and summarized, considering the mechanism of action. The quality assessment and the risk of bias were performed using the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions checklist. This review uses a systematic approach to summarize the results from 60 investigations to highlight the potential role of W. somnifera and its specialized metabolites in treating or preventing neurodegenerative diseases.

A clinical study and future prospects for bioactive compounds and semi-synthetic molecules in the therapies for Huntington's disease

A neurodegenerative disorder (ND) refers to Huntington's disease (HD) which affects memory loss, weight loss, and movement dysfunctions such as chorea and dystonia. In the striatum and brain, HD most typically impacts medium-spiny neurons. Molecular genetics, excitotoxicity, oxidative stress (OS), mitochondrial, and metabolic dysfunction are a few of the theories advanced to explicit the pathophysiology of neuronal damage and cell death. Numerous in-depth studies of the literature have supported the therapeutic advantages of natural products in HD experimental models and other treatment approaches. This article briefly discusses the neuroprotective impacts of natural compounds against HD models. The ability of the discovered natural compounds to suppress HD was tested using either in vitro or in vivo models. Many bioactive compounds considerably lessened the memory loss and motor coordination brought on by 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP). Reduced lipid peroxidation, increased endogenous enzymatic antioxidants, reduced acetylcholinesterase activity, and enhanced mitochondrial energy generation have profoundly decreased the biochemical change. It is significant since histology showed that therapy with particular natural compounds lessened damage to the striatum caused by 3-NP. Moreover, natural products displayed varying degrees of neuroprotection in preclinical HD studies because of their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, maintenance of mitochondrial function, activation of autophagy, and inhibition of apoptosis. This study highlighted about the importance of bioactive compounds and their semi-synthetic molecules in the treatment and prevention of HD.

Clinical safety and tolerability evaluation of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandha) root extract in healthy human volunteers

BACKGROUND

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, known as Ashwagandha, is an adaptogen with significant importance in Ayurveda for its potential health benefits in strength ('balavardhan') and muscle growth ('mamsavardhan'). Despite numerous studies on its efficacy, limited research is reported on its clinical safety and tolerability in healthy individuals.

OBJECTIVE

This research evaluated the tolerability and safety of standardized Withania somnifera root extract (WSE) capsules (AgeVel®/Witholytin®) at 1000 mg/day dose upon oral administration in healthy male participants.

METHOD

A non-randomized, open-label, single-treatment clinical study included eighteen healthy male participants aged 18 to 60. The participants were administered a dose of 500 mg of the WSE capsules twice daily for four weeks. Each capsule contained not less than 7.50 mg of total withanolides. The study evaluated various indicators in a cohort of healthy participants throughout the trial, including vital signs, organ function tests, urine analysis, X-ray and ECG, cardiorespiratory endurance, body fat percentage, lean body weight, adverse events profile, and tolerability of the WSE capsules.

RESULTS

The participant's physical, hematological, and biochemical characteristics were normal, and no significant alterations or irregularities were observed in safety metrics like liver, kidney, and thyroid functions after administering AgeVel®/Witholytin®.

CONCLUSION

This study found that healthy male participants could consume a standardized WSE at a daily dosage of 1000 mg for four weeks without any adverse effects. Future research should focus on long-term safety assessments in male and female participants.

Phytopharmaceuticals and Herbal Approaches to Target Neurodegenerative Disorders

Neurodegeneration is characterized as the continuous functional and structural loss of neurons, resulting in various clinical and pathological manifestations and loss of functional anatomy. Medicinal plants have been oppressed from ancient years and are highly considered throughout the world as a rich source of therapeutic means for the prevention, treatment of various ailments. Plant-derived medicinal products are becoming popular in India and other nations. Further herbal therapies shows good impact on chronic long term illnesses including degenerative conditions of neurons and brain. The use of herbal medicines continues to expand rapidly across the world. The active phytochemical constituents of individual plants are sometimes insufficient to achieve the desirable therapeutic effects. Combining the multiple herbs in a particular ratio (polyherbalism) will give a better therapeutic effect and reduce toxicity. Herbal-based nanosystems are also being studied as a way to enhance the delivery and bioavailability of phytochemical compounds for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. This review mainly focuses on the importance of the herbal medicines, polyherbalism and herbal-based nanosystems and its clinical significance for neurodegenerative diseases.

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera)—Current Research on the Health-Promoting Activities: A Narrative Review

In recent years, there has been a significant surge in reports on the health-promoting benefits of winter cherry (Withania somnifera), also known as Ashwagandha. Its current research covers many aspects of human health, including neuroprotective, sedative and adaptogenic effects and effects on sleep. There are also reports of anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, cardioprotective and anti-diabetic properties. Furthermore, there are reports of reproductive outcomes and tarcicidal hormone action. This growing body of research on Ashwagandha highlights its potential as a valuable natural remedy for many health concerns. This narrative review delves into the most recent findings and provides a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of ashwagandha’s potential uses and any known safety concerns and contraindications.

Nootropic Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees as Potential Cognitive Enhancers

Plant-based nootropics are a diverse group of natural drugs that can improve cognitive abilities through various physiological mechanisms, especially in cases where these functions are weakened or impaired. In many cases, the nootropics enhance erythrocyte plasticity and inhibit aggregation, which improves the blood's rheological properties and increases its flow to the brain. Many of these formulations possess antioxidant activity that protects brain tissue from neurotoxicity and improves the brain's oxygen supply. They can induce the synthesis of neuronal proteins, nucleic acids, and phospholipids for constructing and repairing neurohormonal membranes. These natural compounds can potentially be present in a great variety of herbs, shrubs, and even some trees and vines. The plant species reviewed here were selected based on the availability of verifiable experimental data and clinical trials investigating potential nootropic effects. Original research articles, relevant animal studies, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and clinical trials were included in this review. Selected representatives of this heterogeneous group included Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim., Ginkgo biloba L., Lepidium meyenii Walp., Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Paullinia cupana Kunth, Rhodiola rosea L., Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill., and Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. The species are depicted and described, together with their active components and nootropic effects, and evidence of their efficacy is presented. The study provides brief descriptions of the representative species, their occurrence, history, and the chemical composition of the principle medicinal compounds, with uses, indications, experimental treatments, dosages, possible side effects, and contraindications. Most plant nootropics must be taken at optimal doses for extended periods before measurable improvement occurs, but they are generally very well tolerated. Their psychoactive properties are not produced by a single molecule but by a synergistic combination of several compounds. The available data suggest that including extracts from these plants in medicinal products to treat cognitive disorders can have substantial potential therapeutic benefits.

