Dynamin regulates focal exocytosis in phagocytosing macrophages

Immunotoxicity pathway and mechanism of benzo[a]pyrene on hemocytes of Chlamys farreri in vitro

Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), a typical PAHs widely existing in the marine environment, has been extensively studied for its immunotoxicity due to its persistence and high toxicity. Nevertheless, the immunotoxicity mechanism remain incompletely understood. In this study, isolated hemocytes of Chlamys farreri were exposed at three concentrations of B[a]P (5, 10 and 15 μg/mL), and the effects of B[a]P on detoxification metabolism, signal transduction, humoral immune factors, exocytosis and phagocytosis relevant proteins and immune function at 0, 6, 12, 24 h were studied. Results illustrated the AhR, ARNT and CYP1A1 were significantly induced by B[a]P at 12 h. Additionally, the content of B[a]P metabolite BPDE increased in a dose-dependent manner with pollutants. Under B[a]P stimulation, the expressions of PTK (Src, Fyn) and PLC-Ca²⁺-PKC pathway gene increased significantly, while the transcription level of AC-cAMP-PKA pathway gene decreased remarkably. Additionally, the expressions of nuclear transcription factors (CREB, NF-κB), complement system genes and C-type lectin genes up-regulated obviously. The gene expressions of phagocytosis and exocytosis related proteins were also notably affected. 5 μg/mL B[a]P could promote phagocytosis in a transitory time, but with the increase of exposure time and concentration of B[a]P, the phagocytosis, antibacterial and bacteriolytic activities gradually decreased. These results indicated that similar to vertebrates, BPDE, the metabolite of B[a]P, mediated downstream signal transduction via PTK in bivalves. The declined of the immune defense ability of hemocytes might be closely related to the inhibition of AC-cAMP-PKA pathway and the imbalance of intracellular Ca²⁺ pathway. In addition, the results manifested that complement and lectin systems play a significant role in regulating immune response. In this study, the direct relationship between detoxification metabolism and immune signal transduction in bivalves under B[a]P stress was demonstrated for the first time, which provided important information for the potential molecular mechanism of B[a]P-induced immune system disorder in bivalves.

Choreographing endo-lysosomal Ca2+ throughout the life of a phagosome

The emergence of endo-lysosomes as ubiquitous Ca²⁺ stores with their unique cohort of channels has resulted in their being implicated in a growing number of processes in an ever-increasing number of cell types. The architectural and regulatory constraints of these acidic Ca²⁺ stores distinguishes them from other larger Ca²⁺ sources such as the ER and influx across the plasma membrane. In view of recent advances in the understanding of the modes of operation, we discuss phagocytosis as a template for how endo-lysosomal Ca²⁺ signals (generated via TPC and TRPML channels) can be integrated in multiple sophisticated ways into biological processes. Phagocytosis illustrates how different endo-lysosomal Ca²⁺ signals drive different phases of a process, and how these can be altered by disease or infection.

Rab GTPases in the differential processing of phagocytosed pathogens versus efferocytosed apoptotic cells

Phagocytosis is an important feature of innate immunity in which invading microorganisms are engulfed, killed and degraded - and in some immune cells, their antigens presented to adaptive immune system. A closely related process, efferocytosis, removes apoptotic cells, and is essential for the maintenance of homeostasis. Both phagocytosis and efferocytosis are tightly regulated processes that involve target recognition and uptake through specific receptors, followed by endolysosomal trafficking and processing of the internalized target. Central to the uptake and trafficking of these targets are the Rab family of small GTPases, which coordinate the engulfment and trafficking of both phagocytosed and efferocytosed materials through the endolysosomal system. Because of this regulatory function, Rab GTPases are often targeted by pathogens to escape phagocytosis. In this review, we will discuss the shared and differential roles of Rab GTPases in phagocytosis and efferocytosis.

NAADP-regulated two-pore channels drive phagocytosis through endo-lysosomal Ca2+ nanodomains, calcineurin and dynamin

Macrophages clear pathogens by phagocytosis and lysosomes that fuse with phagosomes are traditionally regarded as to a source of membranes and luminal degradative enzymes. Here, we reveal that endo-lysosomes act as platforms for a new phagocytic signalling pathway in which FcγR activation recruits the second messenger NAADP and thereby promotes the opening of Ca²⁺ -permeable two-pore channels (TPCs). Remarkably, phagocytosis is driven by these local endo-lysosomal Ca²⁺ nanodomains rather than global cytoplasmic or ER Ca²⁺ signals. Motile endolysosomes contact nascent phagosomes to promote phagocytosis, whereas endo-lysosome immobilization prevents it. We show that TPC-released Ca²⁺ rapidly activates calcineurin, which in turn dephosphorylates and activates the GTPase dynamin-2. Finally, we find that different endo-lysosomal Ca²⁺ channels play diverse roles, with TPCs providing a universal phagocytic signal for a wide range of particles and TRPML1 being only required for phagocytosis of large targets.

Vomocytosis: Too Much Booze, Base, or Calcium?

Macrophages are well known for their phagocytic activity and their role in innate immune responses. Macrophages eat non-self particles, via a variety of mechanisms, and typically break down internalized cargo into small macromolecules. However, some pathogenic agents have the ability to evade this endosomal degradation through a nonlytic exocytosis process termed vomocytosis.

Macrophages are well known for their phagocytic activity and their role in innate immune responses. Macrophages eat non-self particles, via a variety of mechanisms, and typically break down internalized cargo into small macromolecules. However, some pathogenic agents have the ability to evade this endosomal degradation through a nonlytic exocytosis process termed vomocytosis. This phenomenon has been most often studied for Cryptococcus neoformans, a yeast that causes roughly 180,000 deaths per year, primarily in immunocompromised (e.g., human immunodeficiency virus [HIV]) patients. Existing dogma purports that vomocytosis involves distinctive cellular pathways and intracellular physicochemical cues in the host cell during phagosomal maturation. Moreover, it has been observed that the immunological state of the individual and macrophage phenotype affect vomocytosis outcomes. Here we compile the current knowledge on the factors (with respect to the phagocytic cell) that promote vomocytosis of C. neoformans from macrophages.

Centronuclear myopathies under attack: A plethora of therapeutic targets

Centronuclear myopathies are a group of congenital myopathies characterized by severe muscle weakness, genetic heterogeneity, and defects in the structural organization of muscle fibers. Their names are derived from the central position of nuclei on biopsies, while they are at the fiber periphery under normal conditions. No specific therapy exists yet for these debilitating diseases. Mutations in the myotubularin phosphoinositides phosphatase, the GTPase dynamin 2, or amphiphysin 2 have been identified to cause respectively X-linked centronuclear myopathies (also called myotubular myopathy) or autosomal dominant and recessive forms. Mutations in additional genes, as RYR1, TTN, SPEG or CACNA1S, were linked to phenotypes that can overlap with centronuclear myopathies. Numerous animal models of centronuclear myopathies have been studied over the last 15 years, ranging from invertebrate to large mammalian models. Their characterization led to a partial understanding of the pathomechanisms of these diseases and allowed the recent validation of therapeutic proof-of-concepts. Here, we review the different therapeutic strategies that have been tested so far for centronuclear myopathies, some of which may be translated to patients.

