Rapid detection, classification and accurate alignment of up to a million or more related protein sequences

Redox Regulation of Brain Selective Kinases BRSK1/2: Implications for Dynamic Control of the Eukaryotic AMPK family through Cys-based mechanisms

In eukaryotes, protein kinase signaling is regulated by a diverse array of post-translational modifications (PTMs), including phosphorylation of Ser/Thr residues and oxidation of cysteine (Cys) residues. While regulation by activation segment phosphorylation of Ser/Thr residues is well understood, relatively little is known about how oxidation of cysteine residues modulate catalysis. In this study, we investigate redox regulation of the AMPK-related Brain-selective kinases (BRSK) 1 and 2, and detail how broad catalytic activity is directly regulated through reversible oxidation and reduction of evolutionarily conserved Cys residues within the catalytic domain. We show that redox-dependent control of BRSKs is a dynamic and multilayered process involving oxidative modifications of several Cys residues, including the formation of intramolecular disulfide bonds involving a pair of Cys residues near the catalytic HRD motif and a highly conserved T-Loop Cys with a BRSK-specific Cys within an unusual CPE motif at the end of the activation segment. Consistently, mutation of the CPE-Cys increases catalytic activity in vitro and drives phosphorylation of the BRSK substrate Tau in cells. Molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulations indicate that oxidation of the CPE-Cys destabilizes a conserved salt bridge network critical for allosteric activation. The occurrence of spatially proximal Cys amino acids in diverse Ser/Thr protein kinase families suggests that disulfide mediated control of catalytic activity may be a prevalent mechanism for regulation within the broader AMPK family.

Dark kinase annotation, mining, and visualization using the Protein Kinase Ontology

The Protein Kinase Ontology (ProKinO) is an integrated knowledge graph that conceptualizes the complex relationships among protein kinase sequence, structure, function, and disease in a human and machine-readable format. In this study, we have significantly expanded ProKinO by incorporating additional data on expression patterns and drug interactions. Furthermore, we have developed a completely new browser from the ground up to render the knowledge graph visible and interactive on the web. We have enriched ProKinO with new classes and relationships that capture information on kinase ligand binding sites, expression patterns, and functional features. These additions extend ProKinO's capabilities as a discovery tool, enabling it to uncover novel insights about understudied members of the protein kinase family. We next demonstrate the application of ProKinO. Specifically, through graph mining and aggregate SPARQL queries, we identify the p21-activated protein kinase 5 (PAK5) as one of the most frequently mutated dark kinases in human cancers with abnormal expression in multiple cancers, including a previously unappreciated role in acute myeloid leukemia. We have identified recurrent oncogenic mutations in the PAK5 activation loop predicted to alter substrate binding and phosphorylation. Additionally, we have identified common ligand/drug binding residues in PAK family kinases, underscoring ProKinO's potential application in drug discovery. The updated ontology browser and the addition of a web component, ProtVista, which enables interactive mining of kinase sequence annotations in 3D structures and Alphafold models, provide a valuable resource for the signaling community. The updated ProKinO database is accessible at https://prokino.uga.edu.

Mechanistic and evolutionary insights into isoform-specific 'supercharging' in DCLK family kinases

Catalytic signaling outputs of protein kinases are dynamically regulated by an array of structural mechanisms, including allosteric interactions mediated by intrinsically disordered segments flanking the conserved catalytic domain. The doublecortin-like kinases (DCLKs) are a family of microtubule-associated proteins characterized by a flexible C-terminal autoregulatory 'tail' segment that varies in length across the various human DCLK isoforms. However, the mechanism whereby these isoform-specific variations contribute to unique modes of autoregulation is not well understood. Here, we employ a combination of statistical sequence analysis, molecular dynamics simulations, and in vitro mutational analysis to define hallmarks of DCLK family evolutionary divergence, including analysis of splice variants within the DCLK1 sub-family, which arise through alternative codon usage and serve to 'supercharge' the inhibitory potential of the DCLK1 C-tail. We identify co-conserved motifs that readily distinguish DCLKs from all other calcium calmodulin kinases (CAMKs), and a 'Swiss Army' assembly of distinct motifs that tether the C-terminal tail to conserved ATP and substrate-binding regions of the catalytic domain to generate a scaffold for autoregulation through C-tail dynamics. Consistently, deletions and mutations that alter C-terminal tail length or interfere with co-conserved interactions within the catalytic domain alter intrinsic protein stability, nucleotide/inhibitor binding, and catalytic activity, suggesting isoform-specific regulation of activity through alternative splicing. Our studies provide a detailed framework for investigating kinome-wide regulation of catalytic output through cis-regulatory events mediated by intrinsically disordered segments, opening new avenues for the design of mechanistically divergent DCLK1 modulators, stabilizers, or degraders.

Mechanistic and evolutionary insights into isoform-specific 'supercharging' in DCLK family kinases

Catalytic signaling outputs of protein kinases are dynamically regulated by an array of structural mechanisms, including allosteric interactions mediated by intrinsically disordered segments flanking the conserved catalytic domain. The Doublecortin Like Kinases (DCLKs) are a family of microtubule-associated proteins characterized by a flexible C-terminal autoregulatory 'tail' segment that varies in length across the various human DCLK isoforms. However, the mechanism whereby these isoform-specific variations contribute to unique modes of autoregulation is not well understood. Here, we employ a combination of statistical sequence analysis, molecular dynamics simulations and in vitro mutational analysis to define hallmarks of DCLK family evolutionary divergence, including analysis of splice variants within the DCLK1 sub-family, which arise through alternative codon usage and serve to 'supercharge' the inhibitory potential of the DCLK1 C-tail. We identify co-conserved motifs that readily distinguish DCLKs from all other Calcium Calmodulin Kinases (CAMKs), and a 'Swiss-army' assembly of distinct motifs that tether the C-terminal tail to conserved ATP and substrate-binding regions of the catalytic domain to generate a scaffold for auto-regulation through C-tail dynamics. Consistently, deletions and mutations that alter C-terminal tail length or interfere with co-conserved interactions within the catalytic domain alter intrinsic protein stability, nucleotide/inhibitor-binding, and catalytic activity, suggesting isoform-specific regulation of activity through alternative splicing. Our studies provide a detailed framework for investigating kinome-wide regulation of catalytic output through cis-regulatory events mediated by intrinsically disordered segments, opening new avenues for the design of mechanistically-divergent DCLK1 modulators, stabilizers or degraders.

