Neighborhood Contextual Factors, Maternal Smoking, and Birth Outcomes: Multilevel Analysis of the South Carolina PRAMS Survey, 2000–2003

Are Babies Born Preterm High-Risk Asthma Candidates?

Among preterm infants, the risk of developing asthma is a matter of debate. This review discusses the state of the art of poorly understood prematurity-associated asthma. Impaired pulmonary function is common in children born prematurely. Preterm infants are prone to developing viral respiratory tract infections, bronchiolitis in the first year of life, and recurrent viral wheezing in preschool age. All of these conditions may precede asthma development. We also discuss the role of both atopic sensitization and intestinal microbiome and, consequently, immune maturation. Diet and pollution have been considered to better understand how prematurity could be associated with asthma. Understanding the effect of factors involved in asthma onset may pave the way to improve the prediction of this asthma phenotype.

Response to "The Time has Come for All States to Measure Racial Discrimination: A Call to Action for the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS)"

We respond to a recent call to action for the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) to include a "core" question or validated measure on discrimination to allow for systematic assessment of the impact of racial discrimination on adverse birth outcomes among a large population-based sample in the United States. We outline activities of the CDC PRAMS project that relate to this call to action.

Preterm birth disparities between states in the United States: an opportunity for public health interventions

Objective: To examine associations between statelevel characteristics and state-level preterm birth rates.Study design: We conducted a retrospective ecological cross-sectional study using statelevel data from 2013 to 2014 extracted from publicly available sources -the March of Dimes PeriStats database, the U.S. Census Bureau, the US Department of Education, and the US Department of Justice.Results: State-level preterm birth rates correlated with the following state characteristics: poverty rate, obesity rate, percentage of non-Hispanic Black women residents, smoking rate, percent of C - section deliveries, percent of births to women <20 years old, pregnancies receiving late/no prenatal care, and violent crimes per capita. Linear regression analysis found that only the percent of non-Hispanic Black women by state remained a significant predictor of state-level preterm birth rates after adjusting for other risk factors.Conclusions: States with higher percentages of non-Hispanic Black women had higher rates of preterm birth, even after adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, prenatal care, and maternal health by state. These findings suggest that public health interventions that target contextual and environmental risk factors affecting non-Hispanic Black women may help to curb rising rates of preterm birth in the United States.

Factors related to prenatal smoking among socioeconomically disadvantaged women

Socioeconomically disadvantaged pregnant women are especially at risk for smoking. To understand better this health behavior disparity, this systematic, integrative, comprehensive review aimed to identify factors related to prenatal smoking among socioeconomically disadvantaged women in the United States. A comprehensive literature search yielded 67 articles published between 2008 and 2016. Associated factors included any study variable related to persistent prenatal smoking. The Social Ecological Model (SEM), a multidimensional ecological framework, was used to organize the findings. Thirty-eight factors were explored in the reviewed studies and categorized according to SEM dimensions: individual, interpersonal, organizational, community, public policies and laws. At the individual level, most studies identified the socioeconomically disadvantaged prenatal smoker as older, US-born, White, unmarried, and multiparous. Other individual-level factors included alcohol abuse, nicotine dependence, and psychosocial factors such as stress and depressive symptoms. For broader levels of the SEM, associated factors included abuse/trauma, secondhand smoke exposure, lack of prenatal care, smoking cessation interventions, neighborhood risk, and state level initiatives such as cigarette taxes. The results of this review suggested multiple directions for future research to move science toward effective, scalable, and sustainable approaches that effectively address prenatal smoking among socioeconomically disadvantaged women.

Neighborhood affluence protects against antenatal smoking: evidence from a spatial multiple membership model

A spatial multiple membership model formalizes the effect of neighborhood affluence on antenatal smoking. The data are geocoded New Jersey birth certificate records linked to United States census tract-level data from 1999 to 2007. Neighborhood affluence shows significant spatial autocorrelation and local clustering. Better model fit is observed when incorporating the spatial clustering of neighborhood affluence into multivariate analyses. Relative to the spatial multiple membership model, the multilevel model that ignores spatial clustering produced downwardly biased standard errors; the effective sample size of the key parameter of interest (neighborhood affluence) is also lower. Residents of communities located in high-high affluence clusters likely have better access to health-promoting institutions that regulate antenatal smoking behaviors.