Phytotherapeutic alternatives for neurodegenerative dementias: Scientific review, discussion and therapeutic proposal

The incidence and prevalence of age-related neurodegenerative dementias have been increasing. There is no curative therapy and conventional drug treatment can cause problems for patients. Medicinal plants traditionally used for problems associated with ageing are emerging as a therapeutic resource. The main aim is to give a proposal for use and future research based on scientific knowledge and tradition. A literature search was conducted in several searchable databases. The keywords used were related to neurodegenerative dementias, ageing and medicinal plants. Boolean operators and filters were used to focus the search. As a result, there is current clinical and preclinical scientific information on 49 species used in traditional medicine for ageing-related problems, including neurodegenerative dementias. There are preclinical and clinical scientific evidences on their properties against protein aggregates in the central nervous system and their effects on neuroinflammation, apoptosis dysregulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, gabaergic, glutamatergic and dopaminergic systems alterations, monoamine oxidase alterations, serotonin depletion and oestrogenic protection. In conclusion, the potential therapeutic effect of the different medicinal plants depends on the type of neurodegenerative dementia and its stage of development, but more clinical and preclinical research is needed to find better, safer and more effective treatments.

The Emerging Landscape of Natural Small-molecule Therapeutics for Huntington's Disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a rare and fatal neurodegenerative disorder with no diseasemodifying therapeutics. HD is characterized by extensive neuronal loss and is caused by the inherited expansion of the huntingtin (HTT) gene that encodes a toxic mutant HTT (mHTT) protein having expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) residues. Current HD therapeutics only offer symptomatic relief. In fact, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved two synthetic small-molecule VMAT2 inhibitors, tetrabenazine (1) and deutetrabenazine (2), for managing HD chorea and various other diseases in clinical trials. Therefore, the landscape of drug discovery programs for HD is evolving to discover disease- modifying HD therapeutics. Likewise, numerous natural products are being evaluated at different stages of clinical development and have shown the potential to ameliorate HD pathology. The inherent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of natural products mitigate the mHTT-induced oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, improve mitochondrial functions, and augment the anti-apoptotic and pro-autophagic mechanisms for increased survival of neurons in HD. In this review, we have discussed HD pathogenesis and summarized the anti-HD clinical and pre-clinical natural products, focusing on their therapeutic effects and neuroprotective mechanism/s.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandha); current understanding and future prospect as a potential drug candidate

Cancer and Neurodegenerative diseases are one of the most dreadful diseases to cure and chemotherapy has found a prime place in cancerous treatments while as different strategies have been tested in neurodegenerative diseases as well. However, due to adverse shortcomings like the resistance of cancerous cells and inefficiency in neurodegenerative disease, plant sources have always found a prime importance in medicinal use for decades, Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (W. somnifera) is a well-known plant with medicinal use reported for centuries. It is commonly known as winter cherry or ashwagandha and is a prime source of pharmaceutically active compounds withanolides. In recent years research is being carried in understanding the extensive role of W. somnifera in cancer and neurological disorders. W. somnifera has been reported to be beneficial in DNA repair mechanisms; it is known for its cellular repairing properties and helps to prevent the apoptosis of normal cells. This review summarizes the potential properties and medicinal benefits of W. somnifera especially in cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Available data suggest that W. somnifera is effective in controlling disease progressions and could be a potential therapeutic target benefiting human health status. The current review also discusses the traditional medicinal applications of W. somnifera, the experimental evidence supporting its therapeutical potential as well as obstacles that necessitate being overcome for W. somnifera to be evaluated as a curative agent in humans.

Regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction induced cell apoptosis is a potential therapeutic strategy for herbal medicine to treat neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative disease is a progressive neurodegeneration caused by genetic and environmental factors. Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and Huntington’s disease (HD) are the three most common neurodegenerative diseases clinically. Unfortunately, the incidence of neurodegenerative diseases is increasing year by year. However, the current available drugs have poor efficacy and large side effects, which brings a great burden to the patients and the society. Increasing evidence suggests that occurrence and development of the neurodegenerative diseases is closely related to the mitochondrial dysfunction, which can affect mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial dynamics, as well as mitochondrial mitophagy. Through the disruption of mitochondrial homeostasis, nerve cells undergo varying degrees of apoptosis. Interestingly, it has been shown in recent years that the natural agents derived from herbal medicines are beneficial for prevention/treatment of neurodegenerative diseases via regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction. Therefore, in this review, we will focus on the potential therapeutic agents from herbal medicines for treating neurodegenerative diseases via suppressing apoptosis through regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction, in order to provide a foundation for the development of more candidate drugs for neurodegenerative diseases from herbal medicine.

Potential clinical applications of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) in medicine and neuropsychiatry

INTRODUCTION

Ashwagandha (ASW) is the extract of the plant Withania somnifera. It is widely used in complementary, alternative, and integrative medicine (CAIM) but is little discussed in mainstream modern medical literature.

AREAS COVERED

We performed a review of potential pharmacotherapeutic properties of ASW. Studies were sourced from relevant online and offline databases. In animal models, ASW displays antioxidant activity. It has GABAergic and other neurotransmitter modulatory effects. It reduces apoptosis and promotes synaptic plasticity. It improves cognition and reverses induced cognitive deficits. It attenuates indices of stress. In human subjects, ASW enhances adaptogenesis in healthy adults. It modestly benefits generalized anxiety disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder, and symptom severity in schizophrenia, substance use disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. It improves sleep quality.

EXPERT OPINION

ASW may confer modest benefit in certain neuropsychiatric conditions. Its benefits may arise from induction of neuroplasticity, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and modulation of GABA and glutamate, as well as other neurotransmitters. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions may also benefit neurodegenerative states. Reports of clinical benefit with ASW must be interpreted with caution, given the paucity of randomized clinical trials (RCTs). Greater methodological rigor is necessary before clinical recommendations on ASW can be confidently made.

Berberine Ameliorate Haloperidol and 3-Nitropropionic Acid-Induced Neurotoxicity in Rats

Berberine due to its antioxidant properties, has been used around the globe significantly to treat several brain disorders. Also, oxidative stress is a pathological hallmark in neurodegenerative diseases like Huntington's disease (HD) and Tardive dyskinesia (TD). Berberine an alkaloid from plants has been reported to have neuroprotective potential in several animal models of neurodegenerative diseases. Hence, this study aims to evaluate the neuroprotective effect of berberine in the animal model of 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) induced HD and haloperidol induced tardive dyskinesia with special emphasis on its antioxidant property. The study protocol was divided into 2 phases, first phase involved the administration of 3-NP and berberine at the dose of (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg) intraperitoneally (i.p) and orally (p.o.) respectively for 21 days, and the following parameters (rotarod, narrow beam walk and photoactometer) as a measure of motor activity and striatal and cortical levels of (LPO, GSH, SOD, catalase, and nitrate) evaluated as a measure of oxidative stress were assessed for HD. Similarly in the second phase, TD was induced by using haloperidol, for 21 days and berberine at the dose of (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg) was administered, and both physical and biochemical parameters were assessed as mentioned for the HD study. The resultant data indicated that berberine attenuate 3-NP and haloperidol-induced behavioral changes and improved the antioxidant capcity in rodents. Hence berberine might be a novel therapeutic candidate to manage TD & HD.

