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Aivelo T, Alburkat H, Suomalainen N, Kukowski R, Heikkinen P, Oksanen A, Huitu O, Kivistö R, Sironen T. Potentially zoonotic pathogens and parasites in opportunistically sourced urban brown rats ( Rattus norvegicus) in and around Helsinki, Finland, 2018 to 2023. Euro Surveill 2024; 29. [PMID: 39364602 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2024.29.40.2400031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/05/2024] Open
Abstract
BackgroundBrown rats (Rattus norvegicus) are synanthropic rodents with worldwide distribution, which are known to harbour many zoonotic pathogens and parasites. No systematic zoonotic surveys targeting multiple pathogens and parasites have previously been conducted in urban rats in Finland.AimIn Helsinki, Finland, we explored the presence and prevalence in brown rats of certain pathogens and parasites (including helminths, viruses and bacteria) across potentially zoonotic taxa.MethodsWe opportunistically received rat carcasses from pest management operators and citizens from 2018 to 2023. We searched for heart- or lungworms, performed rat diaphragm digestion to check for Trichinella and morphologically identified intestinal helminths. We assessed virus exposure by immunofluorescence assay or PCR, and detected bacteria by PCR (Leptospira) or culture (Campylobacter).ResultsAmong the rats investigated for helminths, no heart- or lungworms or Trichinella species were detected and the most common finding was the cestode Hymenolepis nana (in 9.7% of individuals sampled, 28/288). For some of the surveyed virus taxa, several rats were seropositive (orthopoxviruses, 5.2%, 11/211; arenaviruses, 2.8%, 6/211; hantaviruses 5.2%, 11/211) or tested positive by PCR (rat hepatitis E virus, 1.8%, 4/216). Campylobacter jejuni (6.6%, 17/259) and Leptospira interrogans (1.2%, 2/163) bacteria were also present in the rat population examined.ConclusionsPrevalences of potentially zoonotic pathogens and parasites in brown rats in Helsinki appeared low. This may explain low or non-existent diagnosis levels of rat-borne pathogen and parasite infections reported in people there. Nevertheless, further assessment of under-diagnosis, which cannot be excluded, would enhance understanding the risks of zoonoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuomas Aivelo
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology research program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Science Communication & Society, Institute of Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Hussein Alburkat
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Nina Suomalainen
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Rebekka Kukowski
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology research program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Petra Heikkinen
- Finnish Food Authority, Animal Health Diagnostic Unit (FINPAR), Oulu, Finland
| | - Antti Oksanen
- Finnish Food Authority, Animal Health Diagnostic Unit (FINPAR), Oulu, Finland
| | - Otso Huitu
- Natural Resources Institute Finland, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Rauni Kivistö
- Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tarja Sironen
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Chauhan RP, Fogel R, Limson J. Overview of Diagnostic Methods, Disease Prevalence and Transmission of Mpox (Formerly Monkeypox) in Humans and Animal Reservoirs. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1186. [PMID: 37317160 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11051186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Mpox-formerly monkeypox-is a re-emerging zoonotic virus disease, with large numbers of human cases reported during multi-country outbreaks in 2022. The close similarities in clinical symptoms that Mpox shares with many orthopoxvirus (OPXV) diseases make its diagnosis challenging, requiring laboratory testing for confirmation. This review focuses on the diagnostic methods used for Mpox detection in naturally infected humans and animal reservoirs, disease prevalence and transmission, clinical symptoms and signs, and currently known host ranges. Using specific search terms, up to 2 September 2022, we identified 104 relevant original research articles and case reports from NCBI-PubMed and Google Scholar databases for inclusion in the study. Our analyses observed that molecular identification techniques are overwhelmingly being used in current diagnoses, especially real-time PCR (3982/7059 cases; n = 41 studies) and conventional PCR (430/1830 cases; n = 30 studies) approaches being most-frequently-used to diagnose Mpox cases in humans. Additionally, detection of Mpox genomes, using qPCR and/or conventional PCR coupled to genome sequencing methods, offered both reliable detection and epidemiological analyses of evolving Mpox strains; identified the emergence and transmission of a novel clade 'hMPXV-1A' lineage B.1 during 2022 outbreaks globally. While a few current serologic assays, such as ELISA, reported on the detection of OPXV- and Mpox-specific IgG (891/2801 cases; n = 17 studies) and IgM antibodies (241/2688 cases; n = 11 studies), hemagglutination inhibition (HI) detected Mpox antibodies in human samples (88/430 cases; n = 6 studies), most other serologic and immunographic assays used were OPXV-specific. Interestingly, virus isolation (228/1259 cases; n = 24 studies), electron microscopy (216/1226 cases; n = 18 studies), and immunohistochemistry (28/40; n = 7 studies) remain useful methods of Mpox detection in humans in select instances using clinical and tissue samples. In animals, OPXV- and Mpox-DNA and antibodies were detected in various species of nonhuman primates, rodents, shrews, opossums, a dog, and a pig. With evolving transmission dynamics of Mpox, information on reliable and rapid detection methods and clinical symptoms of disease is critical for disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravendra P Chauhan
- Biotechnology Innovation Centre, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6139, Eastern Cape, South Africa
| | - Ronen Fogel
- Biotechnology Innovation Centre, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6139, Eastern Cape, South Africa
| | - Janice Limson
- Biotechnology Innovation Centre, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6139, Eastern Cape, South Africa
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Mull N, Schexnayder A, Stolt A, Sironen T, Forbes KM. Effects of habitat management on rodent diversity, abundance, and virus infection dynamics. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10039. [PMID: 37113517 PMCID: PMC10126759 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
As anthropogenic factors continue to degrade natural areas, habitat management is needed to restore and maintain biodiversity. However, the impacts of different habitat management regimes on ecosystems have largely focused on vegetation analyses, with limited evaluation of downstream effects on wildlife. We compared the effects of grassland management regimes (prescribed burning, cutting/haying, or no active management) on rodent communities and the viruses they hosted. Rodents were trapped in 13 existing grassland sites in Northwest Arkansas, USA during 2020 and 2021. Rodent blood samples were screened for antibodies against three common rodent-borne virus groups: orthohantaviruses, arenaviruses, and orthopoxviruses. We captured 616 rodents across 5953 trap nights. Burned and unmanaged sites had similarly high abundance and diversity, but burned sites had a higher proportion of grassland species than unmanaged sites; cut sites had the highest proportion of grassland species but the lowest rodent abundance and diversity. A total of 38 rodents were seropositive for one of the three virus groups (34 orthohantavirus, three arenavirus, and one orthopoxvirus). Thirty-six seropositive individuals were found in burned sites, and two orthohantavirus-seropositive individuals were found in cut sites. Cotton rats and prairie voles, two grassland species, accounted for 97% of the rodents seropositive for orthohantavirus. Our study indicates that prescribed burns lead to a diverse and abundant community of grassland rodent species compared with other management regimes; as keystone taxa, these results also have important implications for many other species in food webs. Higher prevalence of antibodies against rodent-borne viruses in burned prairies shows an unexpected consequence likely resulting from robust host population densities supported by the increased habitat quality of these sites. Ultimately, these results provide empirical evidence that can inform grassland restoration and ongoing management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel Mull
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of ArkansasFayettevilleArkansasUSA
| | - Amy Schexnayder
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of ArkansasFayettevilleArkansasUSA
| | - Abigail Stolt
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of ArkansasFayettevilleArkansasUSA
| | - Tarja Sironen
- Department of VirologyUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
- Department of Veterinary BiosciencesUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
| | - Kristian M. Forbes
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of ArkansasFayettevilleArkansasUSA
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Bruneau RC, Tazi L, Rothenburg S. Cowpox Viruses: A Zoo Full of Viral Diversity and Lurking Threats. Biomolecules 2023; 13:325. [PMID: 36830694 PMCID: PMC9953750 DOI: 10.3390/biom13020325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox viruses (CPXVs) exhibit the broadest known host range among the Poxviridae family and have caused lethal outbreaks in various zoo animals and pets across 12 Eurasian countries, as well as an increasing number of human cases. Herein, we review the history of how the cowpox name has evolved since the 1700s up to modern times. Despite early documentation of the different properties of CPXV isolates, only modern genetic analyses and phylogenies have revealed the existence of multiple Orthopoxvirus species that are currently constrained under the CPXV designation. We further chronicle modern outbreaks in zoos, domesticated animals, and humans, and describe animal models of experimental CPXV infections and how these can help shaping CPXV species distinctions. We also describe the pathogenesis of modern CPXV infections in animals and humans, the geographic range of CPXVs, and discuss CPXV-host interactions at the molecular level and their effects on pathogenicity and host range. Finally, we discuss the potential threat of these viruses and the future of CPXV research to provide a comprehensive review of CPXVs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Stefan Rothenburg
- Department of Medial Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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5
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Genomic Sequencing and Phylogenomics of Cowpox Virus. Viruses 2022; 14:v14102134. [PMID: 36298689 PMCID: PMC9611595 DOI: 10.3390/v14102134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV; genus Orthopoxvirus; family Poxviridae) is the causative agent of cowpox, a self-limiting zoonotic infection. CPXV is endemic in Eurasia, and human CPXV infections are associated with exposure to infected animals. In the Fennoscandian region, five CPXVs isolated from cats and humans were collected and used in this study. We report the complete sequence of their genomes, which ranged in size from 220–222 kbp, containing between 215 and 219 open reading frames. The phylogenetic analysis of 87 orthopoxvirus strains, including the Fennoscandian CPXV isolates, confirmed the division of CPXV strains into at least five distinct major clusters (CPXV-like 1, CPXV-like 2, VACV-like, VARV-like and ECTV-Abatino-like) and can be further divided into eighteen sub-species based on the genetic and patristic distances. Bayesian time-scaled evolutionary history of CPXV was reconstructed employing concatenated 62 non-recombinant conserved genes of 55 CPXV. The CPXV evolution rate was calculated to be 1.65 × 10−5 substitution/site/year. Our findings confirmed that CPXV is not a single species but a polyphyletic assemblage of several species and thus, a reclassification is warranted.