Neighborhood ethnic density and self-rated health: Investigating the mechanisms through social capital and health behaviors

While living with co-ethnics benefits minorities' health, the so-called ethnic density effect, little is known about the mechanisms through which neighborhood ethnic density influences self-rated health. We examine two pathways, namely neighborhood social capital and health behaviors, with a 2010 survey collected in Philadelphia (2297 blacks and 492 Hispanics). The mediation analysis indicates that (1) living with co-ethnics is beneficial to both blacks' and Hispanics' self-rated health, (2) neighborhood social capital and health behaviors mediate almost 15% of the ethnic density effect for blacks, and (3) the two mechanisms do not explain why living with co-ethnics improves Hispanics' health.

Racial Disparities in Children's Health: A Longitudinal Analysis of Mothers Based on the Multiple Disadvantage Model

This secondary data analysis of 4373 mothers and their children investigated racial disparities in children's health and its associations with social structural factors, social relationships/support, health/mental health, substance use, and access to health/mental health services. The study drew on longitudinal records for mother-child pairs created from data in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Generalized estimating equations yielded results showing children's good health to be associated positively with mother's health (current health and health during pregnancy), across three ethnic groups. For African-American children, good health was associated with mothers' education level, receipt of informal child care, receipt of public health insurance, uninsured status, and absence of depression. For Hispanic children, health was positively associated with mothers' education level, receipt of substance-use treatment, and non-receipt of public assistance. Implications for policy and intervention are discussed.

Neighborhood context and birth outcomes: Going beyond neighborhood disadvantage, incorporating affluence

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Neighborhood affluence protects against the risk of poor birth outcome.

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The protective effect of affluence holds for Whites, Blacks, Hispanics and Asians.

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Mediation of these pathways by prenatal smoking varies by racial group.

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The discourse on neighborhoods and birth outcomes should include affluence.

Transgenerational Transmission of Preterm Birth Risk: The Role of Race and Generational Socio-Economic Neighborhood Context

Objectives We investigated associations of mothers' preterm birth (PTB) status with her infants' PTB risk. We also examined whether this relationship differs by mothers' race and generational socio-economic neighborhood context. Methods Participants were 6592 non-Hispanic (NH) white and NH black mother-infant pairs born in 2009-2011 and 1979-1998, respectively, in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. Birth records were used to determine gestational age at birth, PTB status (<37 completed weeks of gestation), and PTB subgroups-late and early PTB (34-36 weeks and <34 completed weeks of gestation, respectively). Census data on tract racial composition and household income were used to characterize residential race and economic environment. Logistic regression models were used to calculate Odds Ratios (ORs), Relative Risk Ratios (RRR), and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Stratified analyses were conducted to assess effect modification. Results Overall, 8.21, 6.63 and 1.58% infants had PTB, LPTB, and EPTB, respectively. Maternal PTB status was associated with a 46% increase in infant PTB (95% CI: 1.08-1.98), EPTB (95% CI: 0.80-2.69), and LPTB (95% CI: 1.04-2.04) risk. Maternal PTB-infant PTB associations, particularly maternal PTB-infant LPTB associations, were stronger among NH blacks, mothers in neighborhoods with a high percentage of NH black residents in both generations, or mothers who moved to neighborhoods with a higher percentage of NH black residents. Conclusions for Practice Race and generational socio-economic neighborhood context modify transgenerational transmission of PTB risk. These findings are important for identification of at-risk populations and to inform future mechanistic studies.