A review on Huntington protein Insight into protein aggregation and therapeutic interventions

Huntington disease (HD) is a distressing, innate neurodegenerative disease that descends from CAG repeat expansion in the huntingtin gene causing behavioral changes, motor dysfunction, and dementia in children and adults. Mutation in huntingtin (HTT) protein has been suggested to cause neuron loss in the cortex and striatum through various mechanisms including abnormal regulation of transcription, proteasomal dysfunction, post-translational modification, and other events, regulating toxicity. Pathogenesis of HD involves cleavage of the huntingtin protein followed by the neuronal accumulation of its aggregated form. Several research groups made possible efforts to reduce huntingtin gene expression, protein accumulation, and protein aggregation using inhibitors and molecular chaperones as developing drugs against HD. Herein, we review the mechanism proposed towards the formation of HTT protein aggregation and the impact of therapeutic strategies for the treatment of HD.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandha): A comprehensive review on ethnopharmacology, pharmacotherapeutics, biomedicinal and toxicological aspects

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Solanaceae) has been used as a traditional Rasayana herb for a long time. Traditional uses of this plant indicate its ameliorative properties against a plethora of human medical conditions, viz. hypertension, stress, diabetes, asthma, cancer etc. This review presents a comprehensive summary of the geographical distribution, traditional use, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of W. somnifera and its active constituents. In addition, it presents a detailed account of its presence as an active constituent in many commercial preparations with curative properties and health benefits. Clinical studies and toxicological considerations of its extracts and constituents are also elucidated. Comparative analysis of relevant in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical investigations indicated potent bioactivity of W. somnifera extracts and phytochemicals as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, apoptotic, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic, cardio-protective and spermatogenic agents. W. somnifera was found to be especially active against many neurological and psychological conditions like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, ischemic stroke, sleep deprivation, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, bipolar disorder, anxiety, depression, schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder. The probable mechanism of action that imparts the pharmacological potential has also been explored. However, in-depth studies are needed on the clinical use of W. somnifera against human diseases. Besides, detailed toxicological analysis is also to be performed for its safe and efficacious use in preclinical and clinical studies and as a health-promoting herb.

Role of medicinal plants against neurodegenerative diseases

Diseases with a significant loss of neurons, structurally and functionally are termed as neurodegenerative diseases. Due to the present therapeutic interventions and progressive nature of diseases, a variety of side effects have risen up, thus leading the patients to go for an alternative medication. The role of medicinal plants in such cases has been beneficial because of their exhibition via different cellular and molecular mechanisms. Alleviation in inflammatory responses, suppression of the functionary aspect of pro-inflammatory cytokines like a tumor, improvement in antioxidative properties is among few neuroprotective mechanisms of traditional plants. Variation in transcription and transduction pathways play a vital role in the preventive measures of plants in such diseases. Neurodegenerative diseases are generally caused by depletion of proteins, oxidative and inflammatory stress, environmental changes and so on, with aging being the most important cause. Natural compounds can be used in order to treat neurodegenerative diseases Medicinal plants such as Ginseng, Withania somnifera, Bacopa monnieri, Ginkgo biloba, etc. are some of the medicinal plants for prevention of neurological symptoms. This review deals with the use of different medicinal plants for the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases.

Protective Effect of Natural Products against Huntington's Disease: An Overview of Scientific Evidence and Understanding Their Mechanism of Action

Huntington's disease (HD), a neurodegenerative disease, normally starts in the prime of adult life, followed by a gradual occurrence of characteristic psychiatric disturbances and cognitive and motor dysfunction. To the best of our knowledge, there is no treatment available to completely mitigate the progression of HD. Among various therapeutic approaches, exhaustive literature reports have confirmed the medicinal benefits of natural products in HD experimental models. Building on this information, this review presents a brief overview of the neuroprotective mechanism(s) of natural products against in vitro/in vivo models of HD. Relevant studies were identified from several scientific databases, including PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Google Scholar. After screening through literature from 2005 to the present, a total of 14 medicinal plant species and 30 naturally isolated compounds investigated against HD based on either in vitro or in vivo models were included in the present review. Behavioral outcomes in the HD in vivo model showed that natural compounds significantly attenuated 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) induced memory loss and motor incoordination. The biochemical alteration has been markedly alleviated with reduced lipid peroxidation, increased endogenous enzymatic antioxidants, reduced acetylcholinesterase activity, and increased mitochondrial energy production. Interestingly, following treatment with certain natural products, 3-NP-induced damage in the striatum was ameliorated, as seen histologically. Overall, natural products afforded varying degrees of neuroprotection in preclinical studies of HD via antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, preservation of mitochondrial function, inhibition of apoptosis, and induction of autophagy.

Critical review of the Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal: ethnobotany, pharmacological efficacy, and commercialization significance in Africa

BACKGROUND

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (W. somnifera) is a herb commonly known by its English name as Winter Cherry. Africa is indigenous to many medicinal plants and natural products. However, there is inadequate documentation of medicinal plants, including W. somnifera, in Africa. There is, therefore, a need for a comprehensive compilation of research outcomes of this reviewed plant as used in traditional medicine in different regions of Africa.

METHODOLOGY

Scientific articles and publications were scooped and sourced from high-impact factor journals and filtered with relevant keywords on W. somnifera. Scientific databases, including GBIF, PubMed, NCBI, Google Scholar, Research Gate, Science Direct, SciFinder, and Web of Science, were accessed to identify the most influential articles and recent breakthroughs published on the contexts of ethnography, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and commercialization of W. somnifera.

RESULTS

This critical review covers the W. somnifera ethnography, phytochemistry, and ethnomedicinal usage to demonstrate the use of the plant in Africa and elsewhere to prevent or alleviate several pathophysiological conditions, including cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, reproductive impotence, as well as other chronic diseases.

CONCLUSION

W. somnifera is reportedly safe for administration in ethnomedicine as several research outcomes confirmed its safety status. The significance of commercializing this plant in Africa for drug development is herein thoroughly covered to provide the much-needed highlights towards its cultivations economic benefit to Africa.

Transplantation of human dental pulp stem cells compensates for striatal atrophy and modulates neuro-inflammation in 3-nitropropionic acid rat model of Huntington's disease

Stem cell-based therapy has recently offered a promising alternative for the remedy of neurodegenerative disorders like Huntington's disease (HD). Herein, we investigated the potential ameliorative effects of implantation of dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) in 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) rat models of HD. In this regard, human DPSCs were isolated, culture-expanded and implanted in rats lesioned with 3-NP. Post-transplantation examinations revealed that DPSCs were able to survive and augment motor skills and muscle activity. Histological analysis showed DPSCs treatment hampered the shrinkage of the striatum along with the inhibition of gliosis and microgliosis in the striatum of 3-NP rat models. We also detected the downregulation of Caspase-3 and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF and IL-1β upon DPSCs grafting. Overall, these findings imply that the grafting of DPSCs could repair motor-skill impairment and induce neurogenesis, probably through the secretion of neurotrophic factors and the modulation of neuroinflammatory response in HD animal models.