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Capobianchi MR, Di Caro A, Piubelli C, Mori A, Bisoffi Z, Castilletti C. Monkeypox 2022 outbreak in non-endemic countries: Open questions relevant for public health, nonpharmacological intervention and literature review. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1005955. [PMID: 36204640 PMCID: PMC9530127 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1005955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Starting from mid-May 2022, cases of human monkeypox started to rise in several non-endemic countries. By mid-July, more than 17000 confirmed/suspect cases have been reported by at least 82 countries worldwide, with a regular incremental trend. In order to contain the disease diffusion, risk evaluation is crucial to undertake informed decisions and effective communication campaigns. However, since orthopoxvirus infections so far have attracted low attention, due to the eradication of smallpox 40 years ago, and to the confinement of human monkeypox almost exclusively to endemic areas, several unresolved issues concerning natural history, ecology and pathogenesis remain. To this respect, we identified some open questions and reviewed the relevant literature on monkeypoxvirus and/or related orthopoxviruses. The results will be discussed in the perspective of their relevance to public health decisions, particularly those related to non-pharmacological interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rosaria Capobianchi
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
- Saint Camillus International Medical University, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonino Di Caro
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
- Saint Camillus International Medical University, Rome, Italy
| | - Chiara Piubelli
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
| | - Antonio Mori
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
| | - Zeno Bisoffi
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
| | - Concetta Castilletti
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
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7
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MacNeill AL. Comparative Pathology of Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11080892. [PMID: 36015017 PMCID: PMC9412692 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11080892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This review provides a brief history of the impacts that a human-specific Orthopoxvirus (OPXV), Variola virus, had on mankind, recalls how critical vaccination was for the eradication of this disease, and discusses the consequences of discontinuing vaccination against OPXV. One of these consequences is the emergence of zoonotic OPXV diseases, including Monkeypox virus (MPXV). The focus of this manuscript is to compare pathology associated with zoonotic OPXV infection in veterinary species and in humans. Efficient recognition of poxvirus lesions and other, more subtle signs of disease in multiple species is critical to prevent further spread of poxvirus infections. Additionally included are a synopsis of the pathology observed in animal models of MPXV infection, the recent spread of MPXV among humans, and a discussion of the potential for this virus to persist in Europe and the Americas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L MacNeill
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
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8
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Mull N, Carlson CJ, Forbes KM, Becker DJ. Virus isolation data improve host predictions for New World rodent orthohantaviruses. J Anim Ecol 2022; 91:1290-1302. [PMID: 35362148 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Identifying reservoir host species is crucial for understanding the ecology of multi-host pathogens and predicting risks of pathogen spillover from wildlife to people. Predictive models are increasingly used for identifying ecological traits and prioritizing surveillance of likely zoonotic reservoirs, but these often employ different types of evidence for establishing host associations. Comparisons between models with different infection evidence are necessary to guide inferences about the trait profiles of likely hosts and identify which hosts and geographical regions are likely sources of spillover. Here, we use New World rodent-orthohantavirus associations to explore differences in the performance and predictions of models trained on two types of evidence for infection and onward transmission: RT-PCR and live virus isolation data, representing active infections versus host competence, respectively. Orthohantaviruses are primarily carried by muroid rodents and cause the diseases haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) in humans. We show that although boosted regression tree (BRT) models trained on RT-PCR and live virus isolation data both performed well and capture generally similar trait profiles, rodent phylogeny influenced previously collected RT-PCR data, and BRTs using virus isolation data displayed a narrower list of predicted reservoirs than those using RT-PCR data. BRT models trained on RT-PCR data identified 138 undiscovered hosts and virus isolation models identified 92 undiscovered hosts, with 27 undiscovered hosts identified by both models. Distributions of predicted hosts were concentrated in several different regions for each model, with large discrepancies between evidence types. As a form of validation, virus isolation models independently predicted several orthohantavirus-rodent host associations that had been previously identified through empirical research using RT-PCR. Our model predictions provide a priority list of species and locations for future orthohantavirus sampling. More broadly, these results demonstrate the value of multiple data types for predicting zoonotic pathogen hosts. These methods can be applied across a range of systems to improve our understanding of pathogen maintenance and increase efficiency of pathogen surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel Mull
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Colin J Carlson
- Center for Global Health Science and Security, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Kristian M Forbes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Daniel J Becker
- Department of Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA
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Diaz-Cánova D, Moens UL, Brinkmann A, Nitsche A, Okeke MI. Genomic Sequencing and Analysis of a Novel Human Cowpox Virus With Mosaic Sequences From North America and Old World Orthopoxvirus. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:868887. [PMID: 35592007 PMCID: PMC9112427 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.868887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses (OPXVs) not only infect their natural hosts, but some OPXVs can also cause disease in humans. Previously, we partially characterized an OPXV isolated from an 18-year-old male living in Northern Norway. Restriction enzyme analysis and partial genome sequencing characterized this virus as an atypical cowpox virus (CPXV), which we named CPXV-No-H2. In this study, we determined the complete genome sequence of CPXV-No-H2 using Illumina and Nanopore sequencing. Our results showed that the whole CPXV-No-H2 genome is 220,276 base pairs (bp) in length, with inverted terminal repeat regions of approximately 7 kbp, containing 217 predicted genes. Seventeen predicted CPXV-No-H2 proteins were most similar to OPXV proteins from the Old World, including Ectromelia virus (ECTV) and Vaccinia virus, and North America, Alaskapox virus (AKPV). CPXV-No-H2 has a mosaic genome with genes most similar to other OPXV genes, and seven potential recombination events were identified. The phylogenetic analysis showed that CPXV-No-H2 formed a separate clade with the German CPXV isolates CPXV_GerMygEK938_17 and CPXV_Ger2010_MKY, sharing 96.4 and 96.3% nucleotide identity, respectively, and this clade clustered closely with the ECTV-OPXV Abatino clade. CPXV-No-H2 is a mosaic virus that may have arisen out of several recombination events between OPXVs, and its phylogenetic clustering suggests that ECTV-Abatino-like cowpox viruses form a distinct, new clade of cowpox viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Diaz-Cánova
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ugo L Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Annika Brinkmann
- Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, WHO Reference Laboratory for SARS-CoV-2 and WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, WHO Reference Laboratory for SARS-CoV-2 and WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Malachy Ifeanyi Okeke
- Section of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Natural and Environmental Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, American University of Nigeria, Yola, Nigeria
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Ogola JG, Alburkat H, Masika M, Korhonen E, Uusitalo R, Nyaga P, Anzala O, Vapalahti O, Sironen T, Forbes KM. Seroevidence of Zoonotic Viruses in Rodents and Humans in Kibera Informal Settlement, Nairobi, Kenya. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2021; 21:973-978. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2021.0046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Ganda Ogola
- Department of Medical Microbiology, KAVI Institute of Clinical Research, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hussein Alburkat
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Moses Masika
- Department of Medical Microbiology, KAVI Institute of Clinical Research, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Essi Korhonen
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ruut Uusitalo
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Geosciences and Geography, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Philip Nyaga
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Omu Anzala
- Department of Medical Microbiology, KAVI Institute of Clinical Research, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Olli Vapalahti
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tarja Sironen
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kristian M. Forbes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA
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Serological Evidence of Multiple Zoonotic Viral Infections among Wild Rodents in Barbados. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10060663. [PMID: 34071689 PMCID: PMC8229225 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10060663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Rodents are reservoirs for several zoonotic pathogens that can cause human infectious diseases, including orthohantaviruses, mammarenaviruses and orthopoxviruses. Evidence exists for these viruses circulating among rodents and causing human infections in the Americas, but much less evidence exists for their presence in wild rodents in the Caribbean. Methods: Here, we conducted serological and molecular investigations of wild rodents in Barbados to determine the prevalence of orthohantavirus, mammarenavirus and orthopoxvirus infections, and the possible role of these rodent species as reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens. Using immunofluorescent assays (IFA), rodent sera were screened for the presence of antibodies to orthohantavirus, mammarenavirus (Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus—LCMV) and orthopoxvirus (Cowpox virus—CPXV) infections. RT-PCR was then conducted on orthohantavirus and mammarenavirus-seropositive rodent sera and tissues, to detect the presence of viral RNA. Results: We identified antibodies against orthohantavirus, mammarenavirus, and orthopoxvirus among wild mice and rats (3.8%, 2.5% and 7.5% seropositivity rates respectively) in Barbados. No orthohantavirus or mammarenavirus viral RNA was detected from seropositive rodent sera or tissues using RT–PCR. Conclusions: Key findings of this study are the first serological evidence of orthohantavirus infections in Mus musculus and the first serological evidence of mammarenavirus and orthopoxvirus infections in Rattus norvegicus and M. musculus in the English-speaking Caribbean. Rodents may present a potential zoonotic and biosecurity risk for transmission of three human pathogens, namely orthohantaviruses, mammarenaviruses and orthopoxviruses in Barbados.