Protein Kinase C-epsilon in Membrane Delivery during Phagocytosis

During phagocytosis, internal membranes are recruited to the site of pathogen binding and fuse with the plasma membrane, providing the membrane needed for pseudopod extension and target uptake. The mechanism by which vesicles destined for the phagosome are generated, targeted, and fuse is unknown. We established that Golgi-associated protein kinase C-epsilon (PKC-ε) is necessary for the addition of membrane during FcyR-mediated phagocytosis. PKC-ε is tethered to the Golgi through interactions between its' regulatory domain and the Golgi lipids PI4P and diacylglycerol; disruption of these interactions prevents PKC-ε concentration at phagosomes and decreases phagocytosis. The accumulated evidence suggests that PKC-ε orchestrates vesicle formation at the Golgi by a mechanism requiring lipid binding but not enzymatic activity. This review discusses how PKC-ε might mediate vesicle formation at the level of budding and fission. Specifically, we discuss PKC-ε binding partners, the formation of lipid subdomains to generate membrane curvature, and PKC-ε mediated links to the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton to provide tension for vesicle fission. Assimilating information from several model systems, we propose a model for PKC-ε mediated vesicle formation for exocytosis during phagocytosis that may be applicable to other processes that require directed membrane delivery and fusion.

Single Intramuscular Injection of AAV-shRNA Reduces DNM2 and Prevents Myotubular Myopathy in Mice

Myotubular myopathy, or X-linked centronuclear myopathy, is a severe muscle disorder representing a significant burden for patients and their families. It is clinically characterized by neonatal and severe muscle weakness and atrophy. Mutations in the myotubularin (MTM1) gene cause myotubular myopathy, and no specific curative treatment is available. We previously found that dynamin 2 (DNM2) is upregulated in both Mtm1 knockout and patient muscle samples, whereas its reduction through antisense oligonucleotides rescues the clinical and histopathological features of this myopathy in mice. Here, we propose a novel approach targeting Dnm2 mRNA. We screened and validated in vitro and in vivo several short hairpin RNA (shRNA) sequences that efficiently target Dnm2 mRNA. A single intramuscular injection of AAV-shDnm2 resulted in long-term reduction of DNM2 protein level and restored muscle force, mass, histology, and myofiber ultrastructure and prevented molecular defects linked to the disease. Our results demonstrate a robust DNM2 knockdown and provide an alternative strategy based on reduction of DNM2 to treat myotubular myopathy.

Golgi-Associated Protein Kinase C-ε Is Delivered to Phagocytic Cups: Role of Phosphatidylinositol 4-Phosphate

Protein kinase C-ε (PKC-ε) at phagocytic cups mediates the membrane fusion necessary for efficient IgG-mediated phagocytosis. The C1B and pseudosubstrate (εPS) domains are necessary and sufficient for this concentration. C1B binds diacylglycerol; the docking partner for εPS is unknown. Liposome assays revealed that the εPS binds phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) and PI(3,5)P₂ Wortmannin, but not LY294002, inhibits PKC-ε concentration at cups and significantly reduces the rate of phagocytosis. As Wortmannin inhibits PI4 kinase, we hypothesized that PI4P mediates the PKC-ε concentration at cups and the rate of phagocytosis. PKC-ε colocalizes with the trans-Golgi network (TGN) PI4P reporter, P4M, suggesting it is tethered at the TGN. Real-time imaging of GFP-PKC-ε-expressing macrophages revealed a loss of Golgi-associated PKC-ε during phagocytosis, consistent with a Golgi-to-phagosome translocation. Treatment with PIK93, a PI4 kinase inhibitor, reduces PKC-ε at both the TGN and the cup, decreases phagocytosis, and prevents the increase in capacitance that accompanies membrane fusion. Finally, expression of the Golgi-directed PI4P phosphatase, hSac1-K2A, recapitulates the PIK93 phenotype, confirming that Golgi-associated PI4P is critical for efficient phagocytosis. Together these data are consistent with a model in which PKC-ε is tethered to the TGN via an εPS-PI4P interaction. The TGN-associated pool of PKC-ε concentrates at the phagocytic cup where it mediates the membrane fusion necessary for phagocytosis. The novelty of these data lies in the demonstration that εPS binds PI4P and PI(3,5)P₂ and that PI4P is necessary for PKC-ε localization at the TGN, its translocation to the phagocytic cup, and the membrane fusion required for efficient Fc [γ] receptor-mediated phagocytosis.

Self-microemulsifying drug delivery system for improving the bioavailability of huperzine A by lymphatic uptake

Huperzine A (Hup-A) is a poorly water-soluble drug with low oral bioavailability. A self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) was used to enhance the oral bioavailability and lymphatic uptake and transport of Hup-A. A single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) technique and a chylomicron flow-blocking approach were used to study its intestinal absorption, mesenteric lymph node distribution and intestinal lymphatic uptake. The value of the area under the plasma concentration–time curve (AUC) of Hup-A SMEDDS was significantly higher than that of a Hup-A suspension (P<0.01). The absorption rate constant (K_a) and the apparent permeability coefficient (P_app) for Hup-A in different parts of the intestine suggested a passive transport mechanism, and the values of K_a and P_app of Hup-A SMEDDS in the ileum were much higher than those in other intestinal segments. The determination of Hup-A concentration in mesenteric lymph nodes can be used to explain the intestinal lymphatic absorption of Hup-A SMEDDS. For Hup-A SMEDDS, the values of AUC and maximum plasma concentration (C_max) of the blocking model were significantly lower than those of the control model (P<0.05). The proportion of lymphatic transport of Hup-A SMEDDS and Hup-A suspension were about 40% and 5%, respectively, suggesting that SMEDDS can significantly improve the intestinal lymphatic uptake and transport of Hup-A.