Structural and biochemical insight into a modular β-1,4-galactan synthase in plants

Rhamnogalacturonan I (RGI) is a structurally complex pectic polysaccharide with a backbone of alternating rhamnose and galacturonic acid residues substituted with arabinan and galactan side chains. Galactan synthase 1 (GalS1) transfers galactose and arabinose to either extend or cap the β-1,4-galactan side chains of RGI, respectively. Here we report the structure of GalS1 from Populus trichocarpa, showing a modular protein consisting of an N-terminal domain that represents the founding member of a new family of carbohydrate-binding module, CBM95, and a C-terminal glycosyltransferase family 92 (GT92) catalytic domain that adopts a GT-A fold. GalS1 exists as a dimer in vitro, with stem domains interacting across the chains in a 'handshake' orientation that is essential for maintaining stability and activity. In addition to understanding the enzymatic mechanism of GalS1, we gained insight into the donor and acceptor substrate binding sites using deep evolutionary analysis, molecular simulations and biochemical studies. Combining all the results, a mechanism for GalS1 catalysis and a new model for pectic galactan side-chain addition are proposed.

Polymerization of the backbone of the pectic polysaccharide rhamnogalacturonan I

Rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) is a major plant cell wall pectic polysaccharide defined by its repeating disaccharide backbone structure of [4)-α-D-GalA-(1,2)-α-L-Rha-(1,]. A family of RG-I:Rhamnosyltransferases (RRT) has previously been identified, but synthesis of the RG-I backbone has not been demonstrated in vitro because the identity of Rhamnogalacturonan I:Galaturonosyltransferase (RG-I:GalAT) was unknown. Here a putative glycosyltransferase, At1g28240/MUCI70, is shown to be an RG-I:GalAT. The name RGGAT1 is proposed to reflect the catalytic activity of this enzyme. When incubated together with the rhamnosyltransferase RRT4, the combined activities of RGGAT1 and RRT4 result in elongation of RG-I acceptors in vitro into a polymeric product. RGGAT1 is a member of a new GT family categorized as GT116, which does not group into existing GT-A clades and is phylogenetically distinct from the GALACTURONOSYLTRANSFERASE (GAUT) family of GalA transferases that synthesize the backbone of the pectin homogalacturonan. RGGAT1 has a predicted GT-A fold structure but employs a metal-independent catalytic mechanism that is rare among glycosyltransferases with this fold type. The identification of RGGAT1 and the 8-member Arabidopsis GT116 family provides a new avenue for studying the mechanism of RG-I synthesis and the function of RG-I in plants.

SPARC: Structural properties associated with residue constraints

SPARC facilitates the generation of plausible hypotheses regarding underlying biochemical mechanisms by structurally characterizing protein sequence constraints. Such constraints appear as residues co-conserved in functionally related subgroups, as subtle pairwise correlations (i.e., direct couplings), and as correlations among these sequence features or with structural features. SPARC performs three types of analyses. First, based on pairwise sequence correlations, it estimates the biological relevance of alternative conformations and of homomeric contacts, as illustrated here for death domains. Second, it estimates the statistical significance of the correspondence between directly coupled residue pairs and interactions at heterodimeric interfaces. Third, given molecular dynamics simulated structures, it characterizes interactions among constrained residues or between such residues and ligands that: (a) are stably maintained during the simulation; (b) undergo correlated formation and/or disruption of interactions with other constrained residues; or (c) switch between alternative interactions. We illustrate this for two homohexameric complexes: the bacterial enhancer binding protein (bEBP) NtrC1, which activates transcription by remodeling RNA polymerase (RNAP) containing σ⁵⁴, and for DnaB helicase, which opens DNA at the bacterial replication fork. Based on the NtrC1 analysis, we hypothesize possible mechanisms for inhibiting ATP hydrolysis until ADP is released from an adjacent subunit and for coupling ATP hydrolysis to restructuring of σ⁵⁴ binding loops. Based on the DnaB analysis, we hypothesize that DnaB 'grabs' ssDNA by flipping every fourth base and inserting it into cavities between subunits and that flipping of a DnaB-specific glutamine residue triggers ATP hydrolysis.

Identifying Function Determining Residues in Neuroimmune Semaphorin 4A

Semaphorin 4A (Sema4A) exerts a stabilizing effect on human Treg cells in PBMC and CD4+ T cell cultures by engaging Plexin B1. Sema4A deficient mice display enhanced allergic airway inflammation accompanied by fewer Treg cells, while Sema4D deficient mice displayed reduced inflammation and increased Treg cell numbers even though both Sema4 subfamily members engage Plexin B1. The main objectives of this study were: 1. To compare the in vitro effects of Sema4A and Sema4D proteins on human Treg cells; and 2. To identify function-determining residues in Sema4A critical for binding to Plexin B1 based on Sema4D homology modeling. We report here that Sema4A and Sema4D display opposite effects on human Treg cells in in vitro PBMC cultures; Sema4D inhibited the CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ cell numbers and CD25/Foxp3 expression. Sema4A and Sema4D competitively bind to Plexin B1 in vitro and hence may be doing so in vivo as well. Bayesian Partitioning with Pattern Selection (BPPS) partitioned 4505 Sema domains from diverse organisms into subgroups based on distinguishing sequence patterns that are likely responsible for functional differences. BPPS groups Sema3 and Sema4 into one family and further separates Sema4A and Sema4D into distinct subfamilies. Residues distinctive of the Sema3,4 family and of Sema4A (and by homology of Sema4D) tend to cluster around the Plexin B1 binding site. This suggests that the residues both common to and distinctive of Sema4A and Sema4D may mediate binding to Plexin B1, with subfamily residues mediating functional specificity. We mutated the Sema4A-specific residues M198 and F223 to alanine; notably, F223 in Sema4A corresponds to alanine in Sema4D. Mutant proteins were assayed for Plexin B1-binding and Treg stimulation activities. The F223A mutant was unable to stimulate Treg stability in in vitro PBMC cultures despite binding Plexin B1 with an affinity similar to the WT protein. This research is a first step in generating potent mutant Sema4A molecules with stimulatory function for Treg cells with a view to designing immunotherapeutics for asthma.

Computational tools and resources for pseudokinase research

Pseudokinases regulate diverse cellular processes associated with normal cellular functions and disease. They are defined bioinformatically based on the absence of one or more catalytic residues that are required for canonical protein kinase functions. The ability to define pseudokinases based on primary sequence comparison has enabled the systematic mapping and cataloging of pseudokinase orthologs across the tree of life. While these sequences contain critical information regarding pseudokinase evolution and functional specialization, extracting this information and generating testable hypotheses based on integrative mining of sequence and structural data requires specialized computational tools and resources. In this chapter, we review recent advances in the development and application of open-source tools and resources for pseudokinase research. Specifically, we describe the application of an interactive data analytics framework, KinView, for visualizing the patterns of conservation and variation in the catalytic domain motifs of pseudokinases and evolutionarily related canonical kinases using a consistent set of curated alignments organized based on the widely used kinome evolutionary hierarchy. We also demonstrate the application of an integrated Protein Kinase Ontology (ProKinO) and an interactive viewer, ProtVista, for mapping and analyzing primary sequence motifs and annotations in the context of 3D structures and AlphaFold2 models. We provide examples and protocols for generating testable hypotheses on pseudokinase functions both for bench biologists and advanced users.