Reducing tobacco smoking and smoke exposure to prevent preterm birth and its complications

Tobacco smoking and smoke exposure during pregnancy are associated with a range of adverse health outcomes, including preterm birth. Also, children born preterm have a higher risk of complications including bronchopulmonary dysplasia and asthma when their mothers smoked during pregnancy. Smoking cessation in early pregnancy can help reduce the adverse impact on offspring health. Counselling interventions are effective in promoting smoking cessation and reducing the incidence of preterm birth. Peer support and incentive-based approaches are likely to be of additional benefit, whereas the effectiveness of pharmacological interventions, including nicotine replacement therapy, has not definitely been established. Smoke-free legislation can help reduce smoke exposure as well as maternal smoking rates at a population level, and is associated with a reduction in preterm birth. Helping future mothers to stop smoking and protect their children from second hand smoke exposure must be a key priority for health care workers and policy makers alike.

Prevalence of stressful life events during pregnancy and its association with postpartum depressive symptoms

Experiencing stressful life events (SLEs) has negative consequences for both mother and infant. This study examined the predictive contributions of (1) experiences of each SLE separately and its association with postpartum depressive symptoms (PDS), (2) experiences of cumulative number of SLEs and PDS, and (3) the cumulative experiences of SLEs across three domains (relational, financial, physical health). Georgia's Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System data were obtained from 2004 to 2011. Chi-square tests and a combination of weighted logistic regression models were conducted to predict self-reported PDS. Odds ratios (OR) and 95 % confidence intervals (CI) were reported. A total of 10,231 women were included in the analysis; 15 % of the mothers reported PDS. Arguments with partner, trouble paying bills, and separation/divorce significantly predicted increased odds of PDS. Increased odds of PDS were observed with increasing numbers of cumulative SLEs. Experiencing high stress in any domain significantly predicted PDS with the highest predictor being high stress across all domains, followed by experiencing a combination of high relational and financial stress. SLEs were associated with reporting PDS among new mothers in Georgia. It is important to assess for SLEs during prenatal care and provide resources aimed at reducing the impact of SLEs.

Understanding the role of violence as a social determinant of preterm birth

BACKGROUND

Preterm birth is one of the leading causes of infant morbidity and mortality. Although major strides have been made in identifying risk factors for preterm birth, the complexities between social and individual risk factors are not well understood.

OBJECTIVE

This study examines the association between neighborhood youth violence and preterm birth.

STUDY DESIGN

A 10-year live birth registry data set (2004 through 2013) from Richmond, VA, a mid-sized, racially diverse city, was analyzed (N = 27,519). Data were geocoded and merged with census tract and police report data. Gestational age at birth was classified as <32 weeks, 32-36 weeks, and term ≥37 weeks. Using police report data, youth violence rates were calculated for each census tract area and categorized into quartiles. Hierarchical models were examined fitting multilevel logistic regression models incorporating randomly distributed census tract-specific intercepts assuming a binary distribution and a logit link function.

RESULTS

Nearly a fifth of all births occurred in areas with the highest quartiles of violence. After adjusting for maternal age, race/ethnicity, education, paternal presence, parity, adequacy of prenatal care, pregnancy complications, history of preterm birth, insurance, and tobacco, alcohol, and drug use, census tracts with the highest level of violence had 38% higher odds of very preterm births (adjusted odds ratio, 1.38; 95% confidence interval, 1.06-1.80), than census tracts with the lowest level of violence.

CONCLUSION

There is an association between high rate of youth violence and very preterm birth. Findings from this study may help inform future research to develop targeted interventions aimed at reducing community violence and very preterm birth in vulnerable populations.

Systematic Review of Interventions for Racial/Ethnic-Minority Pregnant Smokers

INTRODUCTION

Large disparities exist in smoking rates during pregnancy by racial/ethnic status.

AIMS

The current review examined controlled studies that predominantly included racial/ethnic-minority pregnant smokers for providing smoking cessation treatment.

METHODS

Two authors independently conducted the literature searches in the standard databases using a combination of the keywords with minority, pregnancy, smoking, and cessation identifiers.