Differential effect of Ayurvedic nootropics on C. elegans models of Parkinson's disease

BACKGROUND

Globally, there is increased incidence of Parkinson's Disease (PD), which is the second most common age-related neurodegenerative disease. The currently available PD-therapeutics provide only symptomatic relief. Thus, there is an urgent need to devise an effective and safe treatment strategy for PD. The holistic approach of Ayurveda can be a potential effective strategy for treating PD. The integration of different medicine systems, such as modern bio-medicine and Ayurveda can be an effective strategy for treatment of complex diseases, including PD.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the neuroprotective mechanism of six Ayurvedic nootropics that are commonly used to treat PD.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Six Ayurvedic herbs, namely Mucuna pruriens (MP), Bacopa monnieri (BM), Withania somnifera (WS), Centella asiatica (CA), Sida cordifolia (SC), and Celastrus paniculatus (CP), were selected after consultation with Ayurvedic scholars and physicians. The mode of action of methanolic herbal extracts was evaluated using the Caenorhabditis elegans BZ555 and NL5901 strains, which can be used to model the two main hallmarks of PD, namely degeneration of dopaminergic neurons and aggregation of α-synuclein protein.

RESULTS

All six herbal extracts exhibited neuroprotective effect. The extracts of BM and MP exhibited maximum protection against 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium iodide (MPP+ iodide)-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the BZ555 strain. Furthermore, the herbal extracts, except CA extract, inhibited the aggregation of heterologously expressed human α-synuclein in the NL5901 strain.

CONCLUSION

Ayurvedic herbs used in the treatment of PD exhibited differential neuroprotective and protein aggregation mitigating effects in C. elegans.

Neuroprotection: Targeting Multiple Pathways by Naturally Occurring Phytochemicals

With the increase in the expectancy of the life span of humans, neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) have imposed a considerable burden on the family, society, and nation. In defiance of the breakthroughs in the knowledge of the pathogenesis and underlying mechanisms of various NDs, very little success has been achieved in developing effective therapies. This review draws a bead on the availability of the nutraceuticals to date for various NDs (Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, vascular cognitive impairment, Prion disease, Spinocerebellar ataxia, Spinal muscular atrophy, Frontotemporal dementia, and Pick's disease) focusing on their various mechanisms of action in various in vivo and in vitro models of NDs. This review is distinctive in its compilation to critically review preclinical and clinical studies of the maximum phytochemicals in amelioration and prevention of almost all kinds of neurodegenerative diseases and address their possible mechanism of action. PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library searches were used for preclinical studies, while ClinicalTrials.gov and PubMed were searched for clinical updates. The results from preclinical studies demonstrate the efficacious effects of the phytochemicals in various NDs while clinical reports showing mixed results with promise for phytochemical use as an adjunct to the conventional treatment in various NDs. These studies together suggest that phytochemicals can significantly act upon different mechanisms of disease such as oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptotic pathways, and gene regulation. However, further clinical studies are needed that should include the appropriate biomarkers of NDs and the effect of phytochemicals on them as well as targeting the appropriate population.

Ashwagandha in brain disorders: A review of recent developments

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Withania somnifera (Family: Solanaceae), commonly known as Ashwagandha or Indian ginseng is distributed widely in India, Nepal, China and Yemen. The roots of plant consist of active phytoconstituents mainly withanolides, alkaloids and sitoindosides and are conventionally used for the treatment of multiple brain disorders.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review aims to critically assess and summarize the current state and implication of Ashwagandha in brain disorders. We have mainly focussed on the reported neuroactive phytoconstituents, available marketed products, pharmacological studies, mechanism of action and recent patents published related to neuroprotective effects of Ashwagandha in brain disorders.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All the information and data was collected on Ashwagandha using keywords "Ashwagandha" along with "Phytoconstituents", "Ayurvedic, Unani and Homeopathy marketed formulation", "Brain disorders", "Mechanism" and "Patents". Following sources were searched for data collection: electronic scientific databases such as Science Direct, Google Scholar, Elsevier, PubMed, Wiley On-line Library, Taylor and Francis, Springer; books such as AYUSH Pharmacopoeia; authentic textbooks and formularies.

RESULTS

Identified neuroprotective phytoconstituents of Ashwagandha are sitoindosides VII-X, withaferin A, withanosides IV, withanols, withanolide A, withanolide B, anaferine, beta-sitosterol, withanolide D with key pharmacological effects in brain disorders mainly anxiety, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Schizophrenia, Huntington's disease, dyslexia, depression, autism, addiction, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and bipolar disorders. The literature survey does not highlight any toxic effects of Ashwagandha. Further, multiple available marketed products and patents recognized its beneficial role in various brain disorders; however, very few data is available on mechanistic pathway and clinical studies of Ashwagandha for various brain disorders is scarce and not promising.

CONCLUSION

The review concludes the results of recent studies on Ashwagandha suggesting its extensive potential as neuroprotective in various brain disorders as supported by preclinical studies, clinical trials and published patents. However vague understanding of the mechanistic pathways involved in imparting the neuroprotective effect of Ashwagandha warrants further study to promote it as a promising drug candidate.

Neurodegenerative diseases and Withania somnifera (L.): An update

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal also known as 'Ashwaghanda' in Sanskrit and as 'Indian Winter Cherry' in english. is an important medicinal herb in India. It is widely used in Indian systems of medicine as an adaptogen, nerve tonic, anti-stress, memory enhancer and against cognitive deficits, insomnia, anxiety, infectious diseases, infertility, rheumatoid arthritis and gout over thousands of years. Its formulations are mainly used in Unani and Ayurvedic system of medicine. It is a remarkable centuries old herbal Rasayana used to treat neuronal ailments and is known as ''Sattvic Kapha Rasayana.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To review neuroprotective properties of Withania somnifera (L.)extract as well as its active constituents in neurodegenerative diseases and other neurological ailments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The sources of information used in present article include Indian system of Medicine reports on the use of natural products, Medicinal books, research articles and scientific databases like PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Science-Direct, SciFinder, ACS Publications and Wiley Online Library.

RESULTS

Research reports based largely on preclinical studies as well as few clinical trials have highlighted the neuroprotective role of Ashwagandha against many neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's, Huntington's and Parkinson's disease. The protective effects of Ashwagandha were accomplished by restoring mitochondrial and endothelial function, mitigation of apoptosis, inflammation and oxidative stress mechanisms.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we recapitulated neuroprotective properties of Ashwagandha extracts and/or its major constituents and discussed their mechanisms of action and potential therapeutic applications. The pre-clinical as well as clinical studies suggest the use of Withania somnifera (L.) against neurodegenerative disease. However, extensive studies are warranted to validate the use of extract or its single constituents for its clinical use.