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Alakunle E, Moens U, Nchinda G, Okeke MI. Monkeypox Virus in Nigeria: Infection Biology, Epidemiology, and Evolution. Viruses 2020; 12:E1257. [PMID: 33167496 PMCID: PMC7694534 DOI: 10.3390/v12111257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 353] [Impact Index Per Article: 88.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), which is a member of orthopoxvirus genus. The reemergence of MPXV in 2017 (at Bayelsa state) after 39 years of no reported case in Nigeria, and the export of travelers' monkeypox (MPX) from Nigeria to other parts of the world, in 2018 and 2019, respectively, have raised concern that MPXV may have emerged to occupy the ecological and immunological niche vacated by smallpox virus. This review X-rays the current state of knowledge pertaining the infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution of MPXV in Nigeria and worldwide, especially with regard to the human, cellular, and viral factors that modulate the virus transmission dynamics, infection, and its maintenance in nature. This paper also elucidates the role of recombination, gene loss and gene gain in MPXV evolution, chronicles the role of signaling in MPXV infection, and reviews the current therapeutic options available for the treatment and prevention of MPX. Additionally, genome-wide phylogenetic analysis was undertaken, and we show that MPXV isolates from recent 2017 outbreak in Nigeria were monophyletic with the isolate exported to Israel from Nigeria but do not share the most recent common ancestor with isolates obtained from earlier outbreaks, in 1971 and 1978, respectively. Finally, the review highlighted gaps in knowledge particularly the non-identification of a definitive reservoir host animal for MPXV and proposed future research endeavors to address the unresolved questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Alakunle
- Department of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Biomedical Science Concentration, School of Arts and Sciences, American University of Nigeria, 98 Lamido Zubairu Way, PMB 2250 Yola, Nigeria;
| | - Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Institute of Medical Biology, University i Tromsø (UIT)—The Arctic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway;
| | - Godwin Nchinda
- Laboratory of Vaccinology and Immunology, The Chantal Biya International Reference Center for Research on the Prevention and Management HIV/AIDS (CIRCB), P.O Box 3077 Yaoundé-Messa, Cameroon;
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology & Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P.O Box 420110 Awka, Nigeria
| | - Malachy Ifeanyi Okeke
- Department of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Biomedical Science Concentration, School of Arts and Sciences, American University of Nigeria, 98 Lamido Zubairu Way, PMB 2250 Yola, Nigeria;
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Grzybek M, Tołkacz K, Sironen T, Mäki S, Alsarraf M, Behnke-Borowczyk J, Biernat B, Nowicka J, Vaheri A, Henttonen H, Behnke JM, Bajer A. Zoonotic Viruses in Three Species of Voles from Poland. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10101820. [PMID: 33036253 PMCID: PMC7599905 DOI: 10.3390/ani10101820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Wild rodents constitute a significant threat to public health. We tested 77 voles from northeastern Poland for the presence of antibodies to hantaviruses, arenaviruses and cowpox viruses. We report 18.2% overall seroprevalence of zoonotic viruses. Our results contribute to knowledge about the role of Polish voles as possible reservoirs of viral infections. Abstract Rodents are known to be reservoir hosts for a plethora of zoonotic viruses and therefore play a significant role in the dissemination of these pathogens. We trapped three vole species (Microtus arvalis, Alexandromys oeconomus and Microtus agrestis) in northeastern Poland, all of which are widely distributed species in Europe. Using immunofluorescence assays, we assessed serum samples for the presence of antibodies to hantaviruses, arenaviruses and cowpox viruses (CPXV). We detected antibodies against CPXV and Puumala hantavirus (PUUV), the overall seroprevalence of combined viral infections being 18.2% [10.5–29.3] and mostly attributed to CPXV. We detected only one PUUV/TULV cross-reaction in Microtus arvalis (1.3% [0.1–7.9]), but found similar levels of antibodies against CPXV in all three vole species. There were no significant differences in seroprevalence of CPXV among host species and age categories, nor between the sexes. These results contribute to our understanding of the distribution and abundance of CPXV in voles in Europe, and confirm that CPXV circulates also in Microtus and Alexandromys voles in northeastern Poland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Grzybek
- Department of Tropical Parasitology, Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Gdansk, Powstania Styczniowego 9B, 81-519 Gdynia, Poland; (B.B.); (J.N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-58-3491941
| | - Katarzyna Tołkacz
- Department of Eco-Epidemiology for Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa Str, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland; (K.T.); (M.A.); (A.B.)
- Department of Antarctic Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, 5A Pawińskiego Str, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Tarja Sironen
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 3, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (T.S.); (S.M.); (A.V.)
| | - Sanna Mäki
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 3, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (T.S.); (S.M.); (A.V.)
| | - Mohammed Alsarraf
- Department of Eco-Epidemiology for Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa Str, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland; (K.T.); (M.A.); (A.B.)
| | - Jolanta Behnke-Borowczyk
- Department of Forest Pathology, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 71c, 60-625 Poznan, Poland;
| | - Beata Biernat
- Department of Tropical Parasitology, Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Gdansk, Powstania Styczniowego 9B, 81-519 Gdynia, Poland; (B.B.); (J.N.)
| | - Joanna Nowicka
- Department of Tropical Parasitology, Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Gdansk, Powstania Styczniowego 9B, 81-519 Gdynia, Poland; (B.B.); (J.N.)
| | - Antti Vaheri
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 3, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (T.S.); (S.M.); (A.V.)
| | - Heikki Henttonen
- Natural Resources Institute Finland, Latokartanonkaari 9, 00790 Helsinki, Finland;
| | - Jerzy M. Behnke
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK;
| | - Anna Bajer
- Department of Eco-Epidemiology for Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa Str, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland; (K.T.); (M.A.); (A.B.)
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Fischer S, Franke A, Imholt C, Gethmann J, Spierling NG, Jacob J, Beer M, Hoffmann D, Ulrich RG. Patchy Occurrence of Cowpox Virus in Voles from Germany. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2020; 20:471-475. [PMID: 32013767 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2019.2530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV), genus Orthopoxvirus, family Poxviridae, is a zoonotic pathogen in Eurasian wild rodents. High seroprevalences have been reported previously for vole and murine species in Europe. In contrast, viral DNA was only rarely detected, and very few reservoir-derived CPXV isolates exist. In this study, CPXV DNA and CPXV-reactive antibodies were monitored in wild small mammals for 5 years in four German federal states. Screening of liver tissues of 3966 animals by CPXV real-time PCR (qPCR) revealed five voles of two species positive for CPXV DNA. Two positive bank voles (Myodes glareolus) and two positive common voles (Microtus arvalis) originated from two plots in Baden-Wuerttemberg. One positive bank vole originated from Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. None of the small mammals from Thuringia and North Rhine-Westphalia was positive in the qPCR. CPXV antigen-based indirect immunofluorescence assays of 654 highly diluted chest cavity fluid samples detected two bank voles and two common voles from the same sites in Baden-Wuerttemberg to be highly seroreactive. Five animals were CPXV DNA positive, and four other animals were orthopoxvirus seropositive. Our study indicates both a very low prevalence and a patchy occurrence of CPXV in common and bank voles and absence in other rodent and shrew species in Germany. The multiple detection of infected voles at one site in Baden-Wuerttemberg and continued detection in a region of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania classify these regions as potential endemic foci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Fischer
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Annika Franke
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Christian Imholt
- Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Vertebrate Research, Münster, Germany
| | - Jörn Gethmann
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Nastasja G Spierling
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Jens Jacob
- Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Vertebrate Research, Münster, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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15
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Weber S, Jeske K, Ulrich RG, Imholt C, Jacob J, Beer M, Hoffmann D. In Vivo Characterization of a Bank Vole-Derived Cowpox Virus Isolate in Natural Hosts and the Rat Model. Viruses 2020; 12:v12020237. [PMID: 32093366 PMCID: PMC7077282 DOI: 10.3390/v12020237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus in the Poxviridae family and is endemic in western Eurasia. Based on seroprevalence studies in different voles from continental Europe and UK, voles are suspected to be the major reservoir host. Recently, a CPXV was isolated from a bank vole (Myodes glareolus) in Germany that showed a high genetic similarity to another isolate originating from a Cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus). Here we characterize this first bank vole-derived CPXV isolate in comparison to the related tamarin-derived isolate. Both isolates grouped genetically within the provisionally called CPXV-like 3 clade. Previous phylogenetic analysis indicated that CPXV is polyphyletic and CPXV-like 3 clade represents probably a different species if categorized by the rules used for other orthopoxviruses. Experimental infection studies with bank voles, common voles (Microtusarvalis) and Wistar rats showed very clear differences. The bank vole isolate was avirulent in both common voles and Wistar rats with seroconversion seen only in the rats. In contrast, inoculated bank voles exhibited viral shedding and seroconversion for both tested CPXV isolates. In addition, bank voles infected with the tamarin-derived isolate experienced a marked weight loss. Our findings allow for the conclusion that CPXV isolates might differ in their replication capacity in different vole species and rats depending on their original host. Moreover, the results indicate host-specific differences concerning CPXV-specific virulence. Further experiments are needed to identify individual virulence and host factors involved in the susceptibility and outcome of CPXV-infections in the different reservoir hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Weber
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.W.); (K.J.)
| | - Kathrin Jeske
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.W.); (K.J.)
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;
| | - Rainer G. Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;
| | - Christian Imholt
- Vertebrate Research, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Toppheideweg 88, 48161 Münster, Germany; (C.I.); (J.J.)
| | - Jens Jacob
- Vertebrate Research, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Toppheideweg 88, 48161 Münster, Germany; (C.I.); (J.J.)
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.W.); (K.J.)
- Correspondence: (M.B.); (D.H.); Tel.: +49-38351-7-1200 (M.B.); +49-38351-7-1627 (D.H.)
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.W.); (K.J.)
- Correspondence: (M.B.); (D.H.); Tel.: +49-38351-7-1200 (M.B.); +49-38351-7-1627 (D.H.)
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Isolation and Characterization of Akhmeta Virus from Wild-Caught Rodents ( Apodemus spp.) in Georgia. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00966-19. [PMID: 31554682 PMCID: PMC6880181 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00966-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Akhmeta virus is a unique Orthopoxvirus that was described in 2013 from the country of Georgia. This paper presents the first isolation of this virus from small mammal (Rodentia; Apodemus spp.) samples and the molecular characterization of those isolates. The identification of the virus in small mammals is an essential component to understanding the natural history of this virus and its transmission to human populations and could guide public health interventions in Georgia. Akhmeta virus genomes harbor evidence suggestive of recombination with a variety of other orthopoxviruses; this has implications for the evolution of orthopoxviruses, their ability to infect mammalian hosts, and their ability to adapt to novel host species. In 2013, a novel orthopoxvirus was detected in skin lesions of two cattle herders from the Kakheti region of Georgia (country); this virus was named Akhmeta virus. Subsequent investigation of these cases revealed that small mammals in the area had serological evidence of orthopoxvirus infections, suggesting their involvement in the maintenance of these viruses in nature. In October 2015, we began a longitudinal study assessing the natural history of orthopoxviruses in Georgia. As part of this effort, we trapped small mammals near Akhmeta (n = 176) and Gudauri (n = 110). Here, we describe the isolation and molecular characterization of Akhmeta virus from lesion material and pooled heart and lung samples collected from five wood mice (Apodemus uralensis and Apodemus flavicollis) in these two locations. The genomes of Akhmeta virus obtained from rodents group into 2 clades: one clade represented by viruses isolated from A. uralensis samples, and one clade represented by viruses isolated from A. flavicollis samples. These genomes also display several presumptive recombination events for which gene truncation and identity have been examined. IMPORTANCE Akhmeta virus is a unique Orthopoxvirus that was described in 2013 from the country of Georgia. This paper presents the first isolation of this virus from small mammal (Rodentia; Apodemus spp.) samples and the molecular characterization of those isolates. The identification of the virus in small mammals is an essential component to understanding the natural history of this virus and its transmission to human populations and could guide public health interventions in Georgia. Akhmeta virus genomes harbor evidence suggestive of recombination with a variety of other orthopoxviruses; this has implications for the evolution of orthopoxviruses, their ability to infect mammalian hosts, and their ability to adapt to novel host species.