Evolution of functional diversity in the holozoan tyrosine kinome

The emergence of multicellularity is strongly correlated with the expansion of tyrosine kinases, a conserved family of signaling enzymes that regulates pathways essential for cell-to-cell communication. Although tyrosine kinases have been classified from several model organisms, a molecular-level understanding of tyrosine kinase evolution across all holozoans is currently lacking. Using a hierarchical sequence constraint-based classification of diverse holozoan tyrosine kinases, we construct a new phylogenetic tree that identifies two ancient clades of cytoplasmic and receptor tyrosine kinases separated by the presence of an extended insert segment in the kinase domain connecting the D and E-helices. Present in nearly all receptor tyrosine kinases, this fast-evolving insertion imparts diverse functionalities, such as post-translational modification sites and regulatory interactions. Eph and EGFR receptor tyrosine kinases are two exceptions which lack this insert, each forming an independent lineage characterized by unique functional features. We also identify common constraints shared across multiple tyrosine kinase families which warrant the designation of three new subgroups: Src module (SrcM), insulin receptor kinase-like (IRKL), and fibroblast, platelet-derived, vascular, and growth factor receptors (FPVR). Subgroup-specific constraints reflect shared autoinhibitory interactions involved in kinase conformational regulation. Conservation analyses describe how diverse tyrosine kinase signaling functions arose through the addition of family-specific motifs upon subgroup-specific features and coevolving protein domains. We propose the oldest tyrosine kinases, IRKL, SrcM, and Csk, originated from unicellular premetazoans and were coopted for complex multicellular functions. The increased frequency of oncogenic variants in more recent tyrosine kinases suggests that lineage-specific functionalities are selectively altered in human cancers.

Obtaining extremely large and accurate protein multiple sequence alignments from curated hierarchical alignments

For optimal performance, machine learning methods for protein sequence/structural analysis typically require as input a large multiple sequence alignment (MSA), which is often created using query-based iterative programs, such as PSI-BLAST or JackHMMER. However, because these programs align database sequences using a query sequence as a template, they may fail to detect or may tend to misalign sequences distantly related to the query. More generally, automated MSA programs often fail to align sequences correctly due to the unpredictable nature of protein evolution. Addressing this problem typically requires manual curation in the light of structural data. However, curated MSAs tend to contain too few sequences to serve as input for statistically based methods. We address these shortcomings by making publicly available a set of 252 curated hierarchical MSAs (hiMSAs), containing a total of 26 212 066 sequences, along with programs for generating from these extremely large MSAs. Each hiMSA consists of a set of hierarchically arranged MSAs representing individual subgroups within a superfamily along with template MSAs specifying how to align each subgroup MSA against MSAs higher up the hierarchy. Central to this approach is the MAPGAPS search program, which uses a hiMSA as a query to align (potentially vast numbers of) matching database sequences with accuracy comparable to that of the curated hiMSA. We illustrate this process for the exonuclease–endonuclease–phosphatase superfamily and for pleckstrin homology domains. A set of extremely large MSAs generated from the hiMSAs in this way is available as input for deep learning, big data analyses. MAPGAPS, auxiliary programs CDD2MGS, AddPhylum, PurgeMSA and ConvertMSA and links to National Center for Biotechnology Information data files are available at https://www.igs.umaryland.edu/labs/neuwald/software/mapgaps/.

eCOMPASS: evaluative comparison of multiple protein alignments by statistical score

Motivation

Detecting subtle biologically relevant patterns in protein sequences often requires the construction of a large and accurate multiple sequence alignment (MSA). Methods for constructing MSAs are usually evaluated using benchmark alignments, which, however, typically contain very few sequences and are therefore inappropriate when dealing with large numbers of proteins.

Results

eCOMPASS addresses this problem using a statistical measure of relative alignment quality based on direct coupling analysis (DCA): to maintain protein structural integrity over evolutionary time, substitutions at one residue position typically result in compensating substitutions at other positions. eCOMPASS computes the statistical significance of the congruence between high scoring directly coupled pairs and 3D contacts in corresponding structures, which depends upon properly aligned homologous residues. We illustrate eCOMPASS using both simulated and real MSAs.

Availability and implementation

The eCOMPASS executable, C++ open source code and input data sets are available at https://www.igs.umaryland.edu/labs/neuwald/software/compass

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

mTORC2 controls the activity of PKC and Akt by phosphorylating a conserved TOR interaction motif

The complex mTORC2 is accepted to be the kinase that controls the phosphorylation of the hydrophobic motif, a key regulatory switch for AGC kinases, although whether mTOR directly phosphorylates this motif remains controversial. Here, we identified an mTOR-mediated phosphorylation site that we termed the TOR interaction motif (TIM; F-x3-F-pT), which controls the phosphorylation of the hydrophobic motif of PKC and Akt and the activity of these kinases. The TIM is invariant in mTORC2-dependent AGC kinases, is evolutionarily conserved, and coevolved with mTORC2 components. Mutation of this motif in Akt1 and PKCβII abolished cellular kinase activity by impairing activation loop and hydrophobic motif phosphorylation. mTORC2 directly phosphorylated the PKC TIM in vitro, and this phosphorylation event was detected in mouse brain. Overexpression of PDK1 in mTORC2-deficient cells rescued hydrophobic motif phosphorylation of PKC and Akt by a mechanism dependent on their intrinsic catalytic activity, revealing that mTORC2 facilitates the PDK1 phosphorylation step, which, in turn, enables autophosphorylation. Structural analysis revealed that PKC homodimerization is driven by a TIM-containing helix, and biophysical proximity assays showed that newly synthesized, unphosphorylated PKC dimerizes in cells. Furthermore, disruption of the dimer interface by stapled peptides promoted hydrophobic motif phosphorylation. Our data support a model in which mTORC2 relieves nascent PKC dimerization through TIM phosphorylation, recruiting PDK1 to phosphorylate the activation loop and triggering intramolecular hydrophobic motif autophosphorylation. Identification of TIM phosphorylation and its role in the regulation of PKC provides the basis for AGC kinase regulation by mTORC2.

Granulovirus PK-1 kinase activity relies on a side-to-side dimerization mode centered on the regulatory αC helix

The life cycle of Baculoviridae family insect viruses depends on the viral protein kinase, PK-1, to phosphorylate the regulatory protein, p6.9, to induce baculoviral genome release. Here, we report the crystal structure of Cydia pomenella granulovirus PK-1, which, owing to its likely ancestral origin among host cell AGC kinases, exhibits a eukaryotic protein kinase fold. PK-1 occurs as a rigid dimer, where an antiparallel arrangement of the αC helices at the dimer core stabilizes PK-1 in a closed, active conformation. Dimerization is facilitated by C-lobe:C-lobe and N-lobe:N-lobe interactions between protomers, including the domain-swapping of an N-terminal helix that crowns a contiguous β-sheet formed by the two N-lobes. PK-1 retains a dimeric conformation in solution, which is crucial for catalytic activity. Our studies raise the prospect that parallel, side-to-side dimeric arrangements that lock kinase domains in a catalytically-active conformation could function more broadly as a regulatory mechanism among eukaryotic protein kinases.