Natural Products and Their Bioactive Compounds: Neuroprotective Potentials against Neurodegenerative Diseases

In recent years, natural products, which originate from plants, animals, and fungi, together with their bioactive compounds have been intensively explored and studied for their therapeutic potentials for various diseases such as cardiovascular, diabetes, hypertension, reproductive, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are characterized by the progressive dysfunction and loss of neuronal structure and function that resulted in the neuronal cell death. Since the multifactorial pathological mechanisms are associated with neurodegeneration, targeting multiple mechanisms of actions and neuroprotection approach, which involves preventing cell death and restoring the function to damaged neurons, could be promising strategies for the prevention and therapeutic of neurodegenerative diseases. Natural products have emerged as potential neuroprotective agents for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. This review focused on the therapeutic potential of natural products and their bioactive compounds to exert a neuroprotective effect on the pathologies of neurodegenerative diseases.

Roles of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 activation and cleavage in induction of multi-oocyte ovarian follicles in the mouse by 3-nitropropionic acid

3-nitropropionic acid (3-NPA) is known to be a mitochondrial toxin produced by plants and fungi, which may produce DNA damage in cells. However, studies of its reproductive toxicology are lacking. We know that poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) plays an important role in a large variety of physiological processes and is involved in DNA repair pathways. The present study was therefore aimed at exploring the involvement of PARP-1 activation and cleavage after 3-NPA stimulation in female mice. We observed an increased number of atretic follicles and multi-oocyte follicles (MOFs) after treatment with 3-NPA and serum concentrations of 17β-oestradiol and progesterone were significantly reduced. Our results provide evidence that PARP-1 cleavage and activational signals are involved in pathological ovarian processes stimulated by 3-NPA. In addition, total superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase activities were significantly increased, whereas succinate dehydrogenase was decreased in a dose-dependent manner. Results from our in vitro study similarly indicated that 3-NPA inhibited the proliferation of mouse granulosa cells and increased apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. In summary, 3-NPA induces granulosa cell apoptosis, follicle atresia and MOFs in the ovaries of female mice and causes oxidative stress so as to disrupt endogenous hormonal systems, possibly acting through PARP-1 signalling.

Indian Ginseng (Withania somnifera) supplementation ameliorates oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunctions in experimental model of stroke

Stroke is an increasingly prevalent clinical condition and second leading cause of death globally. The present study evaluated the therapeutic potential of Indian Ginseng, also known as Withania somnifera (WS), supplementation on middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) induced mitochondrial dysfunctions in experimental model of ischemic stroke. Stroke was induced in animals by occluding the middle cerebral artery, followed by reperfusion injury. Ischemia reperfusion injury resulted in increased oxidative stress indicated by increased reactive oxygen species and protein carbonyl levels; compromised antioxidant system; in terms of reduced superoxide dismutase and catalase activity, along with reduction in GSH levels and the redox ratio, impaired mitochondrial functions and enhanced expression of apoptosis markers. Ischemia reperfusion injury induced mitochondrial dysfunctions in terms of (i) reduced activity of the mitochondrial respiratory chain enzymes, (ii) reduced histochemical staining of complex-II and IV, (iii) reduced in-gel activity of mitochondrial complex-I to V, (iv) mitochondrial structural changes in terms of increased mitochondrial swelling, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and ultrastructural changes. Additionally, an increase in the activity of caspase-3 and caspase-9 was also observed, along with altered expression of apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bax in MCAO animals. MCAO animals also showed significant impairment in cognitive functions assessed using Y maze test. WS pre-supplementation, on the other hand ameliorated MCAO induced oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunctions, apoptosis and cognitive impairments. The results show protective effect of WS pre-supplementation in ischemic stroke and are suggestive of its potential application in stroke management.

Ameliorating effect of Celastrus paniculatus standardized extract and its fractions on 3-nitropropionic acid induced neuronal damage in rats: possible antioxidant mechanism

CONTEXT

Celastrus paniculatus Wild. (Celasteraceae) (CP) is a well-known Ayurvedic 'Medhya Rasayana' (nervine tonic), used extensively as a neuro-protective and memory enhancer, and in different central nervous system disorders.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of CP against 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) induced Huntington's disease (HD) like symptoms in Wistar male rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ethanol extract of CP seeds (CPEE), prepared by maceration, was standardized on the basis of linoleic acid content (6.42%) using thin layer chromatography densitometric analysis. Protective effect of CPEE (100 and 200 mg/kg) and its various fractions, viz., petroleum ether (40 mg/kg), ethyl acetate (2.5 mg/kg), n-butanol (7 mg/kg) and aqueous (18 mg/kg), administered orally for 20 days, against 3-NP (10 mg/kg, i.p. for 14 days) was assessed by their effect on body weight, locomotor activity, grip strength, gait pattern and cognitive dysfunction and biochemical parameters for oxidative damage in the striatum and cortex regions of the brain.

RESULTS

CPEE (100 and 200 mg/kg) treated animals exhibited a significant (p < 0.05) improvement in behavioural and oxidative stress parameters in comparison to only 3-NP treated animals. Amongst various tested fractions of CPEE, aqueous fraction (AF) at 18 mg/kg exhibited maximum reversal of 3-NP induced behavioural and biochemical alterations, and was therefore also tested at 9 and 36 mg/kg. CPEE (100 mg/kg) and AF (36 mg/kg) exhibited maximum and significant (p < 0.05) attenuation of 3-NP induced alterations in comparison to 3-NP treated rats.

CONCLUSIONS

CPEE has a protective action against 3-NP induced HD like symptoms due to its strong antioxidant effect.

Identification of potential inhibitors of PARP-1, a regulator of caspase-independent cell death pathway, from Withania somnifera phytochemicals for combating neurotoxicity: A structure-based in-silico study

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) reverses DNA damage by repairing DNA nicks and breaks in the normal cellular environment. However, during abnormal conditions like stroke and other neurological disorders, overactivation of PARP-1 leads to neuronal cell death via a caspase-independent programmed cell death pathway. Strategies involving inhibition or knockout of PARP-1 have proved beneficial in combating neuro-cytotoxicity. In this study, we performed in-silico analysis of 27 phytochemicals of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha), to investigate their inhibition efficiency against PARP-1. Out of 27 phytochemicals, we report 12 phytochemicals binding to the catalytic domain of PARP-1 with an affinity higher than FR257517, PJ34 and Talazoparib (highly potent inhibitors of the enzyme). Among these 12 compounds, five phytochemicals namely Stigmasterol, Withacnistin, Withaferin A, Withanolide G and Withanolide B show an exceptionally high binding affinity for the catalytic domain of PARP-1 and bind to the enzyme with similar hydrogen bond formation and hydrophobic interaction pattern as their inhibitors. All of these phytochemicals are BBB permeable so that they can be further developed into potential future neuro-therapeutic drugs against neurodegenerative disorders involving neuronal cell death.