Ca2+-dependent Focal Exocytosis of Golgi-derived Vesicles Helps Phagocytic Uptake in Macrophages

The role of Golgi apparatus during phagocytic uptake by macrophages has been ruled out in the past. Notably, all such reports were limited to Fcγ receptor-mediated phagocytosis. Here, we unravel a highly devolved mechanism for recruitment of Golgi-derived secretory vesicles during phagosome biogenesis, which was important for uptake of most cargos, except the IgG-coated ones. We report recruitment of mannosidase-II-positive Golgi-derived vesicles during uptake of diverse targets, including latex beads, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis in human and mouse macrophages. The recruitment of mannosidase-II vesicles was an early event mediated by focal exocytosis and coincided with the recruitment of transferrin receptor, VAMP3, and dynamin-2. Brefeldin A treatment inhibited mannosidase-II recruitment and phagocytic uptake of serum-coated or -uncoated latex beads and E. coli However, consistent with previous studies, brefeldin A treatment did not affect uptake of IgG-coated latex beads. Mechanistically, recruitment of mannosidase-II vesicles during phagocytic uptake required Ca²⁺ from both extra- and intracellular sources apart from PI3K, microtubules, and dynamin-2. Extracellular Ca²⁺ via voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels established a Ca²⁺-dependent local phosphatidylinositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate gradient, which guides the focal movement of Golgi-derived vesicles to the site of uptake. We confirmed Golgi-derived vesicles recruited during phagocytosis were secretory vesicles as their recruitment was sensitive to depletion of VAMP2 or NCS1, whereas recruitment of the recycling endosome marker VAMP3 was unaffected. Depletion of both VAMP2 and NCS1 individually resulted in the reduced uptake by macrophages. Together, the study provides a previously unprecedented role of Golgi-derived secretory vesicles in phagocytic uptake, the key innate defense function.

Macrophages as Active Nanocarriers for Targeted Early and Adjuvant Cancer Chemotherapy

Taking advantage of the highly permeable vasculature and lack of lymphatic drainage in solid tumors (EPR effect), nanosized drug delivery systems or nanomedicines have been extensively explored for tumor-targeted drug delivery. However, in most clinical cases tumors such as the early stage tumors and post-surgery microscopic residual tumors have not yet developed such pathological EPR features, i.e., EPR-deficient. Therefore, nanomedicines may not be applicable for such these tumors. Macrophages by nature can actively home and extravasate through the tight vascular wall into tumors and migrate to their hypoxic regions, and possess perfect stealth ability for long blood circulation and impressive phagocytosis for drug loadings. Thus, nanomedicines loaded in macrophages would harness both merits and gain the active tumor homing capability independent of the EPR effect for treatments of the EPR-deficient tumors. Herein, the critical considerations, current progress, challenges and future prospects of macrophages as carriers for nanomedicines are summarized, aiming at rational design of EPR-independent tumor-targeting active nanomedicines for targeted early and adjuvant cancer chemotherapy.

Entry of equid herpesvirus 1 into CD172a+ monocytic cells

Equid herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) causes respiratory disease, abortion and neurological disorders in horses. Cells from the myeloid lineage (CD172a+) are one of the main target cells of EHV-1 during primary infection. Recently, we showed that EHV-1 restricts and delays its replication in CD172a+ cells as part of an immune-evasive strategy to disseminate to target organs. Here, we hypothesize that a low efficiency of EHV-1 binding to and entry in CD172a+ cells is responsible for this restriction. Thus, we characterized EHV-1 binding and entry into CD172a+ cells, and showed that EHV-1 only bound to 15-20 % of CD172a+ cells compared with 70 % of RK-13 control cells. Enzymic removal of heparan sulphate did not reduce EHV-1 infection, suggesting that EHV-1 does not use heparan sulphate to bind and enter CD172a+ cells. In contrast, we found that treatment of cells with neuraminidase (NA) reduced infection by 85-100 % compared with untreated cells, whilst NA treatment of virus had no effect on infection. This shows that sialic acid residues present on CD172a+ cells are essential in the initiation of EHV-1 infection. We found that αVβ3 integrins are involved in the post-binding stage of CD172a+ cell infection. Using pharmacological inhibitors, we showed that EHV-1 does not enter CD172a+ cells via a clathrin- or caveolae-dependent endocytic pathway, nor by macropinocytosis, but requires cholesterol, tyrosine kinase, actin, dynamin and endosomal acidification, pointing towards a phagocytic mechanism. Overall, these results show that the narrow tropism of EHV-1 amongst CD172a+ cells is determined by the presence of specific cellular receptors.

Purinergic and calcium signaling in macrophage function and plasticity

In addition to a fundamental role in cellular bioenergetics, the purine nucleotide adenosine triphosphate (ATP) plays a crucial role in the extracellular space as a signaling molecule. ATP and its metabolites serve as ligands for a family of receptors that are collectively referred to as purinergic receptors. These receptors were first described and characterized in the nervous system but it soon became evident that they are expressed ubiquitously. In the immune system, purinergic signals regulate the migration and activation of immune cells and they may also orchestrate the resolution of inflammation (1, 2). The intracellular signal transduction initiated by purinergic receptors is strongly coupled to Ca(2+)-signaling, and co-ordination of these pathways plays a critical role in innate immunity. In this review, we provide an overview of purinergic and Ca(2+)-signaling in the context of macrophage phenotypic polarization and discuss the implications on macrophage function in physiological and pathological conditions.

Role of host GTPases in infection by Listeria monocytogenes

The bacterial pathogen Listeria monocytogenes induces internalization into mammalian cells and uses actin-based motility to spread within tissues. Listeria accomplishes this intracellular life cycle by exploiting or antagonizing several host GTPases. Internalization into human cells is mediated by the bacterial surface proteins InlA or InlB. These two modes of uptake each require a host actin polymerization pathway comprised of the GTPase Rac1, nucleation promotion factors, and the Arp2/3 complex. In addition to Rac1, InlB-mediated internalization involves inhibition of the GTPase Arf6 and participation of Dynamin and septin family GTPases. After uptake, Listeria is encased in host phagosomes. The bacterial protein GAPDH inactivates the human GTPase Rab5, thereby delaying phagosomal acquisition of antimicrobial properties. After bacterial-induced destruction of the phagosome, cytosolic Listeria uses the surface protein ActA to stimulate actin-based motility. The GTPase Dynamin 2 reduces the density of microtubules that would otherwise limit bacterial movement. Cell-to-cell spread results when motile Listeria remodel the host plasma membrane into protrusions that are engulfed by neighbouring cells. The human GTPase Cdc42, its activator Tuba, and its effector N-WASP form a complex with the potential to restrict Listeria protrusions. Bacteria overcome this restriction through two microbial factors that inhibit Cdc42-GTP or Tuba/N-WASP interaction.

Systematic analysis of endocytosis by cellular perturbations

Endocytosis is an essential process of eukaryotic cells that facilitates numerous cellular and organismal functions. The formation of vesicles from the plasma membrane serves the internalization of ligands and receptors and leads to their degradation or recycling. A number of distinct mechanisms have been described over the years, several of which are only partially characterized in terms of mechanism and function. These are often referred to as novel endocytic pathways. The pathways differ in their mode of uptake and in their intracellular destination. Here, an overview of the set of cellular proteins that facilitate the different pathways is provided. Further, the approaches to distinguish between the pathways by different modes of perturbation are critically discussed, emphasizing the use of genetic tools such as dominant negative mutant proteins.