The viral Protein Kinase-1 (PK-1) phosphorylates the regulatory protein p6.9, which facilitates baculoviral genome release. Here, the authors combine X-ray crystallography with biophysical and biochemical analyses as well as molecular dynamics simulations to characterize Cydia pomenella granulovirus PK-1, which forms a dimer with a parallel side-to-side arrangement of the kinase domains and furthermore, they provide insights into its catalytic mechanism and evolutionary relationships with other kinases.

Nucleotide Binding, Evolutionary Insights, and Interaction Partners of the Pseudokinase Unc-51-like Kinase 4

Unc-51-like kinase 4 (ULK4) is a pseudokinase that has been linked to the development of several diseases. Even though sequence motifs required for ATP binding in kinases are lacking, ULK4 still tightly binds ATP and the presence of the co-factor is required for structural stability of ULK4. Here, we present a high-resolution structure of a ULK4-ATPγS complex revealing a highly unusual ATP binding mode in which the lack of the canonical VAIK motif lysine is compensated by K39, located N-terminal to αC. Evolutionary analysis suggests that degradation of active site motifs in metazoan ULK4 has co-occurred with an ULK4-specific activation loop, which stabilizes the C helix. In addition, cellular interaction studies using BioID and biochemical validation data revealed high confidence interactors of the pseudokinase and armadillo repeat domains. Many of the identified ULK4 interaction partners were centrosomal and tubulin-associated proteins and several active kinases suggesting interesting regulatory roles for ULK4.

Aurora A regulation by reversible cysteine oxidation reveals evolutionarily conserved redox control of Ser/Thr protein kinase activity

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are physiological mediators of cellular signaling and play potentially damaging roles in human diseases. In this study, we found that the catalytic activity of the Ser/Thr kinase Aurora A was inhibited by the oxidation of a conserved cysteine residue (Cys290) that lies adjacent to Thr288, a critical phosphorylation site in the activation segment. Cys is present at the equivalent position in ~100 human Ser/Thr kinases, a residue that we found was important not only for the activity of human Aurora A but also for that of fission yeast MAPK-activated kinase (Srk1) and PKA (Pka1). Moreover, the presence of this conserved Cys predicted biochemical redox sensitivity among a cohort of human CAMK, AGC, and AGC-like kinases. Thus, we predict that redox modulation of the conserved Cys290 of Aurora A may be an underappreciated regulatory mechanism that is widespread in eukaryotic Ser/Thr kinases. Given the key biological roles of these enzymes, these findings have implications for understanding physiological and pathological responses to ROS and highlight the importance of protein kinase regulation through multivalent modification of the activation segment.

Deep evolutionary analysis reveals the design principles of fold A glycosyltransferases

Glycosyltransferases (GTs) are prevalent across the tree of life and regulate nearly all aspects of cellular functions. The evolutionary basis for their complex and diverse modes of catalytic functions remain enigmatic. Here, based on deep mining of over half million GT-A fold sequences, we define a minimal core component shared among functionally diverse enzymes. We find that variations in the common core and emergence of hypervariable loops extending from the core contributed to GT-A diversity. We provide a phylogenetic framework relating diverse GT-A fold families for the first time and show that inverting and retaining mechanisms emerged multiple times independently during evolution. Using evolutionary information encoded in primary sequences, we trained a machine learning classifier to predict donor specificity with nearly 90% accuracy and deployed it for the annotation of understudied GTs. Our studies provide an evolutionary framework for investigating complex relationships connecting GT-A fold sequence, structure, function and regulation.

Carbohydrates are one of the major groups of large biological molecules that regulate nearly all aspects of life. Yet, unlike DNA or proteins, carbohydrates are made without a template to follow. Instead, these molecules are built from a set of sugar-based building blocks by the intricate activities of a large and diverse family of enzymes known as glycosyltransferases.

An incomplete understanding of how glycosyltransferases recognize and build diverse carbohydrates presents a major bottleneck in developing therapeutic strategies for diseases associated with abnormalities in these enzymes. It also limits efforts to engineer these enzymes for biotechnology applications and biofuel production.

Taujale et al. have now used evolutionary approaches to map the evolution of a major subset of glycosyltransferases from species across the tree of life to understand how these enzymes evolved such precise mechanisms to build diverse carbohydrates. First, a minimal structural unit was defined based on being shared among a group of over half a million unique glycosyltransferase enzymes with different activities. Further analysis then showed that the diverse activities of these enzymes evolved through the accumulation of mutations within this structural unit, as well as in much more variable regions in the enzyme that extend from the minimal unit.

Taujale et al. then built an extended family tree for this collection of glycosyltransferases and details of the evolutionary relationships between the enzymes helped them to create a machine learning framework that could predict which sugar-containing molecules were the raw materials for a given glycosyltransferase. This framework could make predictions with nearly 90% accuracy based only on information that can be deciphered from the gene for that enzyme.

These findings will provide scientists with new hypotheses for investigating the complex relationships connecting the genetic information about glycosyltransferases with their structures and activities. Further refinement of the machine learning framework may eventually enable the design of enzymes with properties that are desirable for applications in biotechnology.

Emerging roles of the αC-β4 loop in protein kinase structure, function, evolution, and disease

The faithful propagation of cellular signals in most organisms relies on the coordinated functions of a large family of protein kinases that share a conserved catalytic domain. The catalytic domain is a dynamic scaffold that undergoes large conformational changes upon activation. Most of these conformational changes, such as movement of the regulatory αC-helix from an "out" to "in" conformation, hinge on a conserved, but understudied, loop termed the αC-β4 loop, which mediates conserved interactions to tether flexible structural elements to the kinase core. We previously showed that the αC-β4 loop is a unique feature of eukaryotic protein kinases. Here, we review the emerging roles of this loop in kinase structure, function, regulation, and diseases. Through a kinome-wide analysis, we define the boundaries of the loop for the first time and show that sequence and structural variation in the loop correlate with conformational and regulatory variation. Many recurrent disease mutations map to the αC-β4 loop and contribute to drug resistance and abnormal kinase activation by relieving key auto-inhibitory interactions associated with αC-helix and inter-lobe movement. The αC-β4 loop is a hotspot for post-translational modifications, protein-protein interaction, and Hsp90 mediated folding. Our kinome-wide analysis provides insights for hypothesis-driven characterization of understudied kinases and the development of allosteric protein kinase inhibitors.