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17
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Jeske K, Weber S, Pfaff F, Imholt C, Jacob J, Beer M, Ulrich RG, Hoffmann D. Molecular Detection and Characterization of the First Cowpox Virus Isolate Derived from a Bank Vole. Viruses 2019; 11:v11111075. [PMID: 31752129 PMCID: PMC6893522 DOI: 10.3390/v11111075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus (OPV) that infects a wide range of mammals. CPXV-specific DNA and antibodies were detected in different vole species, such as common voles (Microtus arvalis) and bank voles (Myodes glareolus). Therefore, voles are the putative main reservoir host of CPXV. However, CPXV was up to now only isolated from common voles. Here we report the detection and isolation of a bank vole-derived CPXV strain (GerMygEK 938/17) resulting from a large-scale screening of bank voles collected in Thuringia, Germany, during 2017 and 2018. Phylogenetic analysis using the complete viral genome sequence indicated a high similarity of the novel strain to CPXV clade 3 and to OPV “Abatino” but also to Ectromeliavirus (ECTV) strains. Phenotypic characterization of CPXV GerMygEK 938/17 using inoculation of embryonated chicken eggs displayed hemorrhagic pock lesions on the chorioallantoic membrane that are typical for CPXV but not for ECTV. CPXV GerMygEK 938/17 replicated in vole-derived kidney cell lines but at lower level than on Vero76 cell line. In conclusion, the first bank vole-derived CPXV isolate provides new insights into the genetic variability of CPXV in the putative reservoir host and is a valuable tool for further studies about CPXV-host interaction and molecular evolution of OPV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Jeske
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Saskia Weber
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Florian Pfaff
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Christian Imholt
- Vertebrate Research, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Toppheideweg 88, 48161 Münster, Germany
| | - Jens Jacob
- Vertebrate Research, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn-Institute, Toppheideweg 88, 48161 Münster, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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Lanave G, Dowgier G, Decaro N, Albanese F, Brogi E, Parisi A, Losurdo M, Lavazza A, Martella V, Buonavoglia C, Elia G. Novel Orthopoxvirus and Lethal Disease in Cat, Italy. Emerg Infect Dis 2019; 24:1665-1673. [PMID: 30124195 PMCID: PMC6106440 DOI: 10.3201/eid2409.171283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We report detection and full-genome characterization of a novel orthopoxvirus (OPXV) responsible for a fatal infection in a cat. The virus induced skin lesions histologically characterized by leukocyte infiltration and eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusions. Different PCR approaches were unable to assign the virus to a defined OPXV species. Large amounts of typical brick-shaped virions, morphologically related to OPXV, were observed by electron microscopy. This OPXV strain (Italy_09/17) was isolated on cell cultures and embryonated eggs. Phylogenetic analysis of 9 concatenated genes showed that this virus was distantly related to cowpox virus, more closely related to to ectromelia virus, and belonged to the same cluster of an OPXV recently isolated from captive macaques in Italy. Extensive epidemiologic surveillance in cats and rodents will assess whether cats are incidental hosts and rodents are the main reservoir of the virus. The zoonotic potential of this novel virus also deserves further investigation.
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Lapa D, Beltrame A, Arzese A, Carletti F, Di Caro A, Ippolito G, Capobianchi MR, Castilletti C. Orthopoxvirus Seroprevalence in Cats and Veterinary Personnel in North-Eastern Italy in 2011. Viruses 2019; 11:v11020101. [PMID: 30691058 PMCID: PMC6409756 DOI: 10.3390/v11020101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 01/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses (OPV) are emerging zoonotic pathogens, and an increasing number of human infections is currently reported in Europe and in other continents, warranting heightened attention on this topic. Following two OPV infections reported in veterinarians scratched by sick cats in 2005 and 2007 in North-Eastern-Italy, involving a previously undescribed OPV, a similar strain was isolated by a sick cat from the same territory in 2011, i.e., 6 years later, raising attention on OPV circulation in this region. A surveillance program was launched to assess the OPV seroprevalence among the veterinarians working in local veterinary clinics and in the local wild and domestic cat population; seroprevalence was 33.3% in veterinarians and 19.5% in cats. Seroprevalence in cats was unevenly distributed, peaking at 40% in the area where OPV-infected cats had been observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Lapa
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Anna Beltrame
- IRCCS Sacro Cuore Don Calabria Hospital, 37024 Negrar VR, Italy.
| | - Alessandra Arzese
- Medical Department (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy.
- Microbiology Laboratory Unit, Azienda Sanitaria Universitaria Integrata, Santa Maria della Misericordia University Hospital, 33100 Udine, Italy.
| | - Fabrizio Carletti
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Antonino Di Caro
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Ippolito
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | | | - Concetta Castilletti
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani, 00149 Rome, Italy.
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Gao J, Gigante C, Khmaladze E, Liu P, Tang S, Wilkins K, Zhao K, Davidson W, Nakazawa Y, Maghlakelidze G, Geleishvili M, Kokhreidze M, Carroll DS, Emerson G, Li Y. Genome Sequences of Akhmeta Virus, an Early Divergent Old World Orthopoxvirus. Viruses 2018; 10:v10050252. [PMID: 29757202 PMCID: PMC5977245 DOI: 10.3390/v10050252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Annotated whole genome sequences of three isolates of the Akhmeta virus (AKMV), a novel species of orthopoxvirus (OPXV), isolated from the Akhmeta and Vani regions of the country Georgia, are presented and discussed. The AKMV genome is similar in genomic content and structure to that of the cowpox virus (CPXV), but a lower sequence identity was found between AKMV and Old World OPXVs than between other known species of Old World OPXVs. Phylogenetic analysis showed that AKMV diverged prior to other Old World OPXV. AKMV isolates formed a monophyletic clade in the OPXV phylogeny, yet the sequence variability between AKMV isolates was higher than between the monkeypox virus strains in the Congo basin and West Africa. An AKMV isolate from Vani contained approximately six kb sequence in the left terminal region that shared a higher similarity with CPXV than with other AKMV isolates, whereas the rest of the genome was most similar to AKMV, suggesting recombination between AKMV and CPXV in a region containing several host range and virulence genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxin Gao
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Crystal Gigante
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Ekaterine Khmaladze
- Laboratory of Molecular Epidemiology, National Center for Disease Control and Public Health of Georgia, 9 M. Asatiani Street, Tbilisi 0177, Georgia.
| | - Pengbo Liu
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Shiyuyun Tang
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Kimberly Wilkins
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Kun Zhao
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Whitni Davidson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Yoshinori Nakazawa
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Giorgi Maghlakelidze
- Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Marika Geleishvili
- Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Maka Kokhreidze
- Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture of Georgia (LMA), Animal Disease Diagnostic Department, 49 Vaso Godziashvilis Street, Tbilisi 0159, Georgia.
| | - Darin S Carroll
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Ginny Emerson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Yu Li
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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21
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Springer YP, Hsu CH, Werle ZR, Olson LE, Cooper MP, Castrodale LJ, Fowler N, McCollum AM, Goldsmith CS, Emerson GL, Wilkins K, Doty JB, Burgado J, Gao J, Patel N, Mauldin MR, Reynolds MG, Satheshkumar PS, Davidson W, Li Y, McLaughlin JB. Novel Orthopoxvirus Infection in an Alaska Resident. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 64:1737-1741. [PMID: 28329402 PMCID: PMC5447873 DOI: 10.1093/cid/cix219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background. Human infection by orthopoxviruses is being reported with increasing frequency, attributed in part to the cessation of smallpox vaccination and concomitant waning of population-level immunity. In July 2015, a female resident of interior Alaska presented to an urgent care clinic with a dermal lesion consistent with poxvirus infection. Laboratory testing of a virus isolated from the lesion confirmed infection by an Orthopoxvirus. Methods. The virus isolate was characterized by using electron microscopy and nucleic acid sequencing. An epidemiologic investigation that included patient interviews, contact tracing, and serum testing, as well as environmental and small-mammal sampling, was conducted to identify the infection source and possible additional cases. Results. Neither signs of active infection nor evidence of recent prior infection were observed in any of the 4 patient contacts identified. The patient's infection source was not definitively identified. Potential routes of exposure included imported fomites from Azerbaijan via the patient's cohabiting partner or wild small mammals in or around the patient's residence. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that the virus represents a distinct and previously undescribed genetic lineage of Orthopoxvirus, which is most closely related to the Old World orthopoxviruses. Conclusions. Investigation findings point to infection of the patient after exposure in or near Fairbanks. This conclusion raises questions about the geographic origins (Old World vs North American) of the genus Orthopoxvirus. Clinicians should remain vigilant for signs of poxvirus infection and alert public health officials when cases are suspected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri P Springer
- Alaska Division of Public Health, Section of Epidemiology, Anchorage.,Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development
| | - Christopher H Hsu
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development.,Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, and
| | | | | | - Michael P Cooper
- Alaska Division of Public Health, Section of Epidemiology, Anchorage
| | | | - Nisha Fowler
- Alaska Division of Public Health, Section of Laboratories, Fairbanks
| | | | - Cynthia S Goldsmith
- Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Matthew R Mauldin
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, and.,Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Tennessee
| | | | | | | | - Yu Li
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, and
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22
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Zehender G, Lai A, Veo C, Bergna A, Ciccozzi M, Galli M. Bayesian reconstruction of the evolutionary history and cross-species transition of variola virus and orthopoxviruses. J Med Virol 2018; 90:1134-1141. [PMID: 29446492 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Variola virus (VARV), the causative agent of smallpox, is an exclusively human virus belonging to the genus Orthopoxvirus, which includes many other viral species covering a wide range of mammal hosts, such as vaccinia, cowpox, camelpox, taterapox, ectromelia, and monkeypox virus. The tempo and mode of evolution of Orthopoxviruses were reconstructed using a Bayesian phylodynamic framework by analysing 80 hemagglutinin sequences retrieved from public databases. Bayesian phylogeography was used to estimate their putative ancestral hosts. In order to estimate the substitution rate, the tree including all of the available Orthopoxviruses was calibrated using historical references dating the South American variola minor clade (alastrim) to between the XVI and XIX century. The mean substitution rate determined by the analysis was 6.5 × 10-6 substitutions/site/year. Based on this evolutionary estimate, the time of the most recent common ancestor of the genus Orthopoxvirus was placed at about 10 000 years before the present. Cowpox virus was the species closest to the root of the phylogenetic tree. The root of VARV circulating in the XX century was estimated to be about 700 years ago, corresponding to about 1300 AD. The divergence between West African and South American VARV went back about 500 years ago (falling approximately in the XVI century). A rodent species is the most probable ancestral host from which the ancestors of all the known Orthopoxviruses were transmitted to the other mammal host species, and each of these species represented a dead-end for each new poxvirus species, without any further inter-specific spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianguglielmo Zehender
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Coordinated Research Center "EpiSoMI", University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Alessia Lai
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Carla Veo
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Annalisa Bergna
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimo Ciccozzi
- Unit of Clinical Pathology and Microbiology, University Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Massimo Galli
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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23
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Franke A, Ulrich RG, Weber S, Osterrieder N, Keller M, Hoffmann D, Beer M. Experimental Cowpox Virus (CPXV) Infections of Bank Voles: Exceptional Clinical Resistance and Variable Reservoir Competence. Viruses 2017; 9:v9120391. [PMID: 29257111 PMCID: PMC5744165 DOI: 10.3390/v9120391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a zoonotic virus and endemic in wild rodent populations in Eurasia. Serological surveys in Europe have reported high prevalence in different vole and mouse species. Here, we report on experimental CPXV infections of bank voles (Myodes glareolus) from different evolutionary lineages with a spectrum of CPXV strains. All bank voles, independently of lineage, sex and age, were resistant to clinical signs following CPXV inoculation, and no virus shedding was detected in nasal or buccal swabs. In-contact control animals became only rarely infected. However, depending on the CPXV strain used, inoculated animals seroconverted and viral DNA could be detected preferentially in the upper respiratory tract. The highest antibody titers and virus DNA loads in the lungs were detected after inoculation with two strains from Britain and Finland. We conclude from our experiments that the role of bank voles as an efficient and exclusive CPXV reservoir seems questionable, and that CPXV may be maintained in most regions by other hosts, including other vole species. Further investigations are needed to identify factors that allow and modulate CPXV maintenance in bank voles and other potential reservoirs, which may also influence spill-over infections to accidental hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Franke
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Saskia Weber
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | | | - Markus Keller
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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24
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Dynamics of Pathological and Virological Findings During Experimental Calpox Virus Infection of Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Viruses 2017; 9:v9120363. [PMID: 29182537 PMCID: PMC5744138 DOI: 10.3390/v9120363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental intranasal infection of marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) with calpox virus results in fatal disease. Route and dose used for viral inoculation of the test animals mimics the natural transmission of smallpox, thus representing a suitable model to study pathogenesis and to evaluate new vaccines against orthopoxvirus infection. However, the pathogenic mechanisms leading to death are still unclear. Therefore, our study aimed at investigating the kinetics of pathological alterations to clarify the pathogenesis in calpox virus infection. Following intranasal inoculation with two different viral doses, common marmosets were sacrificed on days 3, 5, 7, 10 and 12 post inoculation. Collected tissue was screened using histopathology, immunohistochemistry, transmission electron microscopy, and virological assays. Our data suggest that primary replication took place in nasal and bronchial epithelia followed by secondary replication in submandibular lymph nodes and spleen. Parallel to viremia at day 7, virus was detectable in many organs, mainly located in epithelial cells and macrophages, as well as in endothelial cells. Based on the onset of clinical signs, the histological and ultrastructural lesions and the immunohistochemical distribution pattern of the virus, the incubation period was defined to last 11 days, which resembles human smallpox. In conclusion, the data indicate that the calpox model is highly suitable for studying orthopoxvirus-induced disease.