Endocytosis of gene delivery vectors: from clathrin-dependent to lipid raft-mediated endocytosis

The ideal nonviral vector delivers its nucleic acid cargo to a specific intracellular target. Vectors enter cells mainly through endocytosis and are distributed to various intracellular organelles. Recent advances in microscopy, lipidomics, and proteomics confirm that the cell membrane is composed of clusters of lipids, organized in the form of lipid raft domains, together with non-raft domains that comprise a generally disordered lipid milieu. The binding of a nonviral vector to either region can determine the pathway for its endocytic uptake and subsequent intracellular itinerary. Given this model of the cell membrane structure, endocytic pathways should be reclassified in relation to lipid rafts. In this review, we attempt to assess the currently recognized endocytic pathways in mammalian cells. The endocytic pathways are classified in relation to the membrane regions that make up the primary endocytic vesicles. This review covers the well-recognized clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME), phagocytosis, and macropinocytosis in addition to the less addressed pathways that take place in lipid rafts. These include caveolae-mediated, flotillin-dependent, GTPase regulator associated with focal adhesion kinase-1 (GRAF1)-dependent, adenosine diphosphate-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6)-dependent, and RhoA-dependent endocytic pathways. We summarize the regulators associated with each uptake pathway and methods for interfering with these regulators are discussed. The fate of endocytic vesicles resulting from each endocytic uptake pathway is highlighted.

Phagocytosis and cytokinesis: do cells use common tools to cut and to eat? Highlights on common themes and differences

Eukaryotic cells with specialized functions often use and adapt common molecular machineries. Recent findings have highlighted that actin polymerization, contractile activity and membrane remodelling with exocytosis of internal compartments are required both for successful phagocytosis, the internalization of particulate material and for cytokinesis, the last step of cell division. Phagocytosis is induced by the triggering of specific cell surface receptors, which leads to membrane deformation, pseudopod extension and contraction to engulf particles. Cytokinesis relies on intense contractile activity and eventually leads to the physical scission of sister cells. In this review, shared features of signalling, cytoskeletal reorganization and vesicular trafficking used in both phagocytosis and cytokinesis will be described, but non-common mechanisms and questions that remain open in these dynamic areas of research are also highlighted.

Dynamin: expanding its scope to the cytoskeleton

The large GTPase dynamin is well known for its actions on budded cellular membranes to generate vesicles, most often, clathrin-coated endocytic vesicles. The scope of cellular processes in which dynamin-mediated vesicle formation occurs, has expanded to include secretory vesicle formation at the Golgi, from other endosomes and nonclathrin structures, such as caveolae, as well as membrane remodeling during exocytosis and vesicle fusion. An intriguing new facet of dynamin's sphere of influence is the cytoskeleton. Cytoskeletal filament networks maintain cell shape, provide cell movement, execute cell division and orchestrate vesicle trafficking. Recent evidence supports the hypothesis that dynamin influences actin filaments and microtubules via mechanisms that are independent of its membrane-remodeling activities. This chapter discusses this emerging evidence and considers possible mechanisms of action.

Linking exocytosis and endocytosis during phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is used by macrophages, dendritic cells and neutrophils to capture and destroy pathogens and particulate antigens. Although localized assembly of actin filaments is the driving force for particle internalization, exocytosis of intracellular compartments, and in particular endocytic compartments, has been shown recently to be required for the early steps of phagosome formation. Here we report on the different compartments undergoing exocytosis during phagocytosis, with a special focus on late endosomes. We then compare this process with secretion from lysosomes or lysosome-related organelles in specialized cells. Finally, we discuss how some of the molecular mechanisms responsible for lysosome-related organelle secretion could also be implicated in phagosome formation.

Dynamin A, Myosin IB and Abp1 couple phagosome maturation to F-actin binding

The role of actin, class I myosins and dynamin in endocytic uptake processes is well characterized, but their role during endo-phagosomal membrane trafficking and maturation is less clear. In Dictyostelium, knockout of myosin IB (myoB) leads to a defect in membrane protein recycling from endosomes back to the plasma membrane. Here, we show that actin plays a central role in the morphology and function of the endocytic pathway. Indeed, latrunculin B (LatB) induces endosome tubulation, a phenotype also observed in dynamin A (dymA)-null cells. Knockout of dymA impairs phagosome acidification, whereas knockout of myoB delays reneutralization, a phenotype mimicked by a low dose of LatB. As a read out for actin-dependent processes during maturation, we monitored the capacity of purified phagosomes to bind F-actin in vitro, and correlated this with the presence of actin-binding and membrane-trafficking proteins. Phagosomes isolated from myoB-null cells showed an increased binding to F-actin, especially late phagosomes. In contrast, early phagosomes from dymA-null cells showed reduced binding to F-actin while late phagosomes were unaffected. We provide evidence that Abp1 is the main F-actin-binding protein in this assay and is central for the interplay between DymA and MyoB during phagosome maturation.

Intestinal absorption and intestinal lymphatic transport of sirolimus from self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems assessed using the single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) technique and a chylomicron flow blocking approach: linear correlation with oral bioavailabilities in rats

This work aims to investigate the impact of different amount of oil or surfactant included in self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems on the intestinal lymphatic transport of sirolimus using the single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) technique and a chylomicron flow blocking approach. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were pretreated intraperitoneally with 3.0mg/kg cycloheximide or saline. One hour later, single-pass intestinal perfusion experiments in jejunum and ileum and in vivo bioavailability studies were carried out to calculate the effective permeability coefficient and pharmacokinetic parameters, respectively. Drug absorption from oil-free formulation was mostly via the portal blood. In contrast, for the SMEDDS formulations containing ≥25% MCT, the lymphatic transport of sirolimus was a major contributor to oral bioavailability. The formulation including more content of oil presented higher lymphatic transport of drug and further exhibited the increased oral bioavailability. Besides, distal ileum presented much more lymphatic transport of drug compared to proximal jejunum. Furthermore, even though the smaller droplet size of resultant microemulsions and more surfactant content also can positively influence the intestinal absorption of drug, their influences on the drug intestinal lymphatic transport were relatively weaker than that of more oil content. In addition, there was a high linear correlation between the AUC values and the mean of P(eff) values in jejunum and ileum.