Natural Withanolides in the Treatment of Chronic Diseases

Withanolides, and in particular extracts from Withania somnifera, have been used for over 3,000 years in traditional Ayurvedic and Unani Indian medical systems as well as within several other Asian countries. Traditionally, the extracts were ascribed a wide range of pharmacologic properties with corresponding medical uses, including adaptogenic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, sedative/anxiolytic, cytotoxic, antitussive, and immunomodulatory. Since the discovery of the archetype withaferin A in 1965, approximately 900 of these naturally occurring, polyoxygenated steroidal lactones with 28-carbon ergostane skeletons have been discovered across 24 diverse structural types. Subsequently, extensive pharmacologic research has identified multiple mechanisms of action across key inflammatory pathways. In this chapter we identify and describe the major withanolides with anti-inflammatory properties, illustrate their role within essential and supportive inflammatory pathways (including NF-κB, JAK/STAT, AP-1, PPARγ, Hsp90 Nrf2, and HIF-1), and then discuss the clinical application of these withanolides in inflammation-mediated chronic diseases (including arthritis, autoimmune, cancer, neurodegenerative, and neurobehavioral). These naturally derived compounds exhibit remarkable biologic activity across these complex disease processes, while showing minimal adverse effects. As novel compounds and analogs continue to be discovered, characterized, and clinically evaluated, the interest in withanolides as a novel therapeutic only continues to grow.

Inhibition of Gelatinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) by Withania somnifera Phytochemicals Confers Neuroprotection in Stroke: An In Silico Analysis

A stroke or cerebrovascular accident is a serious, life-threatening medical condition that occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is severely reduced or cut off, depriving brain tissue of oxygen and nutrients. Studies suggested that level of gelatinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) usually increases in the brain after stroke. The elevated activity of gelatinases plays the deleterious role in ischemic stroke, hemorrhagic stroke and perinatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. Therefore, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9 inhibition have therapeutic importance in stroke condition. Present in silico study investigates whether Withania somnifera (WS) phytochemicals inhibit the MMP-2 and MMP-9 by binding to the catalytic domain, as similar to their inhibitor or not. For that, we performed molecular docking study to evaluate the gelatinases-inhibitory potential of 36 WS phytochemicals, which compared with gelatinases inhibitors viz. hydroxamic acid, quercetin, doxycycline, minocycline and reverse hydroxamate. The results suggest that 28 out of 36 WS phytochemicals show higher affinity for MMP-2 owing to bind with active site residues of S1'-pocket with lower binding energy and smaller inhibition constant (Ki) than considered inhibitors. As well as, withanolide G and withafastuosin E show higher affinity for MMP-9 than reverse hydroxamate inhibitor. These phytochemicals have neuroprotective potential as an inherently useful oral drug to combat ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke mediated by gelatinases.

Withania somnifera Root Extract Enhances Chemotherapy through 'Priming'

Withania somnifera extracts are known for their anti-cancerous, anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties. One of their mechanisms of actions is to modulate mitochondrial function through increasing oxidative stress. Recently 'priming' has been suggested as a potential mechanism for enhancing cancer cell death. In this study we demonstrate that 'priming', in HT-29 colon cells, with W. somnifera root extract increased the potency of the chemotherapeutic agent cisplatin. We have also showed the W. somnifera root extract enhanced mitochondrial dysfunction and that the underlying mechanism of 'priming' was selectively through increased ROS. Moreover, we showed that this effect was not seen in non-cancerous cells.

The Role of Reactive Oxygen Species in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, and Huntington's Disease: A Mini Review

Neurodegenerative diseases affect not only the life quality of aging populations, but also their life spans. All forms of neurodegenerative diseases have a massive impact on the elderly. The major threat of these brain diseases includes progressive loss of memory, Alzheimer's disease (AD), impairments in the movement, Parkinson's disease (PD), and the inability to walk, talk, and think, Huntington's disease (HD). Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are highlighted as a central feature of brain degenerative diseases. Oxidative stress, a condition that occurs due to imbalance in oxidant and antioxidant status, has been known to play a vital role in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases including AD, PD, and HD. A large number of studies have utilized oxidative stress biomarkers to investigate the severity of these neurodegenerative diseases and medications are available, but these only treat the symptoms. In traditional medicine, a large number of medicinal plants have been used to treat the symptoms of these neurodegenerative diseases. Extensive studies scientifically validated the beneficial effect of natural products against neurodegenerative diseases using suitable animal models. This short review focuses the role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of AD, PD, and HD and the protective efficacy of natural products against these diseases.

Sertraline and venlafaxine improves motor performance and neurobehavioral deficit in quinolinic acid induced Huntington's like symptoms in rats: Possible neurotransmitters modulation

BACKGROUND

Huntington Disease is autosomal, fatal and progressive neurodegenerative disorder for which clinically available drugs offer only symptomatic relief. Emerging strides have indicated that antidepressants improve motor performance, restore neurotransmitters level, ameliorates striatal atrophy, increases BDNF level and may enhance neurogenesis. Therefore, we investigated sertraline and venlafaxine, clinically available drugs for depression with numerous neuroprotective properties, for their beneficial effects, if any, in quinolinic acid induced Huntington's like symptoms in rats.

METHODS

Rats were administered quinolinic acid (QA) (200 nmol/2μl saline) intrastriatal bilaterally on 0day. Sertraline and venlafaxine (10 and 20mg/kg, po) each were administered for 21days once a day. Motor performance was assessed using rotarod test, grip strength test, narrow beam walk test on weekly basis. On day 22, animals were sacrificed and rat striatum was isolated for biochemical (LPO, GSH and Nitrite), neuroinflammation (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) and neurochemical analysis (GABA, glutamate, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, DOPAC, HVA and 5-HIAA).

RESULTS

QA treatment significantly altered body weight, motor performance, oxidative defense (increased LPO, nitrite and decreased GSH), pro-inflammatory cytokines levels (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β), neurochemical level (GABA, glutamate, nor-epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, HVA, DOPAC, 5-HIAA). Sertraline and venlafaxine at selected doses significantly attenuated QA induced alterations in striatum.

CONCLUSION

The present study suggests that modulation of monoamines level, normalization of GABA and glutamatergic signaling, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties could underlie the neuroprotective effect of sertraline and venlafaxine in QA induced Huntington's like symptoms.

Dihydromyricetin Ameliorates 3NP-induced Behavioral Deficits and Striatal Injury in Rats

Oxidative stress is closely involved in neurodegenerative diseases. The present study aimed to examine the effect of anti-oxidant DHM (dihydromyricetin) on 3NP (3-nitropropionic acid) -induced behavioral deficits of experimental rats and striatal histopathological injury by using behavioral, imaging, biochemistry, histochemistry and molecular biology technologies. The experimental results showed that both motor dysfunctions and learning and memory impairments induced by 3NP were significantly reduced after DHM treatment. 3NP-induced striatal metabolic abnormality was also remarkably improved by DHM treatment, showed as the increased glucose metabolism in PET/CT scan, decreased MDA (malondialdehyde) and increased SOD (superoxide dismutase) activity in enzyme histochemical staining. In addition, the cell apoptosis was evidently detected in the striatum of the 3NP group, while in the 3NP + DHM group, the number of apoptotic cells was remarkably reduced. 3NP treatment obviously induced down-regulation of Bcl-2, and up-regulations of Bax and Cleaved Caspase-3, while these changes were significantly reversed by DHM treatment. The present results suggested that DHM showed its protective effect by anti-oxidant and anti-apoptosis mechanisms.