RESULTS

The searches identified nine articles that met the inclusion criteria. Only two studies exclusively targeted specific minority groups. Most of them provided some form of brief smoking cessation counseling, with two combining with incentives and one combining with pharmacotherapy. Two studies provided intensive cognitive interventions. Pregnant smokers of American Indian or Alaska Native, Hispanic subgroups, and Asian or Pacific Islander are under-studied.

CONCLUSIONS

Future studies to treat minority pregnant smokers could target under-studied minority groups and may need to directly and intensely target smoking behavior, address cultural and psychosocial issues in an individualized and comprehensive manner, and analyze cost-benefit of an intervention.

Association of neighborhood context with offspring risk of preterm birth and low birthweight: A systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based studies

Findings from studies investigating associations of residential environment with poor birth outcomes have been inconsistent. In a systematic review and meta-analysis, we examined associations of neighborhood disadvantage with preterm birth (PTB) and low birthweight (LBW), and explored differences in relationships among racial groups. Two reviewers searched English language articles in electronic databases of published literature. We used random effects logistic regression to calculate odds ratios (and 95% confidence intervals) relating neighborhood disadvantage with PTB and LBW. Neighborhood disadvantage, most disadvantaged versus least disadvantaged neighborhoods, was defined by researchers of included studies, and comprised of poverty, deprivation, racial residential segregation or racial composition, and crime. We identified 1314 citations in the systematic review. The meta-analyses included 7 PTB and 14 LBW cross-sectional studies conducted in the United States (U.S.). Overall, we found 27% [95%CI: 1.16, 1.39] and 11% [95%CI: 1.07, 1.14] higher risk for PTB and LBW among the most disadvantaged compared with least disadvantaged neighborhoods. No statistically significant association was found in meta-analyses of studies that adjusted for race. In race-stratified meta-analyses models, we found 48% [95%CI: 1.25, 1.75] and 61% [95%CI: 1.30, 2.00] higher odds of PTB and LBW among non-Hispanic white mothers living in most disadvantaged neighborhoods compared with those living in least disadvantaged neighborhoods. Similar, but less strong, associations were observed for PTB (15% [95%CI: 1.09, 1.21]) and LBW (17% [95%CI: 1.10, 1.25]) among non-Hispanic black mothers. Neighborhood disadvantage is associated with PTB and LBW, however, associations may differ by race. Future studies evaluating causal mechanisms underlying the associations, and racial/ethnic differences in associations, are warranted.

Association Between Neighborhood-Level Smoking and Individual Smoking Risk: Maternal Smoking Among Latina Women in Pennsylvania

OBJECTIVE

We examined whether or not high maternal smoking rates at the neighborhood level increase the likelihood of individual smoking by Latina women in the three months prior to and during pregnancy, independent of other individual and neighborhood factors.

METHODS

This study was observational in nature, using linked vital statistics records for 24,443 Latina women in Pennsylvania (2009-2010) and U.S. Census data for 2,398 census tracts. We used multilevel logistic regression models to determine the individual odds of self-reported maternal smoking given different census tract-level rates of maternal smoking in the previous three years (2006-2008), adjusting for maternal and census-tract characteristics, including ethnic density, population density, and poverty.

RESULTS

Higher levels of maternal smoking at the census-tract level were associated with increased individual odds of smoking among Latina mothers. In the fully adjusted model, a 10% increase in the neighborhood smoking rate was associated with a 1.28 (95% confidence interval 1.22, 1.34) increase in the individual odds of smoking.

CONCLUSION

Latina women living in census tracts where more women have smoked during or immediately prior to pregnancy are themselves at higher risk of smoking during this period.

Where there's smoke: Cigarette use, social acceptability, and spatial approaches to multilevel modeling

I contribute to understandings of how context is related to individual outcomes by assessing the added value of combining multilevel and spatial modeling techniques. This methodological approach leads to substantive contributions to the smoking literature, including improved clarity on the central contextual factors and the examination of one manifestation of the social acceptability hypothesis. For this analysis I use restricted-use natality data from the Vital Statistics, and county-level data from the 2005-9 ACS. Critically, the results suggest that spatial considerations are still relevant in a multilevel framework. In addition, I argue that spatial processes help explain the relationships linking racial/ethnic minority concentration to lower overall odds of smoking.