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25
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Prkno A, Hoffmann D, Goerigk D, Kaiser M, van Maanen ACF, Jeske K, Jenckel M, Pfaff F, Vahlenkamp TW, Beer M, Ulrich RG, Starke A, Pfeffer M. Epidemiological Investigations of Four Cowpox Virus Outbreaks in Alpaca Herds, Germany. Viruses 2017; 9:v9110344. [PMID: 29156539 PMCID: PMC5707551 DOI: 10.3390/v9110344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Four cowpox virus (CPXV) outbreaks occurred in unrelated alpaca herds in Eastern Germany during 2012–2017. All incidents were initially noticed due to severe, generalized, and finally lethal CPXV infections, which were confirmed by testing of tissue and serum samples. As CPXV-infection has been described in South American camelids (SACs) only three times, all four herds were investigated to gain a deeper understanding of CPXV epidemiology in alpacas. The different herds were investigated twice, and various samples (serum, swab samples, and crusts of suspicious pox lesions, feces) were taken to identify additionally infected animals. Serum was used to detect CPXV-specific antibodies by performing an indirect immunofluorescence assay (iIFA); swab samples, crusts, and feces were used for detection of CPXV-specific DNA in a real-time PCR. In total, 28 out of 107 animals could be identified as affected by CPXV, by iIFA and/or PCR. Herd seroprevalence ranged from 16.1% to 81.2%. To investigate the potential source of infection, wild small mammals were trapped around all alpaca herds. In two herds, CPXV-specific antibodies were found in the local rodent population. In the third herd, CPXV could be isolated from a common vole (Microtus arvalis) found drowned in a water bucket used to water the alpacas. Full genome sequencing and comparison with the genome of a CPXV from an alpaca from the same herd reveal 99.997% identity, providing further evidence that the common vole is a reservoir host and infection source of CPXV. Only in the remaining fourth herd, none of the trapped rodents were found to be CPXV-infected. Rodents, as ubiquitous reservoir hosts, in combination with increasingly popular alpacas, as susceptible species, suggest an enhanced risk of future zoonotic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Almut Prkno
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 11, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Daniela Goerigk
- Veterinary practice Dr. Daniela Goerigk, Naundorfer Str. 9, 04668 Schkortitz, Germany.
| | - Matthias Kaiser
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 11, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Anne Catherine Franscisca van Maanen
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Centre for Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Kathrin Jeske
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Maria Jenckel
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Florian Pfaff
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Thomas W Vahlenkamp
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 29, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Alexander Starke
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 11, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Martin Pfeffer
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Centre for Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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26
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Esparza J, Schrick L, Damaso CR, Nitsche A. Equination (inoculation of horsepox): An early alternative to vaccination (inoculation of cowpox) and the potential role of horsepox virus in the origin of the smallpox vaccine. Vaccine 2017; 35:7222-7230. [PMID: 29137821 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
For almost 150 years after Edward Jenner had published the "Inquiry" in 1798, it was generally assumed that the cowpox virus was the vaccine against smallpox. It was not until 1939 when it was shown that vaccinia, the smallpox vaccine virus, was serologically related but different from the cowpox virus. In the absence of a known natural host, vaccinia has been considered to be a laboratory virus that may have originated from mutational or recombinational events involving cowpox virus, variola viruses or some unknown ancestral Orthopoxvirus. A favorite candidate for a vaccinia ancestor has been the horsepox virus. Edward Jenner himself suspected that cowpox derived from horsepox and he also believed that "matter" obtained from either disease could be used as preventative of smallpox. During the 19th century, inoculation with cowpox (vaccination) was used in Europe alongside with inoculation with horsepox (equination) to prevent smallpox. Vaccine-manufacturing practices during the 19th century may have resulted in the use of virus mixtures, leading to different genetic modifications that resulted in present-day vaccinia strains. Horsepox, a disease previously reported only in Europe, has been disappearing on that continent since the beginning of the 20th century and now seems to have become extinct, although the virus perhaps remains circulating in an unknown reservoir. Genomic sequencing of a horsepox virus isolated in Mongolia in 1976 indicated that, while closely related to vaccinia, this horsepox virus contained additional, potentially ancestral sequences absent in vaccinia. Recent genetic analyses of extant vaccinia viruses have revealed that some strains contain ancestral horsepox virus genes or are phylogenetically related to horsepox virus. We have recently reported that a commercially produced smallpox vaccine, manufactured in the United States in 1902, is genetically highly similar to horsepox virus, providing a missing link in this 200-year-old mystery.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Esparza
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Livia Schrick
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 - Highly Pathogenic Viruses & German Consultant Laboratory for Poxviruses & WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Clarissa R Damaso
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Virus, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 - Highly Pathogenic Viruses & German Consultant Laboratory for Poxviruses & WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
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27
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Okeke MI, Okoli AS, Diaz D, Offor C, Oludotun TG, Tryland M, Bøhn T, Moens U. Hazard Characterization of Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Vector: What Are the Knowledge Gaps? Viruses 2017; 9:v9110318. [PMID: 29109380 PMCID: PMC5707525 DOI: 10.3390/v9110318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 10/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is the vector of choice for human and veterinary applications due to its strong safety profile and immunogenicity in vivo. The use of MVA and MVA-vectored vaccines against human and animal diseases must comply with regulatory requirements as they pertain to environmental risk assessment, particularly the characterization of potential adverse effects to humans, animals and the environment. MVA and recombinant MVA are widely believed to pose low or negligible risk to ecosystem health. However, key aspects of MVA biology require further research in order to provide data needed to evaluate the potential risks that may occur due to the use of MVA and MVA-vectored vaccines. The purpose of this paper is to identify knowledge gaps in the biology of MVA and recombinant MVA that are of relevance to its hazard characterization and discuss ongoing and future experiments aimed at providing data necessary to fill in the knowledge gaps. In addition, we presented arguments for the inclusion of uncertainty analysis and experimental investigation of verifiable worst-case scenarios in the environmental risk assessment of MVA and recombinant MVA. These will contribute to improved risk assessment of MVA and recombinant MVA vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malachy I Okeke
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Arinze S Okoli
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Diana Diaz
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Institute of Medical Biology, University i Tromsø (UiT)-The Arctic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Collins Offor
- Department of Medical and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, IMC University of Applied Sciences Piaristengasse 1, A-3500 Krems, Austria.
| | - Taiwo G Oludotun
- Department of Medical and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, IMC University of Applied Sciences Piaristengasse 1, A-3500 Krems, Austria.
| | - Morten Tryland
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
- Artic Infection Biology, Department of Artic and Marine Biology, UIT-The Artic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Thomas Bøhn
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Institute of Medical Biology, University i Tromsø (UiT)-The Arctic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromso, Norway.