Computational evidence to inhibition of human acetyl cholinesterase by withanolide a for Alzheimer treatment

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative disorder, is the most common cause of dementia. So far only five drugs have been approved by US FDA that temporarily slow worsening of symptoms for about six to twelve months. The limited number of therapeutic options for AD drives the exploration of new drugs. Enhancement of the central cholinergic function by the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase is a prominent clinically effective approach for the treatment of AD. Recently withanolide A, a secondary metabolite from the ayurvedic plant Withania somnifera has shown substantial neuro-protective ability. The present study is an attempt to elucidate the cholinesterase inhibition potential of withanolide A along with the associated binding mechanism. Our docking simulation results predict high binding affinity of the ligand to the receptor. Further, long de novo simulations for 10 ns suggest that ligand interaction with the residues Thr78, Trp81, Ser120 and His442 of human acetylcholinesterase, all of which fall under one or other of the active sites/subsites, could be critical for its inhibitory activity. The study provides evidence for consideration of withanolide A as a valuable small ligand molecule in treatment and prevention of AD associated pathology. The present information could be of high value for computational screening of AD drugs with low toxicity to normal cells. Accurate knowledge of the 3D structure of human acetylcholinesterase would further enhance the potential of such analysis in understanding the molecular interaction basis between ligand and receptor.

Exploring neuroprotective potential of Withania somnifera phytochemicals by inhibition of GluN2B-containing NMDA receptors: An in silico study

N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) mediated excitotoxicity has been implicated in multi-neurodegenerative diseases. Due to lack of efficacy and adverse effects of NMDA receptor antagonists, search for herbal remedies that may act as therapeutic agents is an active area of research to combat these diseases. Withania somnifera (WS) is being used for centuries as a nerve tonic and Nootropic agents. The present study targets the in silico evaluation of the neuroprotective efficacy of W. somnifera phytochemicals by inhibition of NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity through allosteric inhibition of the GluN2B containing NMDARs. We predict Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) penetration, mutagenicity, drug-likeness and Human Intestinal Absorption properties of 25 WS phytochemicals. Further, molecular docking was performed to know whether these phytochemicals inhibit the GluN2B containing NMDARs or not. The results suggest that Anaferine, Beta-Sitosterol, Withaferin A, Withanolide A, Withanolide B and Withanolide D inhibit GluN2B containing NMDARs through allosteric mode similar to the well-known selective antagonist Ifenprodil. These phytochemicals have potential as an essentially useful oral drug to counter NMDARs mediated excitotoxicity and to treat multi-neurodegenerative diseases.

Withania somnifera Improves Ischemic Stroke Outcomes by Attenuating PARP1-AIF-Mediated Caspase-Independent Apoptosis

Withania somnifera (WS), popularly known as "Ashwagandha" has been used for centuries as a nerve tonic. Its protective effect has been elucidated in many neurodegenerative pathologies, although there is a paucity of data regarding its effects in ischemic stroke. We examined the neuroprotective properties of an aqueous extract of WS in both pre- and poststroke treatment regimens in a mouse model of permanent distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO). WS (200 mg/kg) improved functional recovery and significantly reduced the infarct volume in mice, when compared to those treated with vehicle, in both paradigms. We investigated the protective mechanism/s induced by WS using brain cortices by testing its ability to modulate the expression of key proteins in the ischemic-apoptotic cascade. The Western blots and immunofluorescence analyses of mice cortices revealed that WS upregulated the expression of hemeoxygenase 1 (HO1) and attenuated the expression of the proapoptotic protein poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP1) via the PARP1-AIF pathway, thus preventing the nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), and subsequent apoptosis. Semaphorin-3A (Sema3A) expression was reduced in WS-treated group, whereas Wnt, pGSK3β, and pCRMP2 expression levels were virtually unaltered. These results indicate the interplay of antioxidant-antiapoptic pathways and the possible involvement of angiogenesis in the protective mechanism of WS while emphasizing the noninvolvement of one of the prime pathways of neurogenesis. Our results suggest that WS could be a potential prophylactic as well as a therapeutic agent aiding stroke repair, and that part of its mechanism could be attributed to its antiapoptotic and antioxidant properties.

Protective Effects of Aqueous Extract of Luehea divaricata against Behavioral and Oxidative Changes Induced by 3-Nitropropionic Acid in Rats

Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease. Accordingly, 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) has been found to effectively produce HD-like symptoms. Luehea divaricata (L. divaricata), popularly known in Brazil as “açoita-cavalo,” may act as a neuroprotective agent in vitro and in vivo. We evaluated the hypothesis that the aqueous extract of L. divaricata could prevent behavioral and oxidative alterations induced by 3-NP in rats. 25 adult Wistar male rats were divided into 5 groups: (1) control, (2) L. divaricata (1000 mg/kg), (3) 3-NP, (4) L. divaricata (500 mg/kg) + 3-NP, and (5) L. divaricata (1000 mg/kg) + 3-NP. Groups 2, 4, and 5 received L. divaricata via intragastric gavage daily for 10 days. Animals in groups 3, 4, and 5 received 20 mg/kg 3-NP daily from days 8–10. At day 10, parameters of locomotor activity and biochemical evaluations were performed. Indeed, rats treated with 3-NP showed decreased locomotor activity compared to controls. Additionally, 3-NP increased levels of reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation and decreased ratio of GSH/GSSG and acetylcholinesterase activity in cortex and/or striatum. Our results suggest that rats pretreated with L. divaricata prior to 3-NP treatment showed neuroprotective effects when compared to 3-NP treated controls, which may be due to its antioxidant properties.

Beneficial effect of rice bran extract against 3-nitropropionic acid induced experimental Huntington's disease in rats

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by progressive motor and non-motor dysfunction due to degeneration of medium spiny neurons in striatum. 3-Nitropropionic acid is commonly used to induce the animal model of HD. Rice bran is supposed to have beneficial effects on mitochondrial function. The present study has been designed to explore the effect of rice bran extract against 3-Nitropropionic acid induced neurotoxicity in rats. 3-Nitropropionic acid (10 mg/kg, i.p) was administered systemically for 21 days. Hexane and ethanol extract of rice bran were prepared using Soxhlation. Hexane (250 mg/kg) and ethanol extract (250 mg/kg) were administered per os for 21 days in 3-NP treated groups. Behavioral parameters (body weight, grip strength, motor coordination, locomotion) were conducted on 7th, 14th and 21st day. Animals were sacrificed on 22nd day for biochemical, mitochondrial dysfunction (Complex II), neuroinflammatory and neurochemical estimation in striatum. This study demonstrates significant alteration in behavioral parameters, oxidative burden (increased lipid peroxidation, nitrite concentration and decreased glutathione), mitochondrial function (decreased Complex II enzyme activity), pro-inflammatory mediators and neurochemical levels in 3-nitropropionic acid treated animals. Administration of hexane and ethanol extract prevented the behavioral, biochemical, neuroinflammatory (increased TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) and neurochemical alterations (decreased dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, 5-hydroxy indole acetic acid, GABA and increased 3,4-dihydro phenyl acetaldehyde, homovanillic acid and glutamate levels) induced by 3-nitropropionic acid. The outcomes of present study suggest that rice bran extract is beneficial and might emerge as an adjuvant or prophylactic therapy for treatment of HD like symptoms.