Deep Analysis of Residue Constraints (DARC): identifying determinants of protein functional specificity

Protein functional constraints are manifest as superfamily and functional-subgroup conserved residues, and as pairwise correlations. Deep Analysis of Residue Constraints (DARC) aids the visualization of these constraints, characterizes how they correlate with each other and with structure, and estimates statistical significance. This can identify determinants of protein functional specificity, as we illustrate for bacterial DNA clamp loader ATPases. These load ring-shaped sliding clamps onto DNA to keep polymerase attached during replication and contain one δ, three γ, and one δ’ AAA+ subunits semi-circularly arranged in the order δ-γ₁-γ₂-γ₃-δ’. Only γ is active, though both γ and δ’ functionally influence an adjacent γ subunit. DARC identifies, as functionally-congruent features linking allosterically the ATP, DNA, and clamp binding sites: residues distinctive of γ and of γ/δ’ that mutually interact in trans, centered on the catalytic base; several γ/δ’-residues and six γ/δ’-covariant residue pairs within the DNA binding N-termini of helices α2 and α3; and γ/δ’-residues associated with the α2 C-terminus and the clamp-binding loop. Most notable is a trans-acting γ/δ’ hydroxyl group that 99% of other AAA+ proteins lack. Mutation of this hydroxyl to a methyl group impedes clamp binding and opening, DNA binding, and ATP hydrolysis—implying a remarkably clamp-loader-specific function.

A survey of TIR domain sequence and structure divergence

Toll-interleukin-1R resistance (TIR) domains are ubiquitously present in all forms of cellular life. They are most commonly found in signaling proteins, as units responsible for signal-dependent formation of protein complexes that enable amplification and spatial propagation of the signal. A less common function of TIR domains is their ability to catalyze nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide degradation. This survey analyzes 26,414 TIR domains, automatically classified based on group-specific sequence patterns presumably determining biological function, using a statistical approach termed Bayesian partitioning with pattern selection (BPPS). We examine these groups and patterns in the light of available structures and biochemical analyses. Proteins within each of thirteen eukaryotic groups (10 metazoans and 3 plants) typically appear to perform similar functions, whereas proteins within each prokaryotic group typically exhibit diverse domain architectures, suggesting divergent functions. Groups are often uniquely characterized by structural fold variations associated with group-specific sequence patterns and by herein identified sequence motifs defining TIR domain functional divergence. For example, BPPS identifies, in helices C and D of TIRAP and MyD88 orthologs, conserved surface-exposed residues apparently responsible for specificity of TIR domain interactions. In addition, BPPS clarifies the functional significance of the previously described Box 2 and Box 3 motifs, each of which is a part of a larger, group-specific block of conserved, intramolecularly interacting residues.

Lipid-targeting pleckstrin homology domain turns its autoinhibitory face toward the TEC kinases

Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) is targeted in treatment of immune cancers. As patients experience drug resistance, there is a need for alternative approaches to inhibit BTK. Other recently published findings clarify the role of the BTK pleckstrin homology (PH) domain in mediating activation via dimerization and sensing of ligand concentration at the membrane. Work presented here provides insight into the autoinhibitory BTK structure that has so far been elusive via crystallographic methods. In the resting state, the BTK PH domain binds to the activation loop face of the kinase domain and allosterically alters key sites within the kinase domain. The findings define a new regulatory site, the PH/kinase interface, that can be exploited in drug discovery efforts.

The pleckstrin homology (PH) domain is well known for its phospholipid targeting function. The PH-TEC homology (PHTH) domain within the TEC family of tyrosine kinases is also a crucial component of the autoinhibitory apparatus. The autoinhibitory surface on the PHTH domain has been previously defined, and biochemical investigations have shown that PHTH-mediated inhibition is mutually exclusive with phosphatidylinositol binding. Here we use hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and evolutionary sequence comparisons to map where and how the PHTH domain affects the Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) domain. The data map a PHTH-binding site on the activation loop face of the kinase C lobe, suggesting that the PHTH domain masks the activation loop and the substrate-docking site. Moreover, localized NMR spectral changes are observed for non–surface-exposed residues in the active site and on the distal side of the kinase domain. These data suggest that the association of PHTH induces allosteric conformational shifts in regions of the kinase domain that are critical for catalysis. Through statistical comparisons of diverse tyrosine kinase sequences, we identify residues unique to BTK that coincide with the experimentally determined PHTH-binding surface on the kinase domain. Our data provide a more complete picture of the autoinhibitory conformation adopted by full-length TEC kinases, creating opportunities to target the regulatory domains to control the function of these kinases in a biological setting.

LF4/MOK and a CDK-related kinase regulate the number and length of cilia in Tetrahymena

The length of cilia is controlled by a poorly understood mechanism that involves members of the conserved RCK kinase group, and among them, the LF4/MOK kinases. The multiciliated protist model, Tetrahymena, carries two types of cilia (oral and locomotory) and the length of the locomotory cilia is dependent on their position with the cell. In Tetrahymena, loss of an LF4/MOK ortholog, LF4A, lengthened the locomotory cilia, but also reduced their number. Without LF4A, cilia assembled faster and showed signs of increased intraflagellar transport (IFT). Consistently, overproduced LF4A shortened cilia and downregulated IFT. GFP-tagged LF4A, expressed in the native locus and imaged by total internal reflection microscopy, was enriched at the basal bodies and distributed along the shafts of cilia. Within cilia, most LF4A-GFP particles were immobile and a few either diffused or moved by IFT. We suggest that the distribution of LF4/MOK along the cilium delivers a uniform dose of inhibition to IFT trains that travel from the base to the tip. In a longer cilium, the IFT machinery may experience a higher cumulative dose of inhibition by LF4/MOK. Thus, LF4/MOK activity could be a readout of cilium length that helps to balance the rate of IFT-driven assembly with the rate of disassembly at steady state. We used a forward genetic screen to identify a CDK-related kinase, CDKR1, whose loss-of-function suppressed the shortening of cilia caused by overexpression of LF4A, by reducing its kinase activity. Loss of CDKR1 alone lengthened both the locomotory and oral cilia. CDKR1 resembles other known ciliary CDK-related kinases: LF2 of Chlamydomonas, mammalian CCRK and DYF-18 of C. elegans, in lacking the cyclin-binding motif and acting upstream of RCKs. The new genetic tools we developed here for Tetrahymena have potential for further dissection of the principles of cilia length regulation in multiciliated cells.