Live-cell imaging in Caenorhabditis elegans reveals the distinct roles of dynamin self-assembly and guanosine triphosphate hydrolysis in the removal of apoptotic cells

Dynamins are large GTPases that oligomerize along membranes. Dynamin's membrane fission activity is believed to underlie many of its physiological functions in membrane trafficking. Previously, we reported that DYN-1 (Caenorhabditis elegans dynamin) drove the engulfment and degradation of apoptotic cells through promoting the recruitment and fusion of intracellular vesicles to phagocytic cups and phagosomes, an activity distinct from dynamin's well-known membrane fission activity. Here, we have detected the oligomerization of DYN-1 in living C. elegans embryos and identified DYN-1 mutations that abolish DYN-1's oligomerization or GTPase activities. Specifically, abolishing self-assembly destroys DYN-1's association with the surfaces of extending pseudopods and maturing phagosomes, whereas inactivating guanosine triphosphate (GTP) binding blocks the dissociation of DYN-1 from these membranes. Abolishing the self-assembly or GTPase activities of DYN-1 leads to common as well as differential phagosomal maturation defects. Whereas both types of mutations cause delays in the transient enrichment of the RAB-5 GTPase to phagosomal surfaces, only the self-assembly mutation but not GTP binding mutation causes failure in recruiting the RAB-7 GTPase to phagosomal surfaces. We propose that during cell corpse removal, dynamin's self-assembly and GTP hydrolysis activities establish a precise dynamic control of DYN-1's transient association to its target membranes and that this control mechanism underlies the dynamic recruitment of downstream effectors to target membranes.

Dynamin 2 and human diseases

Dynamin 2 (DNM2) mutations cause autosomal dominant centronuclear myopathy, a rare form of congenital myopathy, and intermediate and axonal forms of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, a peripheral neuropathy. DNM2 is a large GTPase mainly involved in membrane trafficking through its function in the formation and release of nascent vesicles from biological membranes. DNM2 participates in clathrin-dependent and clathrin-independent endocytosis and intracellular membrane trafficking (from endosomes and Golgi apparatus). Recent studies have also implicated DNM2 in exocytosis. DNM2 belongs to the machinery responsible for the formation of vesicles and regulates the cytoskeleton providing intracellular vesicle transport. In addition, DNM2 tightly interacts with and is involved in the regulation of actin and microtubule networks, independent from membrane trafficking processes. We summarize here the molecular, biochemical, and functional data on DNM2 and discuss the possible pathophysiological mechanisms via which DNM2 mutations can lead to two distinct neuromuscular disorders.

Disease-causing mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator determine the functional responses of alveolar macrophages

Alveolar macrophages (AMs) play a major role in host defense against microbial infections in the lung. To perform this function, these cells must ingest and destroy pathogens, generally in phagosomes, as well as secrete a number of products that signal other immune cells to respond. Recently, we demonstrated that murine alveolar macrophages employ the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl(-) channel as a determinant in lysosomal acidification (Di, A., Brown, M. E., Deriy, L. V., Li, C., Szeto, F. L., Chen, Y., Huang, P., Tong, J., Naren, A. P., Bindokas, V., Palfrey, H. C., and Nelson, D. J. (2006) Nat. Cell Biol. 8, 933-944). Lysosomes and phagosomes in murine cftr(-/-) AMs failed to acidify, and the cells were deficient in bacterial killing compared with wild type controls. Cystic fibrosis is caused by mutations in CFTR and is characterized by chronic lung infections. The information about relationships between the CFTR genotype and the disease phenotype is scarce both on the organismal and cellular level. The most common disease-causing mutation, DeltaF508, is found in 70% of patients with cystic fibrosis. The mutant protein fails to fold properly and is targeted for proteosomal degradation. G551D, the second most common mutation, causes loss of function of the protein at the plasma membrane. In this study, we have investigated the impact of CFTR DeltaF508 and G551D on a set of core intracellular functions, including organellar acidification, granule secretion, and microbicidal activity in the AM. Utilizing primary AMs from wild type, cftr(-/-), as well as mutant mice, we show a tight correlation between CFTR genotype and levels of lysosomal acidification, bacterial killing, and agonist-induced secretory responses, all of which would be expected to contribute to a significant impact on microbial clearance in the lung.

Cellular and nuclear degradation during apoptosis

Apoptosis ensures quick death and quiet clearance of unwanted or damaged cells, without inducing much, if any, immunological responses from the organism. In metazoan organisms, apoptotic cells are swiftly engulfed by other cells. The degradation of cellular content is initiated in apoptotic cells and completed within engulfing cells. In apoptotic cells, caspase-mediated proteolysis cleaves protein substrates into fragments; nuclear DNA is partially degraded into nucleosomal units; and autophagy potentially contributes to apoptotic cell removal. In engulfing cells, specific signaling pathways promote the sequential fusion of intracellular vesicles with phagosomes and lead to the complete degradation of apoptotic cells in an acidic environment. Phagocytic receptors that initiate the engulfment of apoptotic cells play an additional and crucial role in initiating phagosome maturation through activating these signaling pathways. Here we highlight recent discoveries made in invertebrate models and mammalian systems, focusing on the molecular mechanisms that regulate the efficient degradation of apoptotic cells.

Dynamin2 GTPase and cortactin remodel actin filaments

The large GTPase dynamin, best known for its activities that remodel membranes during endocytosis, also regulates F-actin-rich structures, including podosomes, phagocytic cups, actin comet tails, subcortical ruffles, and stress fibers. The mechanisms by which dynamin regulates actin filaments are not known, but an emerging view is that dynamin influences F-actin via its interactions with proteins that interact directly or indirectly with actin filaments. We show here that dynamin2 GTPase activity remodels actin filaments in vitro via a mechanism that depends on the binding partner and F-actin-binding protein, cortactin. Tightly associated actin filaments cross-linked by dynamin2 and cortactin became loosely associated after GTP addition when viewed by transmission electron microscopy. Actin filaments were dynamically unraveled and fragmented after GTP addition when viewed in real time using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. Cortactin stimulated the intrinsic GTPase activity of dynamin2 and maintained a stable link between actin filaments and dynamin2, even in the presence of GTP. Filaments remodeled by dynamin2 GTPase in vitro exhibit enhanced sensitivity to severing by the actin depolymerizing factor, cofilin, suggesting that GTPase-dependent remodeling influences the interactions of actin regulatory proteins and F-actin. The global organization of the actomyosin cytoskeleton was perturbed in U2-OS cells depleted of dynamin2, implicating dynamin2 in remodeling actin filaments that comprise supramolecular F-actin arrays in vivo. We conclude that dynamin2 GTPase remodels actin filaments and plays a role in orchestrating the global actomyosin cytoskeleton.