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28
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Quiner CA, Nakazawa Y. Ecological niche modeling to determine potential niche of Vaccinia virus: a case only study. Int J Health Geogr 2017; 16:28. [PMID: 28784125 PMCID: PMC5547515 DOI: 10.1186/s12942-017-0100-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Emerging and understudied pathogens often lack information that most commonly used analytical tools require, such as negative controls or baseline data; thus, new analytical strategies are needed to analyze transmission patterns and drivers of disease emergence. Zoonotic infections with Vaccinia virus (VACV) were first reported in Brazil in 1999, VACV is an emerging zoonotic Orthopoxvirus, which primarily infects dairy cattle and farmers in close contact with infected cows. Prospective studies of emerging pathogens could provide critical data that would inform public health planning and response to outbreaks. By using the location of 87-recorded outbreaks and publicly available bioclimatic data, we demonstrate one such approach. Using an ecological niche model (ENM) algorithm, we identify the environmental conditions under which VACV outbreaks have occurred, and determine additional locations in two affected countries that may be susceptible to transmission. Further, we show how suitability for the virus responds to different levels of various environmental factors and highlight the most important factors in determining its transmission. METHODS A literature review was performed and the geospatial coordinates of 87 molecularly confirmed VACV outbreaks in Brazil were identified. An ENM was generated using MaxENT software by combining principal component analysis results of 19 bioclim spatial layers, and 25 randomly selected subsets of the original list of 87 outbreaks. RESULTS The final ENM predicted all areas where Brazilian outbreaks occurred, one out of five of the Colombian outbreak regions and identified new regions within Brazil that are suitable for transmission based on bioclimatic factors. Further, the most important factors in determining transmission suitability are precipitation of the wettest quarter, annual precipitation, mean temperature of the coldest quarter and mean diurnal range. CONCLUSION The analyses here provide a means by which to study patterns of an emerging infectious disease and identify regions that are potentially suitable for its transmission, in spite of the paucity of high-quality critical data. Policy and methods for the control of infectious diseases often use a reactionary model, addressing diseases only after significant impact on human health has ensued. The methodology used in the present work allows the identification of areas where disease is likely to appear, which could be used for directed intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire A. Quiner
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology (DHCPP), National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Yoshinori Nakazawa
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology (DHCPP), National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA USA
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29
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Oldal M, Sironen T, Henttonen H, Vapalahti O, Madai M, Horváth G, Dallos B, Kutas A, Földes F, Kemenesi G, Németh V, Bányai K, Jakab F. Serologic survey of orthopoxvirus infection among rodents in hungary. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2017; 15:317-22. [PMID: 25988441 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2014.1731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
As a result of discontinuing vaccination against smallpox after the late 1970s, different orthopoxviruses (OPVs), such as cowpox virus (CPXV), have become a re-emerging healthcare threat among zoonotic pathogens. In Hungary, data on OPV prevalence among its rodent host species have been absent. Here, rodents belonging to four species, i.e., striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius), yellow-necked mouse (A. flavicollis), wood mouse (A. sylvaticus) and bank vole (Myodes glareolus), were live trapped at 13 sampling plots on a 149-ha area in the Mecsek Mountains, Hungary, from March to September in 2011 and 2012. Rodent sera were collected and screened for OPV-reactive antibodies with an immunfluorescence assay (IFA). Among the 1587 tested rodents, 286 (18.0%) harbored OPV-specific antibodies. Seroprevalence was the highest for the bank vole (71.4%) and the striped field mouse (66.7%). Due to a masting event in the autumn of 2011 across Central Europe, the abundance of bank voles increased drastically in the 2012 season, raising the overall OPV seroprevalence. We provide the first data on OPV occurrence and seroprevalence in rodents in Hungary. The circulation of OPV in rodents in densely populated areas warrants further studies to elucidate the zoonotic potential of OPV in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miklós Oldal
- 1Virological Research Group, Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,2Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Tarja Sironen
- 3Haartman institute and Dept of Veterinary Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Olli Vapalahti
- 3Haartman institute and Dept of Veterinary Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,5Hospital District of Helsinki and Uusimaa, Finland.,6HUSLAB, HUS, Finland
| | - Mónika Madai
- 1Virological Research Group, Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,2Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Győző Horváth
- 2Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Bianka Dallos
- 1Virological Research Group, Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,2Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Anna Kutas
- 1Virological Research Group, Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,2Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Fanni Földes
- 1Virological Research Group, Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,2Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Gábor Kemenesi
- 1Virological Research Group, Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,2Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Viktória Németh
- 1Virological Research Group, Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,2Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Krisztián Bányai
- 7Veterinary Medical Research Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ferenc Jakab
- 1Virological Research Group, Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,2Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
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30
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Heuser E, Fischer S, Ryll R, Mayer-Scholl A, Hoffmann D, Spahr C, Imholt C, Alfa DM, Fröhlich A, Lüschow D, Johne R, Ehlers B, Essbauer S, Nöckler K, Ulrich RG. Survey for zoonotic pathogens in Norway rat populations from Europe. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2017; 73:341-348. [PMID: 27299665 DOI: 10.1002/ps.4339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Norway rat Rattus norvegicus is an important reservoir of various zoonotic pathogens, such as cowpox virus and Leptospira, but also for agents of no or unknown zoonotic potential. We describe a survey of 426 Norway rats originating from five European countries and different habitats for Leptospira spp., rickettsiae, orthopoxvirus (OPV), avian metapneumovirus subtypes A and B (aMPV) and rat polyomavirus (rat PyV). RESULTS Leptospira DNA was detected in 60 out of 420 (14.3%) rats, and Rickettsia DNA was found in three out of 369 (0.8%) rats investigated. PCR-based typing resulted in the identification of L. interrogans sequence type 17, which corresponds to the serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae, and Rickettsia helvetica respectively. Rat PyV DNA was detected in 103 out of 421 (24.5%) rats. OPV DNA and aMPV RNA were detected in none of the rats, but OPV-specific antibodies were detected in three out of 388 (0.8%) rats. The frequency of single Leptospira and rat PyV infections and coinfections was, independent of sex, greater for adults compared with juveniles/subadults and greater at rural sites compared with urban areas. CONCLUSIONS Study results indicate a broad geographical distribution of Leptospira DNA in rats within Europe, underlining the need to investigate further the potential mechanisms leading to increased prevalence in rural habitats and to assess the relevance to public health. In contrast, rickettsia and OPV infections rarely occurred in wild rat populations. The potential influence of rat PyV on the susceptibility to infections with other pathogens should be investigated in future studies. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Heuser
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Stefan Fischer
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - René Ryll
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | | | - Donata Hoffmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Carina Spahr
- Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Imholt
- Julius Kühn-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forestry, Vertebrate Research, Münster, Germany
| | - Dewi Murni Alfa
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Andreas Fröhlich
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Dörte Lüschow
- Freie Universität Berlin, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Poultry Diseases, Berlin, Germany
| | - Reimar Johne
- Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel-Insel Riems, Germany
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Trindade GDS, Emerson GL, Sammons S, Frace M, Govil D, Fernandes Mota BE, Abrahão JS, de Assis FL, Olsen-Rasmussen M, Goldsmith CS, Li Y, Carroll D, Guimarães da Fonseca F, Kroon E, Damon IK. Serro 2 Virus Highlights the Fundamental Genomic and Biological Features of a Natural Vaccinia Virus Infecting Humans. Viruses 2016; 8:v8120328. [PMID: 27973399 PMCID: PMC5192389 DOI: 10.3390/v8120328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2016] [Revised: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia virus (VACV) has been implicated in infections of dairy cattle and humans, and outbreaks have substantially impacted local economies and public health in Brazil. During a 2005 outbreak, a VACV strain designated Serro 2 virus (S2V) was collected from a 30-year old male milker. Our aim was to phenotypically and genetically characterize this VACV Brazilian isolate. S2V produced small round plaques without associated comets when grown in BSC40 cells. Furthermore, S2V was less virulent than the prototype strain VACV-Western Reserve (WR) in a murine model of intradermal infection, producing a tiny lesion with virtually no surrounding inflammation. The genome of S2V was sequenced by primer walking. The coding region spans 184,572 bp and contains 211 predicted genes. Mutations in envelope genes specifically associated with small plaque phenotypes were not found in S2V; however, other alterations in amino acid sequences within these genes were identified. In addition, some immunomodulatory genes were truncated in S2V. Phylogenetic analysis using immune regulatory-related genes, besides the hemagglutinin gene, segregated the Brazilian viruses into two clusters, grouping the S2V into Brazilian VACV group 1. S2V is the first naturally-circulating human-associated VACV, with a low passage history, to be extensively genetically and phenotypically characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giliane de Souza Trindade
- Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CCID/CDC), Atlanta, 30329-4027 GA, USA.
- Department of Microbiology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG CEP 31270-901, Brazil.
| | - Ginny L Emerson
- Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CCID/CDC), Atlanta, 30329-4027 GA, USA.
| | - Scott Sammons
- Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CCID/CDC), Atlanta, 30329-4027 GA, USA.
| | - Michael Frace
- Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CCID/CDC), Atlanta, 30329-4027 GA, USA.
| | - Dhwani Govil
- Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CCID/CDC), Atlanta, 30329-4027 GA, USA.
| | | | - Jônatas Santos Abrahão
- Department of Microbiology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG CEP 31270-901, Brazil.
| | - Felipe Lopes de Assis
- Department of Microbiology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG CEP 31270-901, Brazil.
| | - Melissa Olsen-Rasmussen
- Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CCID/CDC), Atlanta, 30329-4027 GA, USA.
| | - Cynthia S Goldsmith
- Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CCID/CDC), Atlanta, 30329-4027 GA, USA.
| | - Yu Li
- Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CCID/CDC), Atlanta, 30329-4027 GA, USA.
| | - Darin Carroll
- Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CCID/CDC), Atlanta, 30329-4027 GA, USA.
| | | | - Erna Kroon
- Department of Microbiology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG CEP 31270-901, Brazil.
| | - Inger K Damon
- Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CCID/CDC), Atlanta, 30329-4027 GA, USA.