Tracing the origin and evolution of pseudokinases across the tree of life

Protein phosphorylation by eukaryotic protein kinases (ePKs) is a fundamental mechanism of cell signaling in all organisms. In model vertebrates, ~10% of ePKs are classified as pseudokinases, which have amino acid changes within the catalytic machinery of the kinase domain that distinguish them from their canonical kinase counterparts. However, pseudokinases still regulate various signaling pathways, usually doing so in the absence of their own catalytic output. To investigate the prevalence, evolutionary relationships, and biological diversity of these pseudoenzymes, we performed a comprehensive analysis of putative pseudokinase sequences in available eukaryotic, bacterial, and archaeal proteomes. We found that pseudokinases are present across all domains of life, and we classified nearly 30,000 eukaryotic, 1500 bacterial, and 20 archaeal pseudokinase sequences into 86 pseudokinase families, including ~30 families that were previously unknown. We uncovered a rich variety of pseudokinases with notable expansions not only in animals but also in plants, fungi, and bacteria, where pseudokinases have previously received cursory attention. These expansions are accompanied by domain shuffling, which suggests roles for pseudokinases in plant innate immunity, plant-fungal interactions, and bacterial signaling. Mechanistically, the ancestral kinase fold has diverged in many distinct ways through the enrichment of unique sequence motifs to generate new families of pseudokinases in which the kinase domain is repurposed for noncanonical nucleotide binding or to stabilize unique, inactive kinase conformations. We further provide a collection of annotated pseudokinase sequences in the Protein Kinase Ontology (ProKinO) as a new mineable resource for the signaling community.

Coupled regulation by the juxtamembrane and sterile α motif (SAM) linker is a hallmark of ephrin tyrosine kinase evolution

Ephrin (Eph) receptor tyrosine kinases have evolutionarily diverged from other tyrosine kinases to respond to specific activation and regulatory signals that require close coupling of kinase catalytic and regulatory functions. However, the evolutionary basis for such functional coupling is not fully understood. We employed an evolutionary systems approach involving statistical mining of large sequence and structural data sets to define the hallmarks of Eph kinase evolution and functional specialization. We found that some of the most distinguishing Eph-specific residues structurally tether the flanking juxtamembrane and sterile α motif (SAM) linker regions to the kinase domain, and substitutions of these residues in EphA3 resulted in faster kinase activation. We report for the first time that the SAM domain linker is functionally coupled to the juxtamembrane through co-conserved residues in the kinase domain and that together these residues provide a structural framework for coupling catalytic and regulatory functions. The unique organization of Eph-specific tethering networks and the identification of other Eph-specific sequence features of unknown functions provide new hypotheses for future functional studies and new clues to disease mutations altering Eph kinase-specific functions.

Recognition of sites of functional specialisation in all known eukaryotic protein kinase families

The conserved function of protein phosphorylation, catalysed by members of protein kinase superfamily, is regulated in different ways in different kinase families. Further, differences in activating triggers, cellular localisation, domain architecture and substrate specificity between kinase families are also well known. While the transfer of γ-phosphate from ATP to the hydroxyl group of Ser/Thr/Tyr is mediated by a conserved Asp, the characteristic functional and regulatory sites are specialized at the level of families or sub-families. Such family-specific sites of functional specialization are unknown for most families of kinases. In this work, we systematically identify the family-specific residue features by comparing the extent of conservation of physicochemical properties, Shannon entropy and statistical probability of residue distributions between families of kinases. An integrated discriminatory score, which combines these three features, is developed to demarcate the functionally specialized sites in a kinase family from other sites. We achieved an area under ROC curve of 0.992 for the discrimination of kinase families. Our approach was extensively tested on well-studied families CDK and MAPK, wherein specific protein interaction sites and substrate recognition sites were successfully detected (p-value < 0.05). We also find that the known family-specific oncogenic driver mutation sites were scored high by our method. The method was applied to all known kinases encompassing 107 families from diverse eukaryotic organisms leading to a comprehensive list of family-specific functional sites. Apart from other uses, our method facilitates identification of specific protein interaction sites and drug target sites in a kinase family.

Inferring joint sequence-structural determinants of protein functional specificity

Residues responsible for allostery, cooperativity, and other subtle but functionally important interactions remain difficult to detect. To aid such detection, we employ statistical inference based on the assumption that residues distinguishing a protein subgroup from evolutionarily divergent subgroups often constitute an interacting functional network. We identify such networks with the aid of two measures of statistical significance. One measure aids identification of divergent subgroups based on distinguishing residue patterns. For each subgroup, a second measure identifies structural interactions involving pattern residues. Such interactions are derived either from atomic coordinates or from Direct Coupling Analysis scores, used as surrogates for structural distances. Applying this approach to N-acetyltransferases, P-loop GTPases, RNA helicases, synaptojanin-superfamily phosphatases and nucleases, and thymine/uracil DNA glycosylases yielded results congruent with biochemical understanding of these proteins, and also revealed striking sequence-structural features overlooked by other methods. These and similar analyses can aid the design of drugs targeting allosteric sites.

Inference of Functionally-Relevant N-acetyltransferase Residues Based on Statistical Correlations

Over evolutionary time, members of a superfamily of homologous proteins sharing a common structural core diverge into subgroups filling various functional niches. At the sequence level, such divergence appears as correlations that arise from residue patterns distinct to each subgroup. Such a superfamily may be viewed as a population of sequences corresponding to a complex, high-dimensional probability distribution. Here we model this distribution as hierarchical interrelated hidden Markov models (hiHMMs), which describe these sequence correlations implicitly. By characterizing such correlations one may hope to obtain information regarding functionally-relevant properties that have thus far evaded detection. To do so, we infer a hiHMM distribution from sequence data using Bayes’ theorem and Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling, which is widely recognized as the most effective approach for characterizing a complex, high dimensional distribution. Other routines then map correlated residue patterns to available structures with a view to hypothesis generation. When applied to N-acetyltransferases, this reveals sequence and structural features indicative of functionally important, yet generally unknown biochemical properties. Even for sets of proteins for which nothing is known beyond unannotated sequences and structures, this can lead to helpful insights. We describe, for example, a putative coenzyme-A-induced-fit substrate binding mechanism mediated by arginine residue switching between salt bridge and π-π stacking interactions. A suite of programs implementing this approach is available (psed.igs.umaryland.edu).

Protein sequence data, when gathered in great quantity, contain important but implicit biological information manifest as statistical correlations. Here we describe an approach to access this information by comprehensively modeling and characterizing the distribution of sequences belonging to a major protein superfamily. This approach takes as input a large set of unaligned sequences belonging to the superfamily. By applying the minimum description length principle, it seeks the statistical model that best explains the sequences while avoiding over-fitting the data. It concurrently aligns the sequences and, to model evolutionary divergence, partitions them into subgroups that are hierarchically-arranged based upon correlated residue patterns. Auxiliary routines create PyMOL scripts to visualize the locations of correlated residues within available structures. Because these correlations likely arise from structural and biochemical constraints, they can help elucidate protein properties important for functional specificity. Comparing and contrasting sequence and structural features in this way may therefore suggest, in the light of published studies, plausible biological hypotheses for experimental investigation. We illustrate this approach with N-acetyltransferases.