The role of the inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatases in cellular function and human disease

Phosphoinositides are membrane-bound signalling molecules that regulate cell proliferation and survival, cytoskeletal reorganization and vesicular trafficking by recruiting effector proteins to cellular membranes. Growth factor or insulin stimulation induces a canonical cascade resulting in the transient phosphorylation of PtdIns(4,5)P(2) by PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) to form PtdIns(3,4,5)P(3), which is rapidly dephosphorylated either by PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10) back to PtdIns(4,5)P(2), or by the 5-ptases (inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatases), generating PtdIns(3,4)P(2). The 5-ptases also hydrolyse PtdIns(4,5)P(2), forming PtdIns4P. Ten mammalian 5-ptases have been identified, which share a catalytic mechanism similar to that of the apurinic/apyrimidinic endonucleases. Gene-targeted deletion of 5-ptases in mice has revealed that these enzymes regulate haemopoietic cell proliferation, synaptic vesicle recycling, insulin signalling, endocytosis, vesicular trafficking and actin polymerization. Several studies have revealed that the molecular basis of Lowe's syndrome is due to mutations in the 5-ptase OCRL (oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe). Futhermore, the 5-ptases SHIP [SH2 (Src homology 2)-domain-containing inositol phosphatase] 2, SKIP (skeletal muscle- and kidney-enriched inositol phosphatase) and 72-5ptase (72 kDa 5-ptase)/Type IV/Inpp5e (inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase E) are implicated in negatively regulating insulin signalling and glucose homoeostasis in specific tissues. SHIP2 polymorphisms are associated with a predisposition to insulin resistance. Gene profiling studies have identified changes in the expression of various 5-ptases in specific cancers. In addition, 5-ptases such as SHIP1, SHIP2 and 72-5ptase/Type IV/Inpp5e regulate macrophage phagocytosis, and SHIP1 also controls haemopoietic cell proliferation. Therefore the 5-ptases are a significant family of signal-modulating enzymes that govern a plethora of cellular functions by regulating the levels of specific phosphoinositides. Emerging studies have implicated their loss or gain of function in human disease.

Macrophage NADPH oxidase flavocytochrome B localizes to the plasma membrane and Rab11-positive recycling endosomes

Flavocytochrome b(558), the catalytic core of the phagocytic NADPH oxidase, mediates the transfer of electrons from NADPH to molecular oxygen to generate superoxide for host defense. Flavocytochrome b is a membrane heterodimer consisting of a large subunit gp91(phox) (NOX2) and a smaller subunit, p22(phox). Although in neutrophils flavocytochrome b has been shown to localize to the plasma membrane and specific granules, little is known about its distribution in macrophages. Using immunofluorescent staining and live cell imaging of fluorescently tagged gp91(phox) and p22(phox), we demonstrate in a Chinese hamster ovary cell model system and in RAW 264.7 and primary murine bone marrow-derived macrophages that flavocytochrome b is found in the Rab11-positive recycling endocytic compartment, as well as in Rab5-positive early endosomes and plasma membrane. Additionally, we show that unassembled p22(phox) and gp91(phox) subunits localize to the endoplasmic reticulum, which redistribute to the cell surface and endosomal compartments following heterodimer formation. These studies show for the first time that flavocytochrome b localizes to intracellular compartments in macrophages that recycle to the plasma membrane, which may act as a reservoir to deliver flavocytochrome b to the cell surface and phagosome membranes.

Dynamin 3 participates in the growth and development of megakaryocytes

High-density oligonucleotide microarrays were used to compare gene expression profiles from uncultured CD34+/CD38lo cells and culture-derived megakaryocytes (MKs). As previously published, three replicate microarray data sets from three different sources of organ donor marrow were analyzed using the software program Rosetta Resolver. After setting a stringent p value of <or=0.001 with a fold change cutoff of three or more in expression level, dynamin 3 (DNM3) was identified to be differentially expressed during the course of MK development with a mean fold-change of 8.2+/-2.1 (mean+/-standard deviation). DNM3 is a member of a family of mechanochemical enzymes (DNM1, DNM2, and DNM3) known for their participation in membrane dynamics by hydrolyzing nucleotides to link cellular membranes to the actin cytoskeleton. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction confirmed that DNM3 increased by 20.7-+/-3.4-fold (n=4, p=0.09) during megakaryocytopoiesis and Western blot analysis showed that DNM3 protein was expressed in human MKs. Confocal microscopy revealed that DNM3 was distributed diffusely throughout the cytoplasm of MKs with a punctate appearance in proplatelet processes. Immunogold electron microscopy also showed that DNM3 is widely distributed in the cytoplasm of MKs, with no apparent localization to specific organelles. The open reading frame of DNM3 was cloned from culture-derived human MKs and determined to be 100% identical to the protein encoded by the DNM3 transcript variant ENST00000367731 published in the Ensemble database. Overexpression of DNM3 in umbilical cord blood CD34+ cells resulted in an increase in total nucleated cells, an amplification of total colony-forming cells and colony-forming unit-megakaryocytes, and a concomitant increase in the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2 (NF-E2) and beta-tubulin. Together these findings provide the first evidence that a member of the dynamin family of mechanochemical enzymes is present in human MKs and indicate that DNM3 is an excellent candidate for playing an important role in mediating cytoskeleton and membrane changes that occur during MK/platelet development.

Fusion, fission, and secretion during phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is essential for the elimination of pathogens and for clearance of apoptotic bodies. The ingestion process entails extensive remodeling of the cellular membranes, particularly when large and/or multiple particles are engulfed. The membrane fusion and fission events that accompany phagocytosis are described. The coordinated sequence of membrane trafficking events required for phagocytosis involves multiple organelles and also serves other cellular functions, such as cytokine secretion.

Regulation of FcγR-stimulated phagocytosis by the 72-kDa inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase: SHIP1, but not the 72-kDa 5-phosphatase, regulates complement receptor 3–mediated phagocytosis by differential recruitment of these 5-phosphatases to the phagocytic cup

Macrophages phagocytose particles to resolve infections and remove apoptotic cells. Phosphoinositide 3-kinase generates phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate [PtdIns(3,4,5)P3] is restricted to the phagocytic cup, promoting phagocytosis. The PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 5-phosphatase (5-ptase) Src homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing inositol-5-phosphatase 1 (SHIP1) inhibits phagocytosis. We report here that another PtdIns(3,4,5)P3-5-ptase, the 72-kDa-5-phosphatase (72-5ptase), inhibits Fcγ receptor (FcγR)– but not complement receptor 3 (CR3)–mediated phagocytosis, affecting pseudopod extension and phagosome closure. In contrast, SHIP1 inhibited FcγR and CR3 phagocytosis with greater effects on CR3-stimulated phagocytosis. The 72-5ptase and SHIP1 were both dynamically recruited to FcγR-stimulated phagocytic cups, but only SHIP1 was recruited to CR3-stimulated phagocytic cups. To determine whether 5-ptases focally degrade PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 at the phagocytic cup after specific stimuli, time-lapse imaging of specific biosensors was performed. Transfection of dominant-negative 72-5ptase or 72-5ptase small interfering RNA (siRNA) resulted in amplified and prolonged PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 at the phagocytic cup in response to FcγR- but not CR3-stimulation. In contrast, macrophages from Ship1−/−/AktPH-GFP transgenic mice exhibited increased and sustained PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 at the cup in response to CR3 activation, with minimal changes to FcγR activation. Therefore, 72-5ptase and SHIP1 exhibit specificity in regulating FcγR- versus CR3-stimulated phagocytosis by controlling the amplitude and duration of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 at the phagocytic cup.