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Drewes S, Turni H, Rosenfeld UM, Obiegala A, Straková P, Imholt C, Glatthaar E, Dressel K, Pfeffer M, Jacob J, Wagner-Wiening C, Ulrich RG. Reservoir-Driven Heterogeneous Distribution of Recorded Human Puumala virus Cases in South-West Germany. Zoonoses Public Health 2016; 64:381-390. [PMID: 27918151 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Endemic regions for Puumala virus (PUUV) are located in the most affected federal state Baden-Wuerttemberg, South-West Germany, where high numbers of notified human hantavirus disease cases have been occurring for a long time. The distribution of human cases in Baden-Wuerttemberg is, however, heterogeneous, with a high number of cases recorded during 2012 in four districts (H districts) but a low number or even no cases recorded in four other districts (L districts). Bank vole monitoring during 2012, following a beech (Fagus sylvatica) mast year, resulted in the trapping of 499 bank voles, the host of PUUV. Analyses indicated PUUV prevalences of 7-50% (serological) and 1.8-27.5% (molecular) in seven of eight districts, but an absence of PUUV in one L district. The PUUV prevalence differed significantly between bank voles in H and L districts. In the following year 2013, 161 bank voles were trapped, with reduced bank vole abundance in almost all investigated districts except one. In 2013, no PUUV infections were detected in voles from seven of eight districts. In conclusion, the linear modelling approach indicated that the heterogeneous distribution of human PUUV cases in South-West Germany was caused by different factors including the abundance of PUUV RNA-positive bank voles, as well as by the interaction of beech mast and the proportional coverage of beech and oak (Quercus spec.) forest per district. These results can aid developing local public health risk management measures and early warning models.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Drewes
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - H Turni
- Stauss & Turni Gutachterbüro, Tübingen, Germany
| | - U M Rosenfeld
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - A Obiegala
- Veterinärmedizinische Fakultät, Institut für Tierhygiene und Öffentliches Veterinärwesen, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - P Straková
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany.,Institute of Vertebrate Biology v.v.i., Academy of Sciences, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - C Imholt
- Julius Kühn-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Vertebrate Research, Münster, Germany
| | - E Glatthaar
- Forstzoologisches Institut, Arbeitsbereich Wildtierökologie und Wildtiermanagement, Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - K Dressel
- sine-Institut gGmbH, Munich, Germany
| | - M Pfeffer
- Veterinärmedizinische Fakultät, Institut für Tierhygiene und Öffentliches Veterinärwesen, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - J Jacob
- Julius Kühn-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Vertebrate Research, Münster, Germany
| | - C Wagner-Wiening
- Landesgesundheitsamt Baden-Württemberg, Referat 95 - Epidemiologie und Gesundheitsberichterstattung, Sachgebietsleitung: Infektionsepidemiologische Meldesysteme (SG4), Stuttgart, Germany
| | - R G Ulrich
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
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Kinnunen PM, Holopainen JM, Hemmilä H, Piiparinen H, Sironen T, Kivelä T, Virtanen J, Niemimaa J, Nikkari S, Järvinen A, Vapalahti O. Severe Ocular Cowpox in a Human, Finland. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 21:2261-3. [PMID: 26583527 PMCID: PMC4672437 DOI: 10.3201/eid2112.150621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Jäger K, Steinborn P, Weider K, Wohlsein P. [Cutaneous infection with Orthopoxvirus bovis in a German Spaniel]. TIERAERZTLICHE PRAXIS AUSGABE KLEINTIERE HEIMTIERE 2016; 44:273-7. [PMID: 27300695 DOI: 10.15654/tpk-150712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
A 4-year-old female German Spaniel was presented with anorexia. Clinically, the dog showed papular to ulcerative lesions on the nasal planum and on the tongue. Hematological, bacteriological and mycological examinations did not contribute any evidence for the etiology of the lesions. Histopathological examination of skin biopsies revealed a proliferative dermatitis and folliculitis with hydropic degeneration of keratinocytes and cytoplasmatic inclusion bodies. Cowpox virus antigen was detected by immunohistochemistry, and electron microscopy showed pox virus particles in the cytoplasm of the epithelial cells. DNA of Orthopoxvirus bovis was identified by polymerase chain reaction. Consequently, in dogs with papular to ulcerative lesions in the face or on the tongue, infection with cowpoxvirus should be considered as an etiological differential diagnosis. Infected dogs represent a potential risk of infection for humans and other animals with close contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Jäger
- Dr. Kathrin Jäger, Laboklin GmbH & Co. KG, Labor für klinische Diagnostik, Steubenstraße 4, 97688 Bad Kissingen, E-Mail:
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Nainys J, Timinskas A, Schneider J, Ulrich RG, Gedvilaite A. Identification of Two Novel Members of the Tentative Genus Wukipolyomavirus in Wild Rodents. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0140916. [PMID: 26474048 PMCID: PMC4608572 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Two novel polyomaviruses (PyVs) were identified in kidney and chest-cavity fluid samples of wild bank voles (Myodes glareolus) and common voles (Microtus arvalis) collected in Germany. All cloned and sequenced genomes had the typical PyV genome organization, including putative open reading frames for early regulatory proteins large T antigen and small T antigen on one strand and for structural late proteins (VP1, VP2 and VP3) on the other strand. Virus-like particles (VLPs) were generated by yeast expression of the VP1 protein of both PyVs. VLP-based ELISA and large T-antigen sequence-targeted polymerase-chain reaction investigations demonstrated signs of infection of these novel PyVs in about 42% of bank voles and 18% of common voles. In most cases only viral DNA, but not VP1-specific antibodies were detected. In additional animals exclusively VP1-specific antibodies, but no viral DNA was detected, indicative for virus clearance. Phylogenetic and clustering analysis including all known PyV genomes placed novel bank vole and common vole PyVs amongst members of the tentative Wukipolymavirus genus. The other known four rodent PyVs, Murine PyV and Hamster PyV, and Murine pneumotropic virus and Mastomys PyV belong to different phylogenetic clades, tentatively named Orthopolyomavirus I and Orthopolyomavirus II, respectively. In conclusion, the finding of novel vole-borne PyVs may suggest an evolutionary origin of ancient wukipolyomaviruses in rodents and may offer the possibility to develop a vole-based animal model for human wukipolyomaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juozas Nainys
- Department of Eukaryote Genetic Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Albertas Timinskas
- Department of Eukaryote Genetic Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Julia Schneider
- Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Rainer G. Ulrich
- Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Alma Gedvilaite
- Department of Eukaryote Genetic Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
- * E-mail:
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Out of the Reservoir: Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of a Novel Cowpox Virus Isolated from a Common Vole. J Virol 2015; 89:10959-69. [PMID: 26311891 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01195-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The incidence of human cowpox virus (CPXV) infections has increased significantly in recent years. Serological surveys have suggested wild rodents as the main CPXV reservoir. We characterized a CPXV isolated during a large-scale screening from a feral common vole. A comparison of the full-length DNA sequence of this CPXV strain with a highly virulent pet rat CPXV isolate showed a sequence identity of 96%, including a large additional open reading frame (ORF) of about 6,000 nucleotides which is absent in the reference CPXV strain Brighton Red. Electron microscopy analysis demonstrated that the vole isolate, in contrast to the rat strain, forms A-type inclusion (ATI) bodies with incorporated virions, consistent with the presence of complete ati and p4c genes. Experimental infections showed that the vole CPXV strain caused only mild clinical symptoms in its natural host, while all rats developed severe respiratory symptoms followed by a systemic rash. In contrast, common voles infected with a high dose of the rat CPXV showed severe signs of respiratory disease but no skin lesions, whereas infection with a low dose led to virus excretion with only mild clinical signs. We concluded that the common vole is susceptible to infection with different CPXV strains. The spectrum ranges from well-adapted viruses causing limited clinical symptoms to highly virulent strains causing severe respiratory symptoms. In addition, the low pathogenicity of the vole isolate in its eponymous host suggests a role of common voles as a major CPXV reservoir, and future research will focus on the correlation between viral genotype and phenotype/pathotype in accidental and reservoir species. IMPORTANCE We report on the first detection and isolation of CPXV from a putative reservoir host, which enables comparative analyses to understand the infection cycle of these zoonotic orthopox viruses and the relevant genes involved. In vitro studies, including whole-genome sequencing as well as in vivo experiments using the Wistar rat model and the vole reservoir host allowed us to establish links between genomic sequences and the in vivo properties (virulence) of the novel vole isolate in comparison to those of a recent zoonotic CPXV isolated from pet rats in 2009. Furthermore, the role of genes present only in a reservoir isolate can now be further analyzed. These studies therefore allow unique insights and conclusions about the role of the rodent reservoir in CPXV epidemiology and transmission and about the zoonotic threat that these viruses represent.
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Jacob J, Ulrich RG, Freise J, Schmolz E. [Monitoring populations of rodent reservoirs of zoonotic diseases. Projects, aims and results]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2015; 57:511-8. [PMID: 24781907 DOI: 10.1007/s00103-013-1924-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Rodents can harbor and transmit pathogens that can cause severe disease in humans, companion animals and livestock. Such zoonotic pathogens comprise more than two thirds of the currently known human pathogens. The epidemiology of some zoonotic pathogens, such as hantaviruses, can be linked to the population dynamics of the rodent host. In this case, during an outbreak of the rodent host population many human infections may occur. In other rodent-borne zoonotic diseases such phenomena are not known and in many cases the rodent host specificity of a given pathogen is unclear. The monitoring of relevant rodent populations and of the rodent-borne zoonotic pathogens is essential to (1) understand the distribution and epidemiology of pathogens and (2) develop forecasting tools to predict outbreaks of zoonoses. Presently, there are no systematic long-term monitoring programs in place for zoonoses in Germany. Rodent monitoring activities are largely restricted to the plant protection sector, such as for the common vole (Microtus arvalis) and forest-damaging rodents. However, during the last 10-15 years a number of specific research projects have been initiated and run for a few years and Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) monitoring has been implemented in Hamburg and Lower Saxony. Based on close cooperation of federal and state authorities and research institutions these efforts could be utilized to gain information about the distribution and importance of rodent-borne zoonoses. Nevertheless, for the integration of rodent population dynamics and zoonotic disease patterns and especially for developing predictive models, long-term monitoring is urgently required. To establish a systematic long-term monitoring program, existing networks and cooperation need to be used, additional collaborators (e.g., pest control operators) should be included and synergetic effects of different scientific fields should be utilized.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Jacob
- Bundesforschungsinstitut für Kulturpflanzen, Institut für Pflanzenschutz in Gartenbau und Forst, Wirbeltierforschung, Julius Kühn-Institut, Toppheideweg 88, 48161, Münster, Deutschland,
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Vora NM, Li Y, Geleishvili M, Emerson GL, Khmaladze E, Maghlakelidze G, Navdarashvili A, Zakhashvili K, Kokhreidze M, Endeladze M, Mokverashvili G, Satheshkumar PS, Gallardo-Romero N, Goldsmith CS, Metcalfe MG, Damon I, Maes EF, Reynolds MG, Morgan J, Carroll DS. Human infection with a zoonotic orthopoxvirus in the country of Georgia. N Engl J Med 2015; 372:1223-30. [PMID: 25806914 PMCID: PMC4692157 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1407647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
During 2013, cutaneous lesions developed in two men in the country of Georgia after they were exposed to ill cows. The men had never received vaccination against smallpox. Tests of lesion material with the use of a quantitative real-time polymerase-chain-reaction assay for non-variola virus orthopoxviruses were positive, and DNA sequence analysis implicated a novel orthopoxvirus species. During the ensuing epidemiologic investigation, no additional human cases were identified. However, serologic evidence of exposure to an orthopoxvirus was detected in cows in the patients' herd and in captured rodents and shrews. A third case of human infection that occurred in 2010 was diagnosed retrospectively during testing of archived specimens that were originally submitted for tests to detect anthrax. Orthopoxvirus infection should be considered in persons in whom cutaneous lesions develop after contact with animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil M Vora