How Does the Context of Reception Matter? The Role of Residential Enclaves in Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy Among Mexican-Origin Mothers

This study investigated whether and how different patterns of group exposure within residential contexts (i.e., living in a Mexican immigrant enclave, a Mexican ethnic enclave, a pan-Hispanic enclave, or a non-Hispanic white neighborhood) are associated with smoking during pregnancy among Mexican-origin mothers. Using a hierarchical linear modeling approach, we found that Mexican-origin mothers' residential contexts are important for understanding their smoking during pregnancy. Residence in an ethnic enclave is associated with decreased odds of smoking during pregnancy, while residence in a non-Hispanic white neighborhood is associated with increased odds of smoking during pregnancy, above and beyond the mothers' individual characteristics. The magnitude of the associations between residence in an ethnic enclave and smoking during pregnancy is similar across the different types of ethnic enclaves examined. The important roles of inter- and intra-group exposures suggests that in order to help Mexican-origin women, policy makers should more carefully design place-based programs and interventions that target geographic areas and the specific types of residential contexts in which women are at greater risk.

Growth Models of Maternal Smoking Behavior: Individual and Contextual Factors

BACKGROUND

Persistent maternal smoking during pregnancy, reduction or cessation during pregnancy, and smoking initiation or resumption postpartum impel further research to understand these behavioral patterns and opportunities for intervention.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated heterogenous longitudinal patterns of smoking quantity to determine if these patterns vary across three maternal age groups, and whether the influence of individual and contextual risk factors varies by maternal age.

METHODS

Separate general growth mixture models were estimated for mothers ages 15-25, 26-35, and 36+, allowing different empirical patterns of an ordinal measure of smoking behavior at six time points, from preconception through child entry to kindergarten.

RESULTS

We identify five classes for mothers ages 15-25, four classes for ages 26-35, and three classes for ages 36+. Each age group presents classes of nonsmokers and persistent heavy smokers. Intermediate to these ends of the spectrum, each age group exhibited its own smoking classes characterized by the extent of pregnancy smoking reductions and postpartum behavior. In all three age groups, class membership can be distinguished by individual sociodemographic and behavioral characteristics. Co-resident smokers predicted nearly all smoking classifications across age groups, and selected neighborhood characteristics predicted classification of younger (15-25) and older (36+) mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

The design, timing, and delivery of smoking prevention and cessation services, for women seeking to become pregnant and for women presenting for prenatal or pediatric care, are best guided by individual characteristics, particularly maternal age, preconception alcohol consumption, and postpartum depression, but neighborhood characteristics merit further attention for mothers at different ages.

Racial segregation and maternal smoking during pregnancy: a multilevel analysis using the racial segregation interaction index

Drawing from both the place stratification and ethnic enclave perspectives, we use multilevel modeling to investigate the relationships between women's race/ethnicity (i.e., non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, Asian, and Hispanic) and maternal smoking during pregnancy, and examine if these relationships are moderated by racial segregation in the continental United States. The results show that increased interaction with whites is associated with increased probability of maternal smoking during pregnancy, and racial segregation moderates the relationships between race/ethnicity and maternal smoking. Specifically, living in a less racially segregated area is related to a lower probability of smoking during pregnancy for black women, but it could double and almost triple the probability of smoking for Asian women and Hispanic women, respectively. Our findings provide empirical evidence for both the place stratification and ethnic enclave perspectives.

Re-conceptualising prenatal life stressors in predicting post-partum depression: cumulative-, specific-, and domain-specific approaches to calculating risk

BACKGROUND

Prenatal life stress predicts post-partum depression (PPD); however, studies generally examine individual stressors (a specific approach) or the summation of such exposure (a cumulative approach) and their associations with PPD. Such approaches may oversimplify prenatal life stress as a risk factor for PPD. We evaluated approaches in assessing prenatal life stress as a predictor of PPD diagnosis, including a domain-specific approach that captures cumulative life stress while accounting for stress across different life stress domains: financial, relational, and physical health.