Lipid signaling and the modulation of surface charge during phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is an important component of innate and adaptive immunity. The formation of phagosomes and the subsequent maturation that capacitates them for pathogen elimination and antigen presentation are complex processes that involve signal transduction, cytoskeletal reorganization, and membrane remodeling. Lipids are increasingly appreciated to play a crucial role in these events. Sphingolipids, cholesterol, and glycerophospholipids, notably the phosphoinositides, are required for the segregation of signaling microdomains and for the generation of second messengers. They are also instrumental in the remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton and in directing membrane traffic. They accomplish these feats by congregating into liquid-ordered domains, by generating active metabolites that activate receptors, and by recruiting and anchoring specific protein ligands to the membrane, often altering their conformation and catalytic activity. A less appreciated role of acidic phospholipids is their contribution to the negative surface charge of the inner leaflet of the plasmalemma. The unique negativity of the inner aspect of the plasma membrane serves to attract and anchor key signaling and effector molecules that are required to initiate phagosome formation. Conversely, the loss of charge that accompanies phospholipid metabolism as phagosomes seal facilitates the dissociation of proteins and the termination of signaling and cytoskeleton assembly. In this manner, lipids provide a binary electrostatic switch to control phagocytosis.

Dynamin 2 associates with complexins and is found in the acrosomal region of mammalian sperm

Previous data showed that complexin I, a SNARE regulatory protein, is localized in and/or around the acrosome and is necessary for the acrosome reaction in sperm. To understand how complexin I regulates the acrosome reaction, we used complexin-GST pulldown assays to identify interacting proteins. We showed that both complexins I and II bound mouse sperm dynamin 2. Dynamin 2 is a 100 kDa GTPase essential to many aspects of endocytosis but its potential role in exocytosis is unknown. Dynamin 2 is expressed in rat testis and widely expressed in other tissues; however, the function of dynamin 2 in germ cells is uncertain. Dynamin 2 protein was detected in mouse testis and was most abundant in or around the developing acrosome of spermatids. In addition, dynamin 2 was co-localized with complexin I in the acrosomal region of mammalian sperm. Its co-localization and interaction with complexin I suggest that dynamin 2 may play a role during acrosome formation and/or acrosomal exocytosis.

Quantitative analysis of membrane remodeling at the phagocytic cup

Nascent phagosomes, which are derived from the plasma membrane, acquire microbicidal properties through multiple fusion and fission events collectively known as maturation. Here we show that remodeling of the phagosomal membrane is apparent even before sealing, particularly when large particles are ingested. Fluorescent probes targeted to the plasma membrane are cleared from the region lining the particle before engulfment is completed. Extensive clearance was noted for components of the inner as well as outer monolayer of the plasmalemma. Segregation of lipid microdomains was ruled out as the mechanism underlying membrane remodeling, because markers residing in rafts and those that are excluded were similarly depleted. Selective endocytosis was also ruled out. Instead, several lines of evidence indicate that endomembranes inserted by exocytosis at sites of ingestion displace the original membrane constituents from the base of the phagosomal cup. The Fcgamma receptors that trigger phagocytosis remain associated with their ligands. By contrast, Src-family kinases that are the immediate effectors of receptor activation are flushed away from the cup by the incoming membranes. Together with the depletion of phosphoinositides required for signal transduction, the disengagement of receptors from their effectors by bulk membrane remodeling provides a novel means to terminate receptor signaling.

Dynamin is required for F-actin assembly and pedestal formation by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)

After attaching to human intestinal epithelial cells, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) induces the formation of an actin-rich pedestal-like structure. The signalling pathway leading to pedestal formation is initiated by the bacterial protein Tir, which is inserted into the host cell plasma membrane. The domain exposed on the cell surface binds to another bacterial protein, intimin, while one of the cytoplasmic domains binds the adaptor protein Nck. This leads to recruitment of other cytoskeletal proteins including neural Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP) and Arp2/3, resulting in focused actin polymerization at the site of bacterial attachment. In this study we investigated the role of the large GTPase dynamin 2 (Dyn2) in pedestal formation. We found that in HeLa cells, both endogenous and overexpressed Dyn2 were recruited to sites of EPEC attachment. Recruitment of endogenous Dyn2 required the presence of Tir, Nck and N-WASP but was independent of cortactin and Arp2/3. Knock-down of Dyn2 expression by RNA interference reduced actin polymerization and pedestal formation. Overexpression of dominant-negative mutants of Dyn2 also reduced pedestal formation and prevented recruitment of N-WASP, Arp3 and cortactin, but not Nck. Together, our results indicate that Dyn2 is an integral component of the signalling cascade leading to actin polymerization in EPEC pedestals.

Differential potencies of effector genes in adult Drosophila

The GAL4/UAS gene expression system in Drosophila has been crucial in revealing the behavioral significance of neural circuits. Transgene products that block neurotransmitter release and induce cell death have been proved to inhibit neural function powerfully. Here we compare the action of the five effector genes shibire(ts1), Tetanus toxin light chain (TNT), reaper, Diphtheria toxin A-chain (DTA), and inwardly rectifying potassium channel (Kir2.1) and show differences in their efficiency depending on the target cells and the timing of induction. Specifically, effectors blocking neuronal transmission or excitability led to adult-induced paralysis more efficiently than those causing cell ablation. We contrasted these differential potencies in adult to their actions during development. Furthermore, we induced TNT expression in the adult mushroom bodies. In contrast to the successful impairment in short-term olfactory memory by shibire(ts1), adult TNT expression in the same set of cells did not lead to any obvious impairment. Altogether, the efficiency of effector genes depends on properties of the targeted neurons. Thus, we conclude that the selection of the appropriate effector gene is critical for evaluating the function of neural circuits.

Lipid Microdomain-Dependent Macropinocytosis Determines Compartmentation of Afipia felis

Phagocytic compartments are specialized endocytic organelles and usually mature along the degradative pathway into phagolysosomes. The rare human pathogen Afipia felis localizes to a compartment that is different from canonical phagocytic compartments. Here, we present evidence that internalization of Afipia by macrophages and unusual phagosome development are considerably decreased by attachment of cholera toxin B subunit to macrophage ganglioside GM1 or by extraction or oxidation of plasma membrane cholesterol. Amiloride (an inhibitor of Na(+)/H(+) exchanger and macropinocytosis) strongly inhibited uptake of A. felis at a late step, i.e. the closure of macropinocytic structures rather than the production of membrane ruffles. Ultrastructural evidence showed that A. felis was taken up by macrophages via macropinocytosis. In contrast, A. felis opsonized with a monoclonal IgG antibody was ingested by a zipper-like mechanism, resulting in normal phagosome maturation. Hence, while the preferred path of A. felis uptake is dependent on the integrity of lipid microdomains and on macropinocytosis, and while this uptake leads to an unusual phagosome and to intracellular survival of A. felis, those bacteria that enter using Fcgamma receptors are delivered to a late endocytic compartment.