- From the Epidemic Intelligence Service (N.M.V.), Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology (N.M.V., Y.L., G.L.E., P.S.S., N.G.-R., C.S.G., M.G.M., I.D., M.G.R., D.S.C.), and the Division of Global Health Protection (N.M.V., M.G., E.F.M., J.M.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; CDC Georgia Country Office (M.G., J.M.), National Center for Disease Control and Public Health (E.K., A.N., K.Z.), Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture (G. Maghlakelidze, M.K.), and Infectious Diseases, AIDS, and Clinical Immunology Research Center (M.E.), Tbilisi, and National Food Agency, Tianeti (G. Mokverashvili) - all in Georgia
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Schmidt S, Essbauer SS, Mayer-Scholl A, Poppert S, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Klempa B, Henning K, Schares G, Groschup MH, Spitzenberger F, Richter D, Heckel G, Ulrich RG. Multiple infections of rodents with zoonotic pathogens in Austria. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2014; 14:467-75. [PMID: 24915446 PMCID: PMC4098071 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2013.1504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Rodents are important reservoirs for a large number of zoonotic pathogens. We examined the occurrence of 11 viral, bacterial, and parasitic agents in rodent populations in Austria, including three different hantaviruses, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, orthopox virus, Leptospira spp., Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., Bartonella spp., Coxiella burnetii, and Toxoplasma gondii. In 2008, 110 rodents of four species (40 Clethrionomys glareolus, 29 Apodemus flavicollis, 26 Apodemus sylvaticus, and 15 Microtus arvalis) were trapped at two rural sites in Lower Austria. Chest cavity fluid and samples of lung, spleen, kidney, liver, brain, and ear pinna skin were collected. We screened selected tissue samples for hantaviruses, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, orthopox viruses, Leptospira, Borrelia, Rickettsia, Bartonella spp., C. burnetii, and T. gondii by RT-PCR/PCR and detected nucleic acids of Tula hantavirus, Leptospira spp., Borrelia afzelii, Rickettsia spp., and different Bartonella species. Serological investigations were performed for hantaviruses, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, orthopox viruses, and Rickettsia spp. Here, Dobrava-Belgrade hantavirus-, Tula hantavirus-, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus-, orthopox virus-, and rickettsia-specific antibodies were demonstrated. Puumala hantavirus, C. burnetii, and T. gondii were neither detected by RT-PCR/PCR nor by serological methods. In addition, multiple infections with up to three pathogens were shown in nine animals of three rodent species from different trapping sites. In conclusion, these results show that rodents in Austria may host multiple zoonotic pathogens. Our observation raises important questions regarding the interactions of different pathogens in the host, the countermeasures of the host's immune system, the impact of the host-pathogen interaction on the fitness of the host, and the spread of infectious agents among wild rodents and from those to other animals or humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Schmidt
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald–Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Sandra S. Essbauer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Department of Virology & Rickettsiology, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Sven Poppert
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Jonas Schmidt-Chanasit
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Hemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, Hamburg, Germany and German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Boris Klempa
- Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Science, Bratislava, Slovakia, and Institute of Virology, Charité Medical School, Berlin, Germany
| | - Klaus Henning
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Jena, Germany
| | - Gereon Schares
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Martin H. Groschup
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald–Insel Riems, Germany
| | | | - Dania Richter
- Environmental Systems Analysis, Institute of Geoecology, Technical University of Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Gerald Heckel
- Computational and Molecular Population Genetics (CMPG), Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern and Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Genopode, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Rainer G. Ulrich
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald–Insel Riems, Germany
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Forbes KM, Voutilainen L, Jääskeläinen A, Sironen T, Kinnunen PM, Stuart P, Vapalahti O, Henttonen H, Huitu O. Serological survey of rodent-borne viruses in Finnish field voles. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2014; 14:278-83. [PMID: 24689532 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2013.1526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In northern Europe, rodent populations display cyclic density fluctuations that can be correlated with the human incidence of zoonotic diseases they spread. During density peaks, field voles (Microtus agrestis) become one of the most abundant rodent species in northern Europe, yet little is known of the viruses they host. We screened 709 field voles, trapped from 14 sites over 3 years, for antibodies against four rodent-borne, potentially zoonotic viruses or virus groups-hantaviruses, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), Ljungan virus (LV), and orthopoxviruses (OPV). Antibodies against all four viruses were detected. However, seroprevalence of hantaviruses, LV, and LCMV was low. OPV antibodies (most likely cowpox) were more common but restricted geographically to southeastern Finland. Within these sites, antibody prevalence showed delayed density dependence in spring and direct density dependence in fall. Higher seroprevalence was found in spring than fall. These results substantially increase knowledge of the presence and distribution of viruses of field voles in Finland, as well as CPXV infection dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristian M Forbes
- 1 Suonenjoki Research Unit, Finnish Forest Research Institute , Suonenjoki, Finland
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Abstract
On May 8, 1980, the World Health Assembly at its 33rd session solemnly declared that the world and all its peoples had won freedom from smallpox and recommended ceasing the vaccination of the population against smallpox. Currently, a larger part of the world population has no immunity not only against smallpox but also against other zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections. Recently, recorded outbreaks of orthopoxvirus diseases not only of domestic animals but also of humans have become more frequent. All this indicates a new situation in the ecology and evolution of zoonotic orthopoxviruses. Analysis of state-of-the-art data on the phylogenetic relationships, ecology, and host range of orthopoxviruses—etiological agents of smallpox (variola virus, VARV), monkeypox (MPXV), cowpox (CPXV), vaccinia (VACV), and camelpox (CMLV)—as well as the patterns of their evolution suggests that a VARV-like virus could emerge in the course of natural evolution of modern zoonotic orthopoxviruses. Thus, there is an insistent need for organization of the international control over the outbreaks of zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections in various countries to provide a rapid response and prevent them from developing into epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei N. Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia
- Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
- * E-mail: ,
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Duraffour S, Mertens B, Meyer H, van den Oord JJ, Mitera T, Matthys P, Snoeck R, Andrei G. Emergence of cowpox: study of the virulence of clinical strains and evaluation of antivirals. PLoS One 2013; 8:e55808. [PMID: 23457480 PMCID: PMC3574090 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The last years, cowpox infections are being increasingly reported through Eurasia. Cowpox viruses (CPXVs) have been reported to have different genotypes and may be subdivided in at least five genetically distinct monophyletic clusters. However, little is known about their in vitro and in vivo features. In this report, five genetically diverse CPXVs, including one reference strain (CPXV strain Brighton) and four clinical isolates from human and animal cases, were compared with regard to growth in cells, pathogenicity in mice and inhibition by antivirals. While all CPXVs replicated similarly in vitro and showed comparable antiviral susceptibility, marked discrepancies were seen in vivo, including differences in virulence with recorded mortality rates of 0%, 20% and 100%. The four CPXV clinical isolates appeared less pathogenic than two reference strains, CPXV Brighton and vaccinia virus Western-Reserve. Disease severity seemed to correlate with high viral DNA loads in several organs, virus titers in lung tissues and levels of IL-6 cytokine in the sera. Our study highlighted that the species CPXV consists of viruses that not only differ considerably in their genotypes but also in their in vivo phenotypes, indicating that CPXVs should not be longer classified as a single species. Lung virus titers and IL-6 cytokine level in mice may be used as biomarkers for predicting disease severity. We further demonstrated the potential benefit of cidofovir, CMX001 and ST-246 use as antiviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Duraffour
- Rega Institute, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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Schuenadel L, Tischer BK, Nitsche A. Generation and characterization of a Cowpox virus mutant lacking host range factor CP77. Virus Res 2012; 168:23-32. [PMID: 22705200 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Revised: 06/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) host range factor CP77 was identified to be required for virus replication in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, but the underlying molecular mechanism by which CP77 modulates host range has remained unclear. Therefore, a CPXVΔCP77 deletion mutant was constructed by applying bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) technology. Integrity of BAC-derived viral DNA was confirmed by whole genome sequencing. In vitro growth characteristics of CPXV wild type (WT), BAC-derived vCPXV WT and vCPXVΔCP77 were virtually indistinguishable in HEK293T cells, whereas in CHO-K1 cells replication of virus lacking CP77 was unambiguously attenuated. This block of viral replication was confirmed by lack of late viral protein expression. The replication defect of various Orthopoxviruses lacking CP77 in CHO cells could be restored by recombinant expression of CP77. Thus, for the first time, the described CP77-dependent host range effect in CHO cells was shown in the background of CPXV as well as Camelpox virus. To further characterize the mutant virus, cells of several different species were comparably infected with vCPXV WT and vCPXVΔCP77, respectively. Interestingly, except for CHO-K1 cells, vCPXV WT and vCPXVΔCP77 showed no significant difference in terms of morphology of cytopathic effects, expression of a late transcribed virus-encoded green fluorescent protein and virus reproduction, even in other hamster-derived cells. Additionally, in ovo inoculation with either virus revealed the same red-pock phenotype on chicken egg chorioallantoic membranes. Since the data presented indicate a CP77-dependent host range effect only for CHO cells, we conclude that the protein might mediate additional functions not identified yet. The vCPXVΔCP77 deletion mutant generated can now be applied as a useful tool to investigate the function of the putative host range protein CP77.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livia Schuenadel
- Robert Koch-Institut, Zentrum für Biologische Sicherheit 1, Nordufer 20, 13353 Berlin, Germany
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Varner J, Dearing MD. Estimating duration of infection with avidity assays: potential limitations and recommendations for improvement. ECOHEALTH 2011; 8:512-518. [PMID: 22311097 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-012-0742-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2011] [Revised: 12/12/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Recent infections often have higher pathogen loads. The number of recent infections can therefore be used to estimate transmission rates in a host population. Antibody avidity assays are an emerging technique to infer infection age in both domestic and wild animals. These assays have the potential to supplant intensive mark-recapture efforts for identification of recent infections, but their results may be confounded by antibody titer. We examined the effectiveness of an avidity assay for identifying recent infections of Sin Nombre virus, a hantavirus in North America that establishes a chronic infection in deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus). We found that assay performance statistics such as sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value for low avidity scores were significantly improved when we accounted for antibody titer in the analyses. Without accounting for titer, avidity assays may classify samples with low titers as recent infections regardless of actual infection history, thereby overestimating the number of recent infections in a population and inflating estimates of transmission rates and/or human exposure risk. We recommend that antibody titers meet a minimum threshold for use in avidity assays, and we emphasize the importance of considering titer and dilution in the validation of newly developed avidity assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Varner
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
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