Effects of Withania somnifera on oral ethanol self-administration in rats

Recent evidence has shown that Withania somnifera Dunal (Ashwagandha or Indian ginseng), a herbal remedy used in traditional medicine, impairs morphine-elicited place conditioning. Here, we investigated the effect of W. somnifera roots extract (WSE) on motivation for drinking ethanol using operant self-administration paradigms. Wistar rats were trained to self-administer ethanol (10%) by nose-poking. The effects of WSE (25-75 mg/kg) were evaluated on acquisition and maintenance, on ethanol breakpoint under a progressive-ratio schedule of reinforcement and on the deprivation effect and reinstatement of seeking behaviours. Moreover, on the basis of the recent suggestion of an involvement of GABAB receptors in WSE central effects, we studied the interaction between WSE and GABAB ligands. The effect of WSE on saccharin (0.05%) oral self-administration was also tested. The results show that WSE reduced the acquisition, maintenance and breakpoint of ethanol self-administration. WSE also reduced the deprivation effect, reinstatement of ethanol-seeking behaviours and saccharin reinforcement. Furthermore, the GABAB receptor antagonist, phaclofen, counteracted the ability of WSE to impair the maintenance of ethanol self-administration. These findings show that WSE, by an action that may involve GABAB receptors, impairs motivation for drinking ethanol and suggest that further investigations should be performed to determine whether W. somnifera may represent a new approach for the management of alcohol abuse.

Anticancer activities of Withania somnifera: Current research, formulations, and future perspectives

CONTEXT

Cancer, being a cause of death for major fraction of population worldwide, is one of the most studied diseases and is being investigated for the development of new technologies and more accurate therapies. Still the currently available therapies for cancer have many lacunae which affect the patient's health severely in the form of side effects. The natural drugs obtained from the medicinal plants provide a better alternative to fight against this devastating disease. Withania somnifera L. Dunal (Solanaceae), a well-known Ayurvedic medicinal plant, has been traditionally used to cure various ailments for centuries.

OBJECTIVES

Considering the immense potential of W. somnifera, this review provides a detail account of its vital phytoconstituents and summarizes the present status of the research carried out on its anticancerous activities, giving future directions.

METHODS

The sources of scientific literature were accessed from various electronic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, and library search.

RESULTS

Various parts of W. somnifera especially the roots with its unique contents have been proved effective against different kinds of cancers. The most active components withanolides and withaferins along with a few other metabolites including withanone (WN) and withanosides have been reported effective against different types of cancer cell lines.

CONCLUSION

This herb holds an important place among various anticancer medicinal plants. It is very essential to further screen and to investigate different formulations for anticancer therapy in vitro as well as in vivo in combination with established chemotherapy.

W ithania somnifera (Ashwagandha) in neurobehavioural disorders induced by brain oxidative stress in rodents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objectives

W ithania somnifera has been in use for several thousand years in Ayurveda to treat various neurological disorders. There is, however, not much scientific data on its protective role in neuronal pathology specifically against brain oxidative stress. Hence, an attempt is made in this work for systematic review and meta-analysis of W. somnifera on neurobehavioural disorders induced by brain oxidative stress in rodents.

Methods

A systematic search of the effect of W. somnifera on brain oxidative stress-induced neuronal pathology was performed using electronic databases. The systematic review was performed on neurobehavioural parameters, whereas meta-analysis of W. somnifera effect was done on oxidative stress markers (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione and lipid peroxidation), nitrite, protein carbonyl, AchE, ChAT and Ach of rodent brain. Data were analysed using Review Manager Software.

Key findings

Twenty-eight studies were selected based upon the inclusion and exclusion criteria. W. somnifera appreciably inhibited the neurological abnormalities due to oxidative stress in rodent brain produced by different physical and chemical stimuli. W. somnifera also significantly restored the altered oxidative and other stress markers in different parts of rodent brain.

Summary

The systematic review provides scientific evidence for the traditional claim of W. somnifera use in different neurological aliments. However, future clinical trials are mandated to establish the therapeutic efficacy and safety in human beings.

Neuroprotective effect of hemeoxygenase-1/glycogen synthase kinase-3β modulators in 3-nitropropionic acid-induced neurotoxicity in rats

The present study has been designed to explore the possible interaction between hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1) and glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) pathway in 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP)-induced neurotoxicity in rats. 3-NP produces neurotoxicity by inhibition of the mitochondrial complex II (enzyme succinate dehydrogenase) and by sensitizing the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. Recent studies have reported the therapeutic potential of HO-1/GSK-3β modulators in different neurodegenerative disorders. However, their exact role is yet to be explored. The present study is an attempt to investigate the effect of pharmacological modulation of HO-1/GSK-3β pathway against 3-NP-induced behavioral, biochemical and molecular alterations in rat. Behavioral observation, oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory [tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β)], HO-1 and GSK-3β activity were evaluated post 3-NP treatment. Findings of the present study demonstrate a significant alteration in the locomotor activity, motor coordination, oxidative burden (increased lipid peroxidation, nitrite concentration and decreased endogenous antioxidants), pro-inflammatory mediators [TNF-α, IL-1β], HO-1 and GSK-3β activity in 3-NP-treated animals. Further, administration of hemin (10- and 30-mg/kg; i.p.) and lithium chloride (LiCl) (25- and 50-mg/kg; i.p.) prevented the alteration in body weight, motor impairments, oxidative stress and cellular markers. In addition, combined administration of hemin (10-mg/kg) and LiCl (25-mg/kg) showed synergistic effect on 3-NP-treated rats. Pretreatment with Tin (IV) protoporphyrin (40 μM/kg), HO-1 inhibitor reversed the beneficial effect of LiCl and hemin. Outcomes of the present study suggest that HO-1 and GSK-3β enzymes are involved in the pathophysiology of HD. The modulators of both the pathways might be used as adjuvants or prophylactic therapy for the treatment of HD-like symptoms.

Plants and phytochemicals for Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive motor dysfunction, including chorea and dystonia, emotional disturbances, memory, and weight loss. The medium spiny neurons of striatum and cortex are mainly effected in HD. Various hypotheses, including molecular genetics, oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, metabolic dysfunction, and mitochondrial impairment have been proposed to explain the pathogenesis of neuronal dysfunction and cell death. Despite no treatment is available to fully stop the progression of the disease, there are treatments available to help control the chorea. The present review deals with brief pathophysiology of the disease, plants and phytochemicals that have shown beneficial effects against HD like symptoms. The literature for the current review was collected using various databases such as Science direct, Pubmed, Scopus, Sci-finder, Google Scholar, and Cochrane database with a defined search strategy.