Tribbles in the 21st Century: The Evolving Roles of Tribbles Pseudokinases in Biology and Disease

The Tribbles (TRIB) pseudokinases control multiple aspects of eukaryotic cell biology and evolved unique features distinguishing them from all other protein kinases. The atypical pseudokinase domain retains a regulated binding platform for substrates, which are ubiquitinated by context-specific E3 ligases. This plastic configuration has also been exploited as a scaffold to support the modulation of canonical MAPK and AKT modules. In this review, we discuss the evolution of TRIBs and their roles in vertebrate cell biology. TRIB2 is the most ancestral member of the family, whereas the emergence of TRIB3 homologs in mammals supports additional biological roles, many of which are currently being dissected. Given their pleiotropic role in diseases, the unusual TRIB pseudokinase conformation provides a highly attractive opportunity for drug design.

Pseudoenzymes are inactive counterparts of classical enzymes and have evolved in all kingdoms of life, where they regulate a vast array of biological processes. The pseudokinases are one of the best-studied families of human pseudoenzymes.

Eukaryotic TRIB pseudokinases evolved from a common ancestor (the human TRIB2 homolog), and contain a highly atypical pseudokinase domain fused to a unique docking site in an extended C tail that binds to ubiquitin E3 ligases.

TRIB evolution has led to the appearance of three mammalian TRIB pseudokinases, termed TRIB1, TRIB2, and TRIB3, which contain both unique and shared features.

In cells, TRIB pseudokinases act as modulators of substrate ubiquitination and as molecular scaffolds for the assembly and regulation of signaling modules, including the C/EBPα transcription factor and AKT and ERK networks.

TRIB1 and TRIB2 have potent oncogenic activities in vertebrate cells, and recent evidence also suggests that TRIB2 acts as a tumour suppressor, consistent with the requirement for balanced TRIB signaling in the regulation of transcription, differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis.

Gleaning structural and functional information from correlations in protein multiple sequence alignments

The availability of vast amounts of protein sequence data facilitates detection of subtle statistical correlations due to imposed structural and functional constraints. Recent breakthroughs using Direct Coupling Analysis (DCA) and related approaches have tapped into correlations believed to be due to compensatory mutations. This has yielded some remarkable results, including substantially improved prediction of protein intra- and inter-domain 3D contacts, of membrane and globular protein structures, of substrate binding sites, and of protein conformational heterogeneity. A complementary approach is Bayesian Partitioning with Pattern Selection (BPPS), which partitions related proteins into hierarchically-arranged subgroups based on correlated residue patterns. These correlated patterns are presumably due to structural and functional constraints associated with evolutionary divergence rather than to compensatory mutations. Hence joint application of DCA- and BPPS-based approaches should help sort out the structural and functional constraints contributing to sequence correlations.

Hydrophobic Core Variations Provide a Structural Framework for Tyrosine Kinase Evolution and Functional Specialization

Protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) are a group of closely related enzymes that have evolutionarily diverged from serine/threonine kinases (STKs) to regulate pathways associated with multi-cellularity. Evolutionary divergence of PTKs from STKs has occurred through accumulation of mutations in the active site as well as in the commonly conserved hydrophobic core. While the functional significance of active site variations is well understood, relatively little is known about how hydrophobic core variations contribute to PTK evolutionary divergence. Here, using a combination of statistical sequence comparisons, molecular dynamics simulations, mutational analysis and in vitro thermostability and kinase assays, we investigate the structural and functional significance of key PTK-specific variations in the kinase core. We find that the nature of residues and interactions in the hydrophobic core of PTKs is strikingly different from other protein kinases, and PTK-specific variations in the core contribute to functional divergence by altering the stability and dynamics of the kinase domain. In particular, a functionally critical STK-conserved histidine that stabilizes the regulatory spine in STKs is selectively mutated to an alanine, serine or glutamate in PTKs, and this loss-of-function mutation is accommodated, in part, through compensatory PTK-specific interactions in the core. In particular, a PTK-conserved phenylalanine in the I-helix appears to structurally and functionally compensate for the loss of STK-histidine by interacting with the regulatory spine, which has far-reaching effects on enzyme activity, inhibitor sensing, and stability. We propose that hydrophobic core variations provide a selective advantage during PTK evolution by increasing the conformational flexibility, and therefore the allosteric potential of the kinase domain. Our studies also suggest that Tyrosine Kinase Like kinases such as RAF are intermediates in PTK evolutionary divergence inasmuch as they share features of both PTKs and STKs in the core. Finally, our studies provide an evolutionary framework for identifying and characterizing disease and drug resistance mutations in the kinase core.

Proteins evolve new functions through accumulation of mutations in the primary sequence. Understanding how naturally occurring mutations shape protein function can provide insights into how non-natural mutations contribute to disease. Here, we identify sequence variants associated with the functional specialization of tyrosine kinases, a large and medically important class of proteins associated with the evolution of complex multicellular functions and diseases such as cancer. We find that mutations distal from the active site contribute to functional specialization by altering the stability, activity and dynamics of the kinase core. Our findings have implications for understanding the evolution of allosteric regulation in tyrosine kinases, and in predicting the structural and functional impact of disease and drug resistance mutations in the kinase core.

Identification and classification of small molecule kinases: insights into substrate recognition and specificity

BACKGROUND

Many prokaryotic kinases that phosphorylate small molecule substrates, such as antibiotics, lipids and sugars, are evolutionarily related to Eukaryotic Protein Kinases (EPKs). These Eukaryotic-Like Kinases (ELKs) share the same overall structural fold as EPKs, but differ in their modes of regulation, substrate recognition and specificity-the sequence and structural determinants of which are poorly understood.

RESULTS

To better understand the basis for ELK specificity, we applied a Bayesian classification procedure designed to identify sequence determinants responsible for functional divergence. This reveals that a large and diverse family of aminoglycoside kinases, characterized members of which are involved in antibiotic resistance, fall into major sub-groups based on differences in putative substrate recognition motifs. Aminoglycoside kinase substrate specificity follows simple rules of alternating hydroxyl and amino groups that is strongly correlated with variations at the DFG + 1 position.

CONCLUSIONS

Substrate specificity determining features in small molecule kinases are mostly confined to the catalytic core and can be identified based on quantitative sequence and crystal structure comparisons.

ProKinO: a unified resource for mining the cancer kinome

Protein kinases represent a large and diverse family of evolutionarily related proteins that are abnormally regulated in human cancers. Although genome sequencing studies have revealed thousands of variants in protein kinases, translating "big" genomic data into biological knowledge remains a challenge. Here, we describe an ontological framework for integrating and conceptualizing diverse forms of information related to kinase activation and regulatory mechanisms in a machine readable, human understandable form. We demonstrate the utility of this framework in analyzing the cancer kinome, and in generating testable hypotheses for experimental studies. Through the iterative process of aggregate ontology querying, hypothesis generation and experimental validation, we identify a novel mutational hotspot in the αC-β4 loop of the kinase domain and demonstrate the functional impact of the identified variants in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) constitutive activity and inhibitor sensitivity. We provide a unified resource for the kinase and cancer community, ProKinO, housed at http://vulcan.cs.uga.edu/prokino.