Macropinocytosis: regulated coordination of endocytic and exocytic membrane traffic events

Macropinocytosis, a form of bulk uptake of fluid and solid cargo into cytoplasmic vacuoles, called macropinosomes, has been studied mostly in relation to antigen presentation. Early membrane traffic events occurring in this process are, however, largely unknown. Using human dendritic cells we show that a marked increase in the rate of macropinocytosis occurs a few minutes after application of two markers (small latex beads or dextran), depends on a slow intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+](i)) rise that precedes the PI3K-dependent step, and is preceded and accompanied by exocytosis of enlargeosomes compensating in part for the macropinocytic plasma membrane internalization. Unexpectedly, macropinosomes themselves, which share markers with endosomes, undergo Ca2+ -dependent exocytosis so that, after approximately 20 minutes of continuous bead or dextran uptake, an equilibrium is reached preventing cells from overloading themselves with the organelles. Large [Ca2+](i) increases induced by ionomycin trigger rapid (<1 minute) exocytic regurgitation of all macropinosomes, whereas endosomes remain apparently unaffected. We conclude that, in dendritic cells, the rate of macropinocytosis is not constant but increases in a regulated fashion, as previously shown in other cell types. Moreover, macropinosomes are not simple containers that funnel cargo to an endocytic pathway, but unique organelles, distinct from endosomes by their competence for regulated exocytosis and other membrane properties.

C. elegans Dynamin mediates the signaling of phagocytic receptor CED-1 for the engulfment and degradation of apoptotic cells

Dynamins are large GTPases that act in multiple vesicular trafficking events. We identified 14 loss-of-function alleles of the C. elegans dynamin gene, dyn-1, that are defective in the removal of apoptotic cells. dyn-1 functions in engulfing cells to control the internalization and degradation of apoptotic cells. dyn-1 acts in the genetic pathway composed of ced-7 (ABC transporter), ced-1 (phagocytic receptor), and ced-6 (CED-1's adaptor). DYN-1 transiently accumulates to the surface of pseudopods in a manner dependent on ced-1, ced-6, and ced-7, but not on ced-5, ced-10, or ced-12. Abnormal vesicle structures accumulate in engulfing cells upon dyn-1 inactivation. dyn-1 and ced-1 mutations block the recruitment of intracellular vesicles to pseudopods and phagosomes. We propose that DYN-1 mediates the signaling of the CED-1 pathway by organizing an intracellular vesicle pool and promoting vesicle delivery to phagocytic cups and phagosomes to support pseudopod extension and apoptotic cell degradation.

On the effects of cycloheximide on cell motility and polarisation in Dictyostelium discoideum

Background

Cycloheximide is a protein synthesis inhibitor that acts specifically on the 60S subunit of eukaryotic ribosomes. It has previously been shown that a short incubation of Dictyostelium discoideum amoebae in cycloheximide eliminates fluid phase endocytosis.

Results

We found that treatment with cycloheximide also causes the amoebae to retract their pseudopodia, round up and cease movement. Furthermore, fluid phase endocytosis, phagocytosis and capping cease in the presence of 2 mM cycloheximide, although membrane uptake, as measured using FM1-43, is unaffected. In the presence of cycloheximide, aggregation-competent amoebae sensitive to cAMP, although round, can still localise CRAC, ABP120, PI3K and actin polymerisation in response to a micropipette filled with cAMP. The behaviour of wild-type amoebae in the presence of cycloheximide is surprisingly similar to that of amoebae having a temperature-sensitive version of NSF at the restrictive temperature.

Conclusion

Our results may suggest that, upon cycloheximide treatment, either a labile protein required for polarised membrane recycling is lost, or a control mechanism linking protein synthesis to membrane recycling is activated.

P2X7 receptor stimulation of membrane internalization in a thyrocyte cell line

Using fluorescent membrane markers, we have previously shown that extracellular ATP stimulates both exocytosis and membrane internalization in the Fisher rat thyroid cell line FRTL. In this study, we examine the actions of ATP using whole-cell recording conditions that favor stimulation of membrane internalization. ATP stimulation of the P2X(7) receptor activated a reversible, Ca(2+)-permeable, cation conductance that slowly increased in size without changes in ion selectivity. ATP also induced a delayed irreversible decrease in cell capacitance (C(m)) that was equivalent to an 8% decrease in membrane surface area. Addition of guanosine 5'-0-2-thiodiphosphate to the pipette solution inhibited the ATP-induced decrease in C(m) without affecting channel activation. The effects of ATP on membrane conductance were mimicked by 2',3'-O-(4-benzoylbenzoyl)-ATP, but not by UTP, adenosine, or 2-methylthio-ATP, and were inhibited by pyridoxal phosphate-6-azophenyl-2'4'-disulfonic acid, adenosine 5'-triphosphate-2'3'-dialdehyde, and Cu(2+). The capacitance decrease persisted in Na(+)-, Ca(2+)- and Cl(-)-free external saline or with Ca(2+)-free pipette solution. It is concluded that ATP activation of the inotropic P2X(7) receptor stimulates membrane internalization by a mechanism that involves intracellular GTP, but does not require internal Ca(2+) or influx of Na(+) or Ca(2+) through the receptor-gated channel.

Actin depolymerization disrupts tight junctions via caveolae-mediated endocytosis

The tight junction (TJ) determines epithelial barrier function. Actin depolymerization disrupts TJ structure and barrier function, but the mechanisms of this effect remain poorly understood. The goal of this study was to define these mechanisms. Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein-, enhanced yellow fluorescent protein-, or monomeric red fluorescent protein 1-fusion proteins of beta-actin, occludin, claudin-1, ZO-1, clathrin light chain A1, and caveolin-1 were imaged by time-lapse multidimensional fluorescence microscopy with simultaneous measurement of transepithelial electrical resistance (TER). Actin depolymerization was induced with latrunculin A (LatA). Within minutes of LatA addition TER began to fall. This coincided with occludin redistribution and internalization. In contrast, ZO-1 and claudin-1 redistribution occurred well after maximal TER loss. Occludin internalization and TER loss, but not actin depolymerization, were blocked at 14 degrees C, suggesting that membrane traffic is required for both events. Inhibition of membrane traffic with 0.4 M sucrose also blocked occludin internalization and TER loss. Internalized occludin colocalized with caveolin-1 and dynamin II, but not with clathrin, and internalization was blocked by dominant negative dynamin II (K44A), but not by Eps15Delta95-295 expression. Inhibition of caveolae-mediated endocytosis by cholesterol extraction prevented both LatA-induced TER loss and occludin internalization. Thus, LatA-induced actin depolymerization causes TJ structural and functional disruption by mechanisms that include caveolae-mediated endocytosis of TJ components.