METHODS

The Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, a population-based survey, was used to analyse the association of prenatal life stressors with PPD diagnoses among 3566 New York City post-partum women.

RESULTS

Specific stressors were not associated with PPD diagnosis after controlling for sociodemographic variables. Exposure to a greater number of stressors was associated with PPD diagnosis, even after adjusting for both sociodemographic variables and specific stressors [odds ratio (OR) = 3.1, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.5, 6.7]. Individuals reporting a moderate-to-high number of financial problems along with a moderate-to-high number of physical problems were at greater odds of PPD (OR = 4.2, 95% CI = 1.2, 15.3); those with a moderate-to-high number of problems in all three domains were at over fivefold increased odds of PPD (OR = 5.5, CI = 1.1, 28.5).

CONCLUSIONS

In assessing prenatal stress, clinicians should consider the extent to which stressors occur across different life domains; this association appears stronger with PPD diagnosis than simple assessments of individual stressors, which typically overestimate risk or cumulative exposures.

Understanding maternal smoking during pregnancy: does residential context matter?

The goal of this paper was to investigate whether or not the factors beyond individual characteristics were associated with maternal smoking during pregnancy. Social capital has been found to have both negative and positive implications for health behaviors, and this study attempted to understand its association with maternal smoking during pregnancy. Specifically, the association between county-level social capital and rurality and maternal smoking during pregnancy was investigated. In this study, Putman's definition of social capital was used (e.g., connections among individuals-social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them). The ecological dimension of rurality was used to define rurality, where rural areas are smaller in population size and are less densely populated when compared to non-rural areas. Using data for all women who gave birth during the year 2007 in the United States, we implemented a series of multilevel logistic regression models. The results showed that social capital was significantly associated with maternal smoking during pregnancy. Specifically, higher social capital in a county was associated with higher odds that women smoked during their pregnancy. However, in rural counties, higher social capital was associated with a decrease in the odds that a woman smoked during her pregnancy. A one unit increase in the social capital index was found to reduce the risk of smoking during pregnancy among those women living in rural counties by 11 percent. The results also showed that improvement of the socioeconomic status of the counties in which women live reduced the risk of maternal smoking during pregnancy. As this study found that factors beyond individual characteristics are important for reducing the risk that women smoked during pregnancy, county characteristics should be taken into account when developing policies focused on intervening maternal smoking during pregnancy.

A study of the association between characteristics of CLSCs and the risk of small for gestational age births among term and preterm births in Quebec, Canada

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to describe whether the social environment of the territory of residence is associated with indicators of foetal growth retardation.

METHODS

All newborns (n = 667,254) from 143 Centres locaux de services communautaires (CLSC) territories of Quebec, Canada, 2000-2008 were included in this study. Small for gestational age (SGA), very small for gestational age (VSGA) and SGA-preterm births were identified. Social characteristics and access to medical services of the population in the CLSCs were obtained from the Canadian Community Health Survey. Data on material deprivation, racial diversity and social isolation were obtained from the 2001 and 2006 Canadian censuses. A compromise between two methods, stepwise and best subset, was used to select variables for multivariate logistic modelling. The model was fitted on each studied outcome: SGA, VSGA and SGA among preterm births.

RESULTS

When investigating material deprivation, racial diversity, social isolation, proportion of sedentary residents and proportion with fair or poor availability of health care services in the CLSC territories, material deprivation, racial diversity, social isolation and sedentary residents showed increased adjusted risk of SGA. Results of the model fit on VSGA birth and on SGA among preterm births were similar.

CONCLUSION

CLSC characteristics of material deprivation, racial diversity, social isolation as well as the contextual variable of sedentary lifestyle were associated with indicators of foetal growth retardation. Further work on features of the CLSCs could help understand how the outcome of SGA is associated with contextual factors and identify groups for intervention.