Protein domain hierarchy Gibbs sampling strategies

Hierarchically-arranged multiple sequence alignment profiles are useful for modeling protein domains that have functionally diverged into evolutionarily-related subgroups. Currently such alignment hierarchies are largely constructed through manual curation, as for the NCBI Conserved Domain Database (CDD). Recently, however, I developed a Gibbs sampler that uses an approach termed statistical evolutionary dynamics analysis to accomplish this task automatically while, at the same time, identifying sequence determinants of protein function. Here I describe the statistical model and sampling strategies underlying this sampler. When implemented and applied to simulated protein sequences (which conform to the underlying statistical model precisely), these sampling strategies efficiently converge on the hierarchy used to generate the sequences. However, for real protein sequences the sampler finds alternative, nearly-optimal hierarchies for many domains, indicating a significant degree of ambiguity. I illustrate how both the nature of such ambiguities and the most robust ("consensus") features of a hierarchy may be determined from an ensemble of independently generated hierarchies for the same domain. Such consensus hierarchies can provide reliably stable models of protein domain functional divergence.

Structural and evolutionary divergence of cyclic nucleotide binding domains in eukaryotic pathogens: Implications for drug design

Many cellular functions in eukaryotic pathogens are mediated by the cyclic nucleotide binding (CNB) domain, which senses second messengers such as cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP. Although CNB domain-containing proteins have been identified in many pathogenic organisms, an incomplete understanding of how CNB domains in pathogens differ from other eukaryotic hosts has hindered the development of selective inhibitors for CNB domains associated with infectious diseases. Here, we identify and classify CNB domain-containing proteins in eukaryotic genomes to understand the evolutionary basis for CNB domain functional divergence in pathogens. We identify 359 CNB domain-containing proteins in 31 pathogenic organisms and classify them into distinct subfamilies based on sequence similarity within the CNB domain as well as functional domains associated with the CNB domain. Our study reveals novel subfamilies with pathogen-specific variations in the phosphate-binding cassette. Analyzing these variations in light of existing structural and functional data provides new insights into ligand specificity and promiscuity and clues for drug design. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Inhibitors of Protein Kinases.

Co-conserved MAPK features couple D-domain docking groove to distal allosteric sites via the C-terminal flanking tail

Mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) form a closely related family of kinases that control critical pathways associated with cell growth and survival. Although MAPKs have been extensively characterized at the biochemical, cellular, and structural level, an integrated evolutionary understanding of how MAPKs differ from other closely related protein kinases is currently lacking. Here, we perform statistical sequence comparisons of MAPKs and related protein kinases to identify sequence and structural features associated with MAPK functional divergence. We show, for the first time, that virtually all MAPK-distinguishing sequence features, including an unappreciated short insert segment in the β4-β5 loop, physically couple distal functional sites in the kinase domain to the D-domain peptide docking groove via the C-terminal flanking tail (C-tail). The coupling mediated by MAPK-specific residues confers an allosteric regulatory mechanism unique to MAPKs. In particular, the regulatory αC-helix conformation is controlled by a MAPK-conserved salt bridge interaction between an arginine in the αC-helix and an acidic residue in the C-tail. The salt-bridge interaction is modulated in unique ways in individual sub-families to achieve regulatory specificity. Our study is consistent with a model in which the C-tail co-evolved with the D-domain docking site to allosterically control MAPK activity. Our study provides testable mechanistic hypotheses for biochemical characterization of MAPK-conserved residues and new avenues for the design of allosteric MAPK inhibitors.

Ancient Origin and Recent Innovations of RNA Polymerase IV and V

Small RNA-mediated chromatin modification is a conserved feature of eukaryotes. In flowering plants, the short interfering (si)RNAs that direct transcriptional silencing are abundant and subfunctionalization has led to specialized machinery responsible for synthesis and action of these small RNAs. In particular, plants possess polymerase (Pol) IV and Pol V, multi-subunit homologs of the canonical DNA-dependent RNA Pol II, as well as specialized members of the RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase (RDR), Dicer-like (DCL), and Argonaute (AGO) families. Together these enzymes are required for production and activity of Pol IV-dependent (p4-)siRNAs, which trigger RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM) at homologous sequences. p4-siRNAs accumulate highly in developing endosperm, a specialized tissue found only in flowering plants, and are rare in nonflowering plants, suggesting that the evolution of flowers might coincide with the emergence of specialized RdDM machinery. Through comprehensive identification of RdDM genes from species representing the breadth of the land plant phylogeny, we describe the ancient origin of Pol IV and Pol V, suggesting that a nearly complete and functional RdDM pathway could have existed in the earliest land plants. We also uncover innovations in these enzymes that are coincident with the emergence of seed plants and flowering plants, and recent duplications that might indicate additional subfunctionalization. Phylogenetic analysis reveals rapid evolution of Pol IV and Pol V subunits relative to their Pol II counterparts and suggests that duplicates were retained and subfunctionalized through Escape from Adaptive Conflict. Evolution within the carboxy-terminal domain of the Pol V largest subunit is particularly striking, where illegitimate recombination facilitated extreme sequence divergence.

Mitochondrial ADCK3 employs an atypical protein kinase-like fold to enable coenzyme Q biosynthesis

The ancient UbiB protein kinase-like family is involved in isoprenoid lipid biosynthesis and is implicated in human diseases, but demonstration of UbiB kinase activity has remained elusive for unknown reasons. Here, we quantitatively define UbiB-specific sequence motifs and reveal their positions within the crystal structure of a UbiB protein, ADCK3. We find that multiple UbiB-specific features are poised to inhibit protein kinase activity, including an N-terminal domain that occupies the typical substrate binding pocket and a unique A-rich loop that limits ATP binding by establishing an unusual selectivity for ADP. A single alanine-to-glycine mutation of this loop flips this coenzyme selectivity and enables autophosphorylation but inhibits coenzyme Q biosynthesis in vivo, demonstrating functional relevance for this unique feature. Our work provides mechanistic insight into UbiB enzyme activity and establishes a molecular foundation for further investigation of how UbiB family proteins affect diseases and diverse biological pathways.

Prediction and prioritization of rare oncogenic mutations in the cancer Kinome using novel features and multiple classifiers

Cancer is a genetic disease that develops through a series of somatic mutations, a subset of which drive cancer progression. Although cancer genome sequencing studies are beginning to reveal the mutational patterns of genes in various cancers, identifying the small subset of “causative” mutations from the large subset of “non-causative” mutations, which accumