The phosphoinositide kinase PIKfyve/Fab1p regulates terminal lysosome maturation in Caenorhabditis elegans

De novo lipid synthesis and polarized prenylation drive cell invasion through basement membrane

To breach the basement membrane, cells in development and cancer use large, transient, specialized lipid-rich membrane protrusions. Using live imaging, endogenous protein tagging, and cell-specific RNAi during Caenorhabditis elegans anchor cell (AC) invasion, we demonstrate that the lipogenic SREBP transcription factor SBP-1 drives the expression of the fatty acid synthesis enzymes POD-2 and FASN-1 prior to invasion. We show that phospholipid-producing LPIN-1 and sphingomyelin synthase SMS-1, which use fatty acids as substrates, produce lysosome stores that build the AC's invasive protrusion, and that SMS-1 also promotes protrusion localization of the lipid raft partitioning ZMP-1 matrix metalloproteinase. Finally, we discover that HMG-CoA reductase HMGR-1, which generates isoprenoids for prenylation, localizes to the ER and enriches in peroxisomes at the AC invasive front, and that the final transmembrane prenylation enzyme, ICMT-1, localizes to endoplasmic reticulum exit sites that dynamically polarize to deliver prenylated GTPases for protrusion formation. Together, these results reveal a collaboration between lipogenesis and a polarized lipid prenylation system that drives invasive protrusion formation.

The HEAT repeat protein HPO-27 is a lysosome fission factor

Lysosomes are degradation and signalling centres crucial for homeostasis, development and ageing1. To meet diverse cellular demands, lysosomes remodel their morphology and function through constant fusion and fission2,3. Little is known about the molecular basis of fission. Here we identify HPO-27, a conserved HEAT repeat protein, as a lysosome scission factor in Caenorhabditis elegans. Loss of HPO-27 impairs lysosome fission and leads to an excessive tubular network that ultimately collapses. HPO-27 and its human homologue MROH1 are recruited to lysosomes by RAB-7 and enriched at scission sites. Super-resolution imaging, negative-staining electron microscopy and in vitro reconstitution assays reveal that HPO-27 and MROH1 self-assemble to mediate the constriction and scission of lysosomal tubules in worms and mammalian cells, respectively, and assemble to sever supported membrane tubes in vitro. Loss of HPO-27 affects lysosomal morphology, integrity and degradation activity, which impairs animal development and longevity. Thus, HPO-27 and MROH1 act as self-assembling scission factors to maintain lysosomal homeostasis and function.

Regulation of phosphoinositide metabolism in Apicomplexan parasites

Phosphoinositides are a biologically essential class of phospholipids that contribute to organelle membrane identity, modulate membrane trafficking pathways, and are central components of major signal transduction pathways that operate on the cytosolic face of intracellular membranes in eukaryotes. Apicomplexans (such as Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium spp.) are obligate intracellular parasites that are important causative agents of disease in animals and humans. Recent advances in molecular and cell biology of Apicomplexan parasites reveal important roles for phosphoinositide signaling in key aspects of parasitosis. These include invasion of host cells, intracellular survival and replication, egress from host cells, and extracellular motility. As Apicomplexans have adapted to the organization of essential signaling pathways to accommodate their complex parasitic lifestyle, these organisms offer experimentally tractable systems for studying the evolution, conservation, and repurposing of phosphoinositide signaling. In this review, we describe the regulatory mechanisms that control the spatial and temporal regulation of phosphoinositides in the Apicomplexan parasites Plasmodium and T. gondii. We further discuss the similarities and differences presented by Apicomplexan phosphoinositide signaling relative to how these pathways are regulated in other eukaryotic organisms.

A PI(3,5)P2 reporter reveals PIKfyve activity and dynamics on macropinosomes and phagosomes

Phosphoinositide signaling lipids (PIPs) are key regulators of membrane identity and trafficking. Of these, PI(3,5)P2 is one of the least well-understood, despite key roles in many endocytic pathways including phagocytosis and macropinocytosis. PI(3,5)P2 is generated by the phosphoinositide 5-kinase PIKfyve, which is critical for phagosomal digestion and antimicrobial activity. However PI(3,5)P2 dynamics and regulation remain unclear due to lack of reliable reporters. Using the amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum, we identify SnxA as a highly selective PI(3,5)P2-binding protein and characterize its use as a reporter for PI(3,5)P2 in both Dictyostelium and mammalian cells. Using GFP-SnxA, we demonstrate that Dictyostelium phagosomes and macropinosomes accumulate PI(3,5)P2 3 min after engulfment but are then retained differently, indicating pathway-specific regulation. We further find that PIKfyve recruitment and activity are separable and that PIKfyve activation stimulates its own dissociation. SnxA is therefore a new tool for reporting PI(3,5)P2 in live cells that reveals key mechanistic details of the role and regulation of PIKfyve/PI(3,5)P2.

A plant virus hijacks phosphatidylinositol-3,5-bisphosphate to escape autophagic degradation in its insect vector

Hosts can initiate macroautophagy/autophagy as an antiviral defense response, while viruses have developed multiple ways to evade the host autophagic degradation. However, little is known as to whether viruses can target lipids to subvert autophagic degradation. Here, we show that a low abundant signaling lipid, phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(3,5)P2), is required for rice black-streaked dwarf virus (RBSDV) to evade the autophagic degradation in the insect vector Laodelphax striatellus. RBSDV binds to PtdIns(3,5)P2 and elevates its level through its main capsid protein P10, leading to inhibited autophagy and promoted virus propagation. Furthermore, we show that PtdIns(3,5)P2 inhibits the autophagy pathway by preventing the fusion of autophagosomes and lysosomes through activation of Trpml (transient receptor potential cation channel, mucolipin), an effector of PtdIns(3,5)P2. These findings uncover a strategy whereby a plant virus hijacks PtdIns(3,5)P2 via its viral capsid protein to evade autophagic degradation and promote its survival in insects.

PIP kinases: A versatile family that demands further therapeutic attention

Phosphoinositides are membrane-localized phospholipids that regulate a plethora of essential cellular processes. These lipid signaling molecules are critical for cell homeostasis and therefore their levels are strictly regulated by the coordinated action of several families of lipid kinases and phosphatases. In this review, we provide a focused perspective on the phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinase (PIPK) family and the three subfamilies that compose it: Type I PIPKs or phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinases (PI4P5Ks), Type II PIPKs or phosphatidylinositol-5-phosphate 4-kinases (PI5P4Ks), and Type III PIPKs or phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate 5-kinases (PIKfyve). Each subfamily is responsible for catalyzing a hydroxyl phosphorylation on specific phosphoinositide species to generate a double phosphorylated lipid, therefore regulating the levels of both substrate and product. Here, we summarize our current knowledge about the functions and regulation of each PIPK subfamily. Further, we highlight the roles of these kinases in various in vivo genetic models and give an overview of their involvement in multiple pathological conditions. The phosphoinositide field has been long focused on targeting PI3K signaling, but growing evidence suggests that it is time to draw attention to the other phosphoinositide kinases. The discovery of the involvement of PIPKs in the pathogenesis of multiple diseases has prompted substantial efforts to turn these enzymes into pharmacological targets. An increasingly refined knowledge of the biology of PIPKs in a variety of in vitro and in vivo models will facilitate the development of effective approaches for therapeutic intervention with the potential to translate into meaningful clinical benefits for patients suffering from cancer, immunological and infectious diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Linkage mapping reveals loci that underlie differences in Caenorhabditis elegans growth

Growth rate and body size are complex traits that contribute to the fitness of organisms. The identification of loci that underlie differences in these traits provides insights into the genetic contributions to development. Leveraging Caenorhabditis elegans as a tractable metazoan model for quantitative genetics, we can identify genomic regions that underlie differences in growth. We measured postembryonic growth of the laboratory-adapted wild-type strain (N2) and a wild strain from Hawaii (CB4856) and found differences in body size. Using linkage mapping, we identified three distinct quantitative trait loci (QTL) on chromosomes IV, V, and X that are associated with variation in body growth. We further examined these growth-associated quantitative trait loci using chromosome substitution strains and near-isogenic lines and validated the chromosome X quantitative trait loci. In addition, we generated a list of candidate genes for the chromosome X quantitative trait loci. These genes could potentially contribute to differences in animal growth and should be evaluated in subsequent studies. Our work reveals the genetic architecture underlying animal growth variation and highlights the genetic complexity of growth in Caenorhabditis elegans natural populations.

The vacuolar morphology protein VAC14 plays an important role in sexual development in the filamentous ascomycete Sordaria macrospora

The multiprotein Fab1p/PIKfyve-complex regulating the abundance of the phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(3,5)P₂) is highly conserved among eukaryotes. In yeast/mammals, it is composed of the phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate 5-kinase Fab1p/PIKfyve, the PtdIns(3,5)P₂ phosphatase Fig4p/Sac3 and the scaffolding subunit Vac14p/ArPIKfyve. The complex is located to vacuolar membranes in yeast and to endosomal membranes in mammals, where it controls the synthesis and turnover of PtdIns(3,5)P₂. In this study, we analyzed the role and function of the Fab1p/PIKfyve-complex scaffold protein SmVAC14 in the filamentous ascomycete Sordaria macrospora (Sm). We generated the Smvac14 deletion strain ∆vac14 and performed phenotypic analysis of the mutant. Furthermore, we conducted fluorescence microscopic localization studies of fluorescently labeled SmVAC14 with vacuolar and late endosomal marker proteins. Our results revealed that SmVAC14 is important for maintaining vacuolar size and appearance as well as proper sexual development in S. macrospora. In addition, SmVAC14 plays an important role in starvation stress response. Accordingly, our results propose that the turnover of PtdIns(3,5)P₂ is of great significance for developmental processes in filamentous fungi.

Loss of PIKfyve Causes Transdifferentiation of Dictyostelium Spores Into Basal Disc Cells

The 1-phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate 5-kinase PIKfyve generates PtdIns3,5P2 on late phagolysosomes, which by recruiting the scission protein Atg18, results in their fragmentation in the normal course of endosome processing. Loss of PIKfyve function causes cellular hypervacuolization in eukaryotes and organ failure in humans. We identified pikfyve as the defective gene in a Dictyostelium mutant that failed to form spores. The amoebas normally differentiated into prespore cells and initiated spore coat protein synthesis in Golgi-derived prespore vesicles. However, instead of exocytosing, the prespore vesicles fused into the single vacuole that typifies the stalk and basal disc cells that support the spores. This process was accompanied by stalk wall biosynthesis, loss of spore gene expression and overexpression of ecmB, a basal disc and stalk-specific gene, but not of the stalk-specific genes DDB_G0278745 and DDB_G0277757. Transdifferentiation of prespore into stalk-like cells was previously observed in mutants that lack early autophagy genes, like atg5, atg7, and atg9. However, while autophagy mutants specifically lacked cAMP induction of prespore gene expression, pikfyve ^- showed normal early autophagy and prespore induction, but increased in vitro induction of ecmB. Combined, the data suggest that the Dictyostelium endosomal system influences cell fate by acting on cell type specific gene expression.

Unraveling and targeting RAS-driven metabolic signaling for therapeutic gain

RAS mutations are among the most frequent oncogenic drivers observed in human cancers. With a lack of available treatment options, RAS-mutant cancers account for many of the deadliest cancers in the United States. Recent studies established that altered metabolic requirements are a hallmark of cancer, and many of these alterations are driven by aberrant RAS signaling. Specifically, RAS-driven cancers are characterized by upregulated glycolysis, the differential channeling of glycolytic intermediates, upregulated nutrient scavenging pathways such as autophagy and macropinocytosis, and altered glutamine utilization and mitochondrial function. This unique metabolic landscape promotes tumorigenesis, proliferation, survival in nutrient deficient environments and confers resistance to conventional cytotoxic and targeted therapies. Emerging work demonstrates how these dependencies can be therapeutically exploited in vitro and in vivo with many metabolic inhibitors currently in clinical trials. This review aims to outline the unique metabolic requirements induced by aberrant RAS signaling and how these altered dependencies present opportunities for therapeutic intervention.

Glucose starvation induces autophagy via ULK1-mediated activation of PIKfyve in an AMPK-dependent manner

Autophagy is an essential catabolic process induced to provide cellular energy sources in response to nutrient limitation through the activation of kinases, like AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and ULK1. Although glucose starvation induces autophagy, the exact mechanism underlying this signaling has yet to be elucidated. Here, we reveal a role for ULK1 in non-canonical autophagy signaling using diverse cell lines. ULK1 activated by AMPK during glucose starvation phosphorylates the lipid kinase PIKfyve on S1548, thereby increasing its activity and the synthesis of the phospholipid PI(5)P without changing the levels of PI(3,5)P₂. ULK1-mediated activation of PIKfyve enhances the formation of PI(5)P-containing autophagosomes upon glucose starvation, resulting in an increase in autophagy flux. Phospho-mimic PIKfyve S1548D drives autophagy upregulation and lowers autophagy substrate levels. Our study has identified how ULK1 upregulates autophagy upon glucose starvation and induces the formation of PI(5)P-containing autophagosomes by activating PIKfyve.

Lysosome biogenesis: Regulation and functions

Lysosomes are degradation centers and signaling hubs in cells and play important roles in cellular homeostasis, development, and aging. Changes in lysosome function are essential to support cellular adaptation to multiple signals and stimuli. Therefore, lysosome biogenesis and activity are regulated by a wide variety of intra- and extracellular cues. Here, we summarize current knowledge of the regulatory mechanisms of lysosome biogenesis, including synthesis of lysosomal proteins and their delivery via the endosome-lysosome pathway, reformation of lysosomes from degradative vesicles, and transcriptional regulation of lysosomal genes. We survey the regulation of lysosome biogenesis in response to nutrient and nonnutrient signals, the cell cycle, stem cell quiescence, and cell fate determination. Finally, we discuss lysosome biogenesis and functions in the context of organismal development and aging.

Condition-dependent functional shift of two Drosophila Mtmr lipid phosphatases in autophagy control

Myotubularin (MTM) and myotubularin-related (MTMR) lipid phosphatases catalyze the removal of a phosphate group from certain phosphatidylinositol derivatives. Because some of these substrates are required for macroautophagy/autophagy, during which unwanted cytoplasmic constituents are delivered into lysosomes for degradation, MTM and MTMRs function as important regulators of the autophagic process. Despite its physiological and medical significance, the specific role of individual MTMR paralogs in autophagy control remains largely unexplored. Here we examined two Drosophila MTMRs, EDTP and Mtmr6, the fly orthologs of mammalian MTMR14 and MTMR6 to MTMR8, respectively, and found that these enzymes affect the autophagic process in a complex, condition-dependent way. EDTP inhibited basal autophagy, but did not influence stress-induced autophagy. In contrast, Mtmr6 promoted the process under nutrient-rich settings, but effectively blocked its hyperactivation in response to stress. Thus, Mtmr6 is the first identified MTMR phosphatase with dual, antagonistic roles in the regulation of autophagy, and shows conditional antagonism/synergism with EDTP in modulating autophagic breakdown. These results provide a deeper insight into the adjustment of autophagy.

Abbreviations: Atg, autophagy-related; BDSC, Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center; DGRC, Drosophila Genetic Resource Center; EDTP, Egg-derived tyrosine phosphatase; FYVE, zinc finger domain from Fab1 (yeast ortholog of PIKfyve), YOTB, Vac1 (vesicle transport protein) and EEA1 cysteine-rich proteins; LTR, LysoTracker Red; MTM, myotubularin; MTMR, myotubularin-related; PI, phosphatidylinositol; Pi3K59F, Phosphotidylinositol 3 kinase 59F; PtdIns3P, phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate; PtdIns(3,5)P₂, phosphatidylinositol-3,5-bisphosphate; PtdIns5P, phosphatidylinositol-5-phosphate; ref(2)P, refractory to sigma P; Syx17, Syntaxin 17; TEM, transmission electron microscopy; UAS, upstream activating sequence; Uvrag, UV-resistance associated gene; VDRC, Vienna Drosophila RNAi Center; Vps34, Vacuolar protein sorting 34.

A novel phosphoinositide kinase Fab1 regulates biosynthesis of pathogenic aflatoxin in Aspergillus flavus

Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) is one of the most important model environmental fungi which can produce a potent toxin and carcinogen known as aflatoxin. Aflatoxin contamination causes massive agricultural economic loss and a critical human health issue each year. Although a functional vacuole has been highlighted for its fundamental importance in fungal virulence, the molecular mechanisms of the vacuole in regulating the virulence of A. flavus remain largely unknown. Here, we identified a novel vacuole-related protein in A. flavus, the ortholog of phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate-5-kinase (Fab1) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This kinase was located at the vacuolar membrane, and loss of fab1 function was found to affect the growth, conidia and sclerotial development, cellular acidification and metal ion homeostasis, aflatoxin production and pathogenicity of A. flavus. Further functional analysis revealed that Fab1 was required to maintain the vacuole size and cell morphology. Additional quantitative proteomic analysis suggested that Fab1 was likely to play an important role in maintaining vacuolar/cellular homeostasis, with vacuolar dysregulation upon fab1 deletion leading to impaired aflatoxin synthesis in this fungus. Together, these results provide insight into the molecular mechanisms by which this pathogen produces aflatoxin and mediates its pathogenicity, and may facilitate dissection of the vacuole-mediated regulatory network in A. flavus.

Roles for a lipid phosphatase in the activation of its opposing lipid kinase

Fig4 is a phosphoinositide phosphatase that converts PI3,5P2 to PI3P. Paradoxically, mutation of Fig4 results in lower PI3,5P2, indicating that Fig4 is also required for PI3,5P2 production. Fig4 promotes elevation of PI3,5P2, in part, through stabilization of a protein complex that includes its opposing lipid kinase, Fab1, and the scaffold protein Vac14. Here we show that multiple regions of Fig4 contribute to its roles in the elevation of PI3,5P2: its catalytic site, an N-terminal disease-related surface, and a C-terminal region. We show that mutation of the Fig4 catalytic site enhances the formation of the Fab1-Vac14-Fig4 complex, and reduces the ability to elevate PI3,5P2. This suggests that independent of its lipid phosphatase function, the active site plays a role in the Fab1-Vac14-Fig4 complex. We also show that the N-terminal disease-related surface contributes to the elevation of PI3,5P2 and promotes Fig4 association with Vac14 in a manner that requires the Fig4 C-terminus. We find that the Fig4 C-terminus alone interacts with Vac14 in vivo and retains some functions of full-length Fig4. Thus, a subset of Fig4 functions are independent of its phosphatase domain and at least three regions of Fig4 play roles in the function of the Fab1-Vac14-Fig4 complex.

Lysosomal size matters

Lysosomes are key cellular catabolic centers that also perform fundamental metabolic, signaling and quality control functions. Lysosomes are not static and they respond dynamically to intra‐ and extracellular stimuli triggering changes in organelle numbers, size and position. Such physical changes have a strong impact on lysosomal activity ultimately influencing cellular homeostasis. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on lysosomal size regulation, on its physiological role(s) and association to several disease conditions.

The amino acid transporter SLC-36.1 cooperates with PtdIns3P 5-kinase to control phagocytic lysosome reformation

How lysosomes reform following phagolysosomal digestion of apoptotic cells is poorly understood. Gan et al. reveal that the amino acid transporter SLC-36.1 cooperates with PtdIns3P 5-kinase to control phagocygtic lysosome reformation in Caenorhabditis elegans embryos and autophagic lysosome reformation in adult animals.

Phagocytic removal of apoptotic cells involves formation, maturation, and digestion of cell corpse–containing phagosomes. The retrieval of lysosomal components following phagolysosomal digestion of cell corpses remains poorly understood. Here we reveal that the amino acid transporter SLC-36.1 is essential for lysosome reformation during cell corpse clearance in Caenorhabditis elegans embryos. Loss of slc-36.1 leads to formation of phagolysosomal vacuoles arising from cell corpse–containing phagosomes. In the absence of slc-36.1, phagosome maturation is not affected, but the retrieval of lysosomal components is inhibited. Moreover, loss of PPK-3, the C. elegans homologue of the PtdIns3P 5-kinase PIKfyve, similarly causes accumulation of phagolysosomal vacuoles that are defective in phagocytic lysosome reformation. SLC-36.1 and PPK-3 function in the same genetic pathway, and they directly interact with one another. In addition, loss of slc-36.1 and ppk-3 causes strong defects in autophagic lysosome reformation in adult animals. Our findings thus suggest that the PPK-3–SLC-36.1 axis plays a central role in both phagocytic and autophagic lysosome formation.

Diverse Physiological Functions of FAB1 and Phosphatidylinositol 3,5-Bisphosphate in Plants

Biological membranes are predominantly composed of structural glycerophospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylinositol. Of the membrane glycerophospholipids, phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) and its phosphorylated derivatives (phosphoinositides) constitute a minor fraction yet exert a wide variety of regulatory functions in eukaryotic cells. Phosphoinositides include PtdIns, three PtdIns monophosphates, three PtdIns bisphosphates, and one PtdIns triphosphate, in which the hydroxy groups of the inositol head group of PtdIns are phosphorylated by specific lipid kinases. Of all the phosphoinositides in eukaryotic cells, phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(3,5)P₂] constitutes the smallest fraction, yet it is a crucial lipid in animal and yeast membrane trafficking systems. Here, we review the recent findings on the physiological functions of PtdIns(3,5)P₂ and its enzyme-formation of aploid and binucleate cells (FAB1)-along with the regulatory proteins of FAB1 and the downstream effector proteins of PtdIns(3,5)P₂ in Arabidopsis.

Lysosomal dysfunction in proteinopathic neurodegenerative disorders: possible therapeutic roles of cAMP and zinc

A number of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, share intra- and/or extracellular deposition of protein aggregates as a common core pathology. While the species of accumulating proteins are distinct in each disease, an increasing body of evidence indicates that defects in the protein clearance system play a crucial role in the gradual accumulation of protein aggregates. Among protein degradation systems, the endosome-autophagosome-lysosome pathway (EALP) is the main degradation machinery, especially for large protein aggregates. Lysosomal dysfunction or defects in fusion with vesicles containing cargo are commonly observed abnormalities in proteinopathic neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we discuss the available evidence for a mechanistic connection between components of the EALP-especially lysosomes-and neurodegenerative diseases. We also focus on lysosomal pH regulation and its significance in maintaining flux through the EALP. Finally, we suggest that raising cAMP and free zinc levels in brain cells may be beneficial in normalizing lysosomal pH and EALP flux.

Loss-of-function mutation in Hippo suppressed enlargement of lysosomes and neurodegeneration caused by dFIG4 knockdown

Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease (CMT) is the most common hereditary neuropathy, and more than 80 CMT-causing genes have been identified to date. CMT4J is caused by a loss-of-function mutation in the Factor-Induced-Gene 4 (FIG4) gene, the product of which plays important roles in endosome–lysosome homeostasis. We hypothesized that Mammalian sterile 20-like kinase (MST) 1 and 2, tumor-suppressor genes, are candidate modifiers of CMT4J. We therefore examined the interaction between dFIG4 and Hippo (hpo), Drosophila counterparts of FIG4 and MSTs, respectively, using the Drosophila CMT4J model with the knockdown of dFIG4. The loss-of-function allele of hpo improved the rough eye morphology, locomotive dysfunction accompanied by structural defects in the presynaptic terminals of motoneurons, and the enlargement of lysosomes caused by the knockdown of dFIG4. Therefore, we identified hpo as a modifier of phenotypes induced by the knockdown of dFIG4. These results in Drosophila may provide an insight into the pathogenesis of CMT4J and contribute toward the development of disease-modifying therapy for CMT. We also identified the regulation of endosome–lysosome homeostasis as a novel probable function of Hippo/MST.

PIKfyve/Fab1 is required for efficient V-ATPase and hydrolase delivery to phagosomes, phagosomal killing, and restriction of Legionella infection

By engulfing potentially harmful microbes, professional phagocytes are continually at risk from intracellular pathogens. To avoid becoming infected, the host must kill pathogens in the phagosome before they can escape or establish a survival niche. Here, we analyse the role of the phosphoinositide (PI) 5-kinase PIKfyve in phagosome maturation and killing, using the amoeba and model phagocyte Dictyostelium discoideum. PIKfyve plays important but poorly understood roles in vesicular trafficking by catalysing formation of the lipids phosphatidylinositol (3,5)-bisphosphate (PI(3,5)2) and phosphatidylinositol-5-phosphate (PI(5)P). Here we show that its activity is essential during early phagosome maturation in Dictyostelium. Disruption of PIKfyve inhibited delivery of both the vacuolar V-ATPase and proteases, dramatically reducing the ability of cells to acidify newly formed phagosomes and digest their contents. Consequently, PIKfyve- cells were unable to generate an effective antimicrobial environment and efficiently kill captured bacteria. Moreover, we demonstrate that cells lacking PIKfyve are more susceptible to infection by the intracellular pathogen Legionella pneumophila. We conclude that PIKfyve-catalysed phosphoinositide production plays a crucial and general role in ensuring early phagosomal maturation, protecting host cells from diverse pathogenic microbes.

Multiple Aspects of PIP2 Involvement in C. elegans Gametogenesis

One of the most studied phosphoinositides is phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), which localizes to the plasma membrane, nuclear speckles, small foci in the nucleoplasm, and to the nucleolus in mammalian cells. Here, we show that PIP2 also localizes to the nucleus in prophase I, during the gametogenesis of C. elegans hermaphrodite. The depletion of PIP2 by type I PIP kinase (PPK-1) kinase RNA interference results in an altered chromosome structure and leads to various defects during meiotic progression. We observed a decreased brood size and aneuploidy in progeny, defects in synapsis, and crossover formation. The altered chromosome structure is reflected in the increased transcription activity of a tightly regulated process in prophase I. To elucidate the involvement of PIP2 in the processes during the C. elegans development, we identified the PIP2-binding partners, leucine-rich repeat (LRR-1) protein and proteasome subunit beta 4 (PBS-4), pointing to its involvement in the ubiquitin–proteasome pathway.

PI(3,5)P2 controls vacuole potassium transport to support cellular osmoregulation

Lysosomes are dynamic organelles with critical roles in cellular physiology. The lysosomal signaling lipid phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate (PI(3,5)P₂) is a key regulator that has been implicated to control lysosome ion homeostasis, but the scope of ion transporters targeted by PI(3,5)P₂ and the purpose of this regulation is not well understood. Through an unbiased screen in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we identified loss-of-function mutations in the vacuolar H⁺-ATPase (V-ATPase) and in Vnx1, a vacuolar monovalent cation/proton antiporter, as suppressor mutations that relieve the growth defects and osmotic swelling of vacuoles (lysosomes) in yeast lacking PI(3,5)P₂. We observed that depletion of PI(3,5)P₂ synthesis in yeast causes a robust accumulation of multiple cations, most notably an ∼85 mM increase in the cellular concentration of potassium, a critical ion used by cells to regulate osmolarity. The accumulation of potassium and other cations in PI(3,5)P₂-deficient yeast is relieved by mutations that inactivate Vnx1 or inactivate the V-ATPase and by mutations that increase the activity of a vacuolar cation export channel, Yvc1. Collectively, our data demonstrate that PI(3,5)P₂ signaling orchestrates vacuole/lysosome cation transport to aid cellular osmoregulation.

PIKfyve regulates melanosome biogenesis

PIKfyve, VAC14, and FIG4 form a complex that catalyzes the production of PI(3,5)P2, a signaling lipid implicated in process ranging from lysosome maturation to neurodegeneration. While previous studies have identified VAC14 and FIG4 mutations that lead to both neurodegeneration and coat color defects, how PIKfyve regulates melanogenesis is unknown. In this study, we sought to better understand the role of PIKfyve in melanosome biogenesis. Melanocyte-specific PIKfyve knockout mice exhibit greying of the mouse coat and the accumulation of single membrane vesicle structures in melanocytes resembling multivesicular endosomes. PIKfyve inhibition blocks melanosome maturation, the processing of the melanosome protein PMEL, and the trafficking of the melanosome protein TYRP1. Taken together, these studies identify a novel role for PIKfyve in controlling the delivery of proteins from the endosomal compartment to the melanosome, a role that is distinct from the role of PIKfyve in the reformation of lysosomes from endolysosomes.

Cell Invasion In Vivo via Rapid Exocytosis of a Transient Lysosome-Derived Membrane Domain

Invasive cells use small invadopodia to breach basement membrane (BM), a dense matrix that encases tissues. Following the breach, a large protrusion forms to clear a path for tissue entry by poorly understood mechanisms. Using RNAi screening for defects in Caenorhabditis elegans anchor cell (AC) invasion, we found that UNC-6(netrin)/UNC-40(DCC) signaling at the BM breach site directs exocytosis of lysosomes using the exocyst and SNARE SNAP-29 to form a large protrusion that invades vulval tissue. Live-cell imaging revealed that the protrusion is enriched in the matrix metalloprotease ZMP-1 and transiently expands AC volume by more than 20%, displacing surrounding BM and vulval epithelium. Photobleaching and genetic perturbations showed that the BM receptor dystroglycan forms a membrane diffusion barrier at the neck of the protrusion, which enables protrusion growth. Together these studies define a netrin-dependent pathway that builds an invasive protrusion, an isolated lysosome-derived membrane structure specialized to breach tissue barriers.

Membrane Trafficking in Autophagy

Macroautophagy is an intracellular pathway used for targeting of cellular components to the lysosome for their degradation and involves sequestration of cytoplasmic material into autophagosomes formed from a double membrane structure called the phagophore. The nucleation and elongation of the phagophore is tightly regulated by several autophagy-related (ATG) proteins, but also involves vesicular trafficking from different subcellular compartments to the forming autophagosome. Such trafficking must be tightly regulated by various intra- and extracellular signals to respond to different cellular stressors and metabolic states, as well as the nature of the cargo to become degraded. We are only starting to understand the interconnections between different membrane trafficking pathways and macroautophagy. This review will focus on the membrane trafficking machinery found to be involved in delivery of membrane, lipids, and proteins to the forming autophagosome and in the subsequent autophagosome fusion with endolysosomal membranes. The role of RAB proteins and their regulators, as well as coat proteins, vesicle tethers, and SNARE proteins in autophagosome biogenesis and maturation will be discussed.

The role of the PI(3,5)P2 kinase TbFab1 in endo/lysosomal trafficking in Trypanosoma brucei

Protein trafficking through endo/lysosomal compartments is critically important to the biology of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, but the routes material may take to the lysosome, as well as the molecular factors regulating those routes, remain incompletely understood. Phosphoinositides are signaling phospholipids that regulate many trafficking events by recruiting specific effector proteins to discrete membrane subdomains. In this study, we investigate the role of one phosphoinositide, PI(3,5)P₂ in T. brucei. We find a low steady state level of PI(3,5)P₂ in bloodstream form parasites comparable to that of other organisms. RNAi knockdown of the putative PI(3)P-5 kinase TbFab1 decreases the PI(3,5)P₂ pool leading to rapid cell death. TbFab1 and PI(3,5)P₂ both localize strongly to late endo/lysosomes. While most trafficking functions were intact in TbFab1 deficient cells, including both endocytic and biosynthetic trafficking to the lysosome, lysosomal turnover of an endogenous ubiquitinylated membrane protein, ISG65, was completely blocked suggesting that TbFab1 plays a role in the ESCRT-mediated late endosomal/multivesicular body degradative pathways. Knockdown of a second component of PI(3,5)P₂ metabolism, the PI(3,5)P₂ phosphatase TbFig4, also resulted in delayed turnover of ISG65. Together, these results demonstrate an essential role for PI(3,5)P₂ in the turnover of ubiquitinylated membrane proteins and in trypanosome endomembrane biology.

SNX-1 and RME-8 oppose the assembly of HGRS-1/ESCRT-0 degradative microdomains on endosomes

After endocytosis, transmembrane cargo reaches endosomes, where it encounters complexes dedicated to opposing functions: recycling and degradation. Microdomains containing endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT)-0 component Hrs [hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (HGRS-1) in Caenorhabditis elegans] mediate cargo degradation, concentrating ubiquitinated cargo and organizing the activities of ESCRT. At the same time, retromer associated sorting nexin one (SNX-1) and its binding partner, J-domain protein RME-8, sort cargo away from degradation, promoting cargo recycling to the Golgi. Thus, we hypothesized that there could be important regulatory interactions between retromer and ESCRT that balance degradative and recycling functions. Taking advantage of the naturally large endosomes of the C. elegans coelomocyte, we visualized complementary ESCRT-0 and RME-8/SNX-1 microdomains in vivo and assayed the ability of retromer and ESCRT microdomains to regulate one another. We found in snx-1(0) and rme-8(ts) mutants increased endosomal coverage and intensity of HGRS-1-labeled microdomains, as well as increased total levels of HGRS-1 bound to membranes. These effects are specific to SNX-1 and RME-8, as loss of other retromer components SNX-3 and vacuolar protein sorting-associated protein 35 (VPS-35) did not affect HGRS-1 microdomains. Additionally, knockdown of hgrs-1 had little to no effect on SNX-1 and RME-8 microdomains, suggesting directionality to the interaction. Separation of the functionally distinct ESCRT-0 and SNX-1/RME-8 microdomains was also compromised in the absence of RME-8 and SNX-1, a phenomenon we observed to be conserved, as depletion of Snx1 and Snx2 in HeLa cells also led to greater overlap of Rme-8 and Hrs on endosomes.

Phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate: regulation of cellular events in space and time

Phosphorylated phosphatidylinositol lipids are crucial for most eukaryotes and have diverse cellular functions. The low-abundance signalling lipid phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate [PI(3,5)P2] is critical for cellular homoeostasis and adaptation to stimuli. A large complex of proteins that includes the lipid kinase Fab1-PIKfyve, dynamically regulates the levels of PI(3,5)P2. Deficiencies in PI(3,5)P2 are linked to some human diseases, especially those of the nervous system. Future studies will probably determine new, undiscovered regulatory roles of PI(3,5)P2, as well as uncover mechanistic insights into how PI(3,5)P2 contributes to normal human physiology.

ESCRTs and associated proteins in lysosomal fusion with endosomes and autophagosomes

Endolysosomal and autophagosomal degradation pathways are highly connected at various levels, sharing multiple molecular effectors that modulate them individually or simultaneously. These two lysosomal degradative pathways are primarily involved in the disposal of cargo internalized from the cell surface or long-lived proteins or aggregates and aged organelles present in the cytosol. Both of these pathways involve a number of carefully regulated vesicular fusion events that are dependent on ESCRT proteins. The ESCRT proteins especially ESCRT-I and III participate in the regulation of fusion events between autophagosome/amphisome and lysosome. Along with these, a number of functionally diverse ESCRT associated and regulatory proteins such as, endosomal PtdIns (3) P 5-kinase Fab1, ALIX, mahogunin ring finger 1, atrogin 1, syntaxin 17, ATG12-ATG3 complex, and protein kinase CK2α are involved in fusion events in either or both the lysosomal degradative pathways.

PIKfyve Regulates Vacuole Maturation and Nutrient Recovery following Engulfment

The scavenging of extracellular macromolecules by engulfment can sustain cell growth in a nutrient-depleted environment. Engulfed macromolecules are contained within vacuoles that are targeted for lysosome fusion to initiate degradation and nutrient export. We have shown that vacuoles containing engulfed material undergo mTORC1-dependent fission that redistributes degraded cargo back into the endosomal network. Here we identify the lipid kinase PIKfyve as a regulator of an alternative pathway that distributes engulfed contents in support of intracellular macromolecular synthesis during macropinocytosis, entosis, and phagocytosis. We find that PIKfyve regulates vacuole size in part through its downstream effector, the cationic transporter TRPML1. Furthermore, PIKfyve promotes recovery of nutrients from vacuoles, suggesting a potential link between PIKfyve activity and lysosomal nutrient export. During nutrient depletion, PIKfyve activity protects Ras-mutant cells from starvation-induced cell death and supports their proliferation. These data identify PIKfyve as a critical regulator of vacuole maturation and nutrient recovery during engulfment.

A Caenorhabditis elegans Homologue of LYST Functions in Endosome and Lysosome-Related Organelle Biogenesis

LYST-1 is a Caenorhabditis elegans BEACH domain containing protein (BDCP) homologous to LYST and NBEAL2, BDCPs controlling organelle biogenesis that are implicated in human disease. Unlike the three other BDCPs encoded by C. elegans, mutations in lyst-1 lead to smaller lysosome-related organelles (LROs), smaller lysosomes, increased numbers of LROs and decreased numbers of early endosomes. lyst-1(-) mutations do not obviously disrupt protein trafficking to lysosomes or LROs, however, the formation of gut granules is diminished.

Distinct Requirements for Vacuolar Protein Sorting 34 Downstream Effector Phosphatidylinositol 3-Phosphate 5-Kinase in Podocytes Versus Proximal Tubular Cells

The mechanisms by which the glomerular filtration barrier prevents the loss of large macromolecules and simultaneously, maintains the filter remain poorly understood. Recent studies proposed that podocytes have an active role in both the endocytosis of filtered macromolecules and the maintenance of the filtration barrier. Deletion of a key endosomal trafficking regulator, the class 3 phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) 3-kinase vacuolar protein sorting 34 (Vps34), in podocytes results in aberrant endosomal membrane morphology and podocyte dysfunction. We recently showed that the vacuolation phenotype in cultured Vps34-deficient podocytes is caused by the absence of a substrate for the Vps34 downstream effector PtdIns 3-phosphate 5-kinase (PIKfyve), which phosphorylates Vps34-generated PtdIns(3)P to produce PtdIns (3,5)P2. PIKfyve perturbation and PtdIns(3,5)P2 reduction result in massive membrane vacuolation along the endosomal system, but the cell-specific functions of PIKfyve in vivo remain unclear. We show here that the genetic deletion of PIKfyve in endocytically active proximal tubular cells resulted in the development of large cytoplasmic vacuoles caused by arrested endocytic traffic progression at a late-endosome stage. In contrast, deletion of PIKfyve in glomerular podocytes did not significantly alter the endosomal morphology, even in age 18-month-old mice. However, on culturing, the PIKfyve-deleted podocytes developed massive cytoplasmic vacuoles. In summary, these data suggest that glomerular podocytes and proximal tubules have different requirements for PIKfyve function, likely related to distinct in vivo needs for endocytic flux.

Characterization of HAF-4- and HAF-9-localizing organelles as distinct organelles in Caenorhabditis elegans intestinal cells

BACKGROUND

The intestinal cells of Caenorhabditis elegans are filled with heterogeneous granular organelles that are associated with specific organ functions. The best studied of these organelles are lipid droplets and acidified gut granules associated with GLO-1, a homolog of the small GTPase Rab38. In this study, we characterized a subset of the intestinal granules in which HAF-4 and HAF-9 localize on the membrane. HAF-4 and HAF-9 are ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter proteins that are homologous to the mammalian lysosomal peptide transporter TAPL (transporter associated with antigen processing-like, ABCB9).

RESULTS

Using transgenic worms expressing fluorescent protein-tagged marker proteins, we demonstrated that the HAF-4- and HAF-9-localizing organelles are not lipid droplets and do not participate in yolk protein transport. They were also ruled out as GLO-1-positive acidified gut granules. Furthermore, we clarified that the late endosomal protein RAB-7 localizes to the HAF-4- and HAF-9-localizing organelles and is required for their biogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that the HAF-4- and HAF-9-localizing organelles are distinct intestinal organelles associated with the endocytic pathway.

PI(3,5)P2 controls endosomal branched actin dynamics by regulating cortactin-actin interactions

The late endosomal lipid PI(3,5)P₂ binds to cortactin through the filamentous actin (F-actin) binding domain of cortactin, leading to removal of cortactin from endosomal actin networks and inhibition of cortactin-mediated branched actin nucleation and stabilization.

Branched actin critically contributes to membrane trafficking by regulating membrane curvature, dynamics, fission, and transport. However, how actin dynamics are controlled at membranes is poorly understood. Here, we identify the branched actin regulator cortactin as a direct binding partner of phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate (PI(3,5)P₂) and demonstrate that their interaction promotes turnover of late endosomal actin. In vitro biochemical studies indicated that cortactin binds PI(3,5)P₂ via its actin filament-binding region. Furthermore, PI(3,5)P₂ competed with actin filaments for binding to cortactin, thereby antagonizing cortactin activity. These findings suggest that PI(3,5)P₂ formation on endosomes may remove cortactin from endosome-associated branched actin. Indeed, inhibition of PI(3,5)P₂ production led to cortactin accumulation and actin stabilization on Rab7⁺ endosomes. Conversely, inhibition of Arp2/3 complex activity greatly reduced cortactin localization to late endosomes. Knockdown of cortactin reversed PI(3,5)P₂-inhibitor–induced actin accumulation and stabilization on endosomes. These data suggest a model in which PI(3,5)P₂ binding removes cortactin from late endosomal branched actin networks and thereby promotes net actin turnover.

FIG4 regulates lysosome membrane homeostasis independent of phosphatase function

FIG4 is a phosphoinositide phosphatase that is mutated in several diseases including Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease 4J (CMT4J) and Yunis-Varon syndrome (YVS). To investigate the mechanism of disease pathogenesis, we generated Drosophila models of FIG4-related diseases. Fig4 null mutant animals are viable but exhibit marked enlargement of the lysosomal compartment in muscle cells and neurons, accompanied by an age-related decline in flight ability. Transgenic animals expressing Drosophila Fig4 missense mutations corresponding to human pathogenic mutations can partially rescue lysosomal expansion phenotypes, consistent with these mutations causing decreased FIG4 function. Interestingly, Fig4 mutations predicted to inactivate FIG4 phosphatase activity rescue lysosome expansion phenotypes, and mutations in the phosphoinositide (3) phosphate kinase Fab1 that performs the reverse enzymatic reaction also causes a lysosome expansion phenotype. Since FIG4 and FAB1 are present together in the same biochemical complex, these data are consistent with a model in which FIG4 serves a phosphatase-independent biosynthetic function that is essential for lysosomal membrane homeostasis. Lysosomal phenotypes are suppressed by genetic inhibition of Rab7 or the HOPS complex, demonstrating that FIG4 functions after endosome-to-lysosome fusion. Furthermore, disruption of the retromer complex, implicated in recycling from the lysosome to Golgi, does not lead to similar phenotypes as Fig4, suggesting that the lysosomal defects are not due to compromised retromer-mediated recycling of endolysosomal membranes. These data show that FIG4 plays a critical noncatalytic function in maintaining lysosomal membrane homeostasis, and that this function is disrupted by mutations that cause CMT4J and YVS.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-Phosphate 5-Kinase, FAB1/PIKfyve Kinase Mediates Endosome Maturation to Establish Endosome-Cortical Microtubule Interaction in Arabidopsis

Phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(3,5)P2] is an important lipid in membrane trafficking in animal and yeast systems; however, its role is still largely obscure in plants. Here, we demonstrate that the phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate 5-kinase, formation of aploid and binucleate cells1 (FAB1)/FYVE finger-containing phosphoinositide kinase (PIKfyve), and its product, PtdIns(3,5)P2, are essential for the maturation process of endosomes to mediate cortical microtubule association of endosomes, thereby controlling proper PIN-FORMED protein trafficking in young cortical and stele cells of root. We found that FAB1 predominantly localizes on the Sorting Nexin1 (SNX1)-residing late endosomes, and a loss of FAB1 function causes the release of late endosomal proteins, Ara7, and SNX1 from the endosome membrane, indicating that FAB1, or its product PtdIns(3,5)P2, mediates the maturation process of the late endosomes. We also found that loss of FAB1 function causes the release of endosomes from cortical microtubules and disturbs proper cortical microtubule organization.

The Amyloid Precursor Protein Controls PIKfyve Function

While the Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) plays a central role in Alzheimer's disease, its cellular function still remains largely unclear. It was our goal to establish APP function which will provide insights into APP's implication in Alzheimer's disease. Using our recently developed proteo-liposome assay we established the interactome of APP's intracellular domain (known as AICD), thereby identifying novel APP interactors that provide mechanistic insights into APP function. By combining biochemical, cell biological and genetic approaches we validated the functional significance of one of these novel interactors. Here we show that APP binds the PIKfyve complex, an essential kinase for the synthesis of the endosomal phosphoinositide phosphatidylinositol-3,5-bisphosphate. This signalling lipid plays a crucial role in endosomal homeostasis and receptor sorting. Loss of PIKfyve function by mutation causes profound neurodegeneration in mammals. Using C. elegans genetics we demonstrate that APP functionally cooperates with PIKfyve in vivo. This regulation is required for maintaining endosomal and neuronal function. Our findings establish an unexpected role for APP in the regulation of endosomal phosphoinositide metabolism with dramatic consequences for endosomal biology and important implications for our understanding of Alzheimer's disease.

The Fab1/PIKfyve phosphoinositide phosphate kinase is not necessary to maintain the pH of lysosomes and of the yeast vacuole

Lysosomes and the yeast vacuole are degradative and acidic organelles. Phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(3,5)P2), a master architect of endolysosome and vacuole identity, is thought to be necessary for vacuolar acidification in yeast. There is also evidence that PtdIns(3,5)P2 may play a role in lysosomal acidification in higher eukaryotes. Nevertheless, these conclusions rely on qualitative assays of lysosome/vacuole pH. For example, quinacrine, an acidotropic fluorescent base, does not accumulate in the vacuoles of fab1Δ yeast. Fab1, along with its mammalian ortholog PIKfyve, is the lipid kinase responsible for synthesizing PtdIns(3,5)P2. In this study, we employed several assays that quantitatively assessed the lysosomal and vacuolar pH in PtdIns(3,5)P2-depleted cells. Using ratiometric imaging, we conclude that lysosomes retain a pH < 5 in PIKfyve-inhibited mammalian cells. In addition, quantitative fluorescence microscopy of vacuole-targeted pHluorin, a pH-sensitive GFP variant, indicates that fab1Δ vacuoles are as acidic as wild-type yeast. Importantly, we also employed fluorimetry of vacuoles loaded with cDCFDA, a pH-sensitive dye, to show that both wild-type and fab1Δ vacuoles have a pH < 5.0. In comparison, the vacuolar pH of the V-ATPase mutant vph1Δ or vph1Δ fab1Δ double mutant was 6.1. Although the steady-state vacuolar pH is not affected by PtdIns(3,5)P2 depletion, it may have a role in stabilizing the vacuolar pH during salt shock. Overall, we propose a model in which PtdIns(3,5)P2 does not govern the steady-state pH of vacuoles or lysosomes.

Mendelian disorders of PI metabolizing enzymes

More than twenty different genetic diseases have been described that are caused by mutations in phosphoinositide metabolizing enzymes, mostly in phosphoinositide phosphatases. Although generally ubiquitously expressed, mutations in these enzymes, which are mainly loss-of-function, result in tissue-restricted clinical manifestations through mechanisms that are not completely understood. Here we analyze selected disorders of phosphoinositide metabolism grouped according to the principle tissue affected: the nervous system, muscle, kidney, the osteoskeletal system, the eye, and the immune system. We will highlight what has been learnt so far from the study of these disorders about not only the cellular and molecular pathways that are involved or are governed by phosphoinositides, but also the many gaps that remain to be filled to gain a full understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the clinical manifestations of this steadily growing class of diseases, most of which still remain orphan in terms of treatment. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Phosphoinositides.

Lipid kinases are essential for apicoplast homeostasis in Toxoplasma gondii

Phosphoinositides regulate numerous cellular processes by recruiting cytosolic effector proteins and acting as membrane signalling entities. The cellular metabolism and localization of phosphoinositides are tightly regulated by distinct lipid kinases and phosphatases. Here, we identify and characterize a unique phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K) in Toxoplasma gondii, a protozoan parasite belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa. Conditional depletion of this enzyme and subsequently of its product, PI(3)P, drastically alters the morphology and inheritance of the apicoplast, an endosymbiotic organelle of algal origin that is a unique feature of many Apicomplexa. We searched the T. gondii genome for PI(3)P-binding proteins and identified in total six PX and FYVE domain-containing proteins including a PIKfyve lipid kinase, which phosphorylates PI(3)P into PI(3,5)P2 . Although depletion of putative PI(3)P-binding proteins shows that they are not essential for parasite growth and apicoplast biology, conditional disruption of PIKfyve induces enlarged apicoplasts, as observed upon loss of PI(3)P. A similar defect of apicoplast homeostasis was also observed by knocking down the PIKfyve regulatory protein ArPIKfyve, suggesting that in T. gondii, PI(3)P-related function for the apicoplast might mainly be to serve as a precursor for the synthesis of PI(3,5)P2 . Accordingly, PI3K is conserved in all apicomplexan parasites whereas PIKfyve and ArPIKfyve are absent in Cryptosporidium species that lack an apicoplast, supporting a direct role of PI(3,5)P2 in apicoplast homeostasis. This study enriches the already diverse functions attributed to PI(3,5)P2 in eukaryotic cells and highlights these parasite lipid kinases as potential drug targets.

Loss of the Sec1/Munc18-family proteins VPS-33.2 and VPS-33.1 bypasses a block in endosome maturation in Caenorhabditis elegans

Evidence is presented for the existence of HOPS and CORVET tethering complexes in metazoans. A role is shown for the SM protein components of tethers in controlling the flux of material through the endosomal system.

The end of the life of a transport vesicle requires a complex series of tethering, docking, and fusion events. Tethering complexes play a crucial role in the recognition of membrane entities and bringing them into close opposition, thereby coordinating and controlling cellular trafficking events. Here we provide a comprehensive RNA interference analysis of the CORVET and HOPS tethering complexes in metazoans. Knockdown of CORVET components promoted RAB-7 recruitment to subapical membranes, whereas in HOPS knockdowns, RAB-5 was found also on membrane structures close to the cell center, indicating the RAB conversion might be impaired in the absence of these tethering complexes. Unlike in yeast, metazoans have two VPS33 homologues, which are Sec1/Munc18 (SM)-family proteins involved in the regulation of membrane fusion. We assume that in wild type, each tethering complex contains a specific SM protein but that they may be able to substitute for each other in case of absence of the other. Of importance, knockdown of both SM proteins allowed bypass of the endosome maturation block in sand-1 mutants. We propose a model in which the SM proteins in tethering complexes are required for coordinated flux of material through the endosomal system.

C. elegans as a model for membrane traffic

The counterbalancing action of the endocytosis and secretory pathways maintains a dynamic equilibrium that regulates the composition of the plasma membrane, allowing it to maintain homeostasis and to change rapidly in response to alterations in the extracellular environment and/or intracellular metabolism. These pathways are intimately integrated with intercellular signaling systems and play critical roles in all cells. Studies in Caenorhabditis elegans have revealed diverse roles of membrane trafficking in physiology and development and have also provided molecular insight into the fundamental mechanisms that direct cargo sorting, vesicle budding, and membrane fisson and fusion. In this review, we summarize progress in understanding membrane trafficking mechanisms derived from work in C. elegans, focusing mainly on work done in non-neuronal cell-types, especially the germline, early embryo, coelomocytes, and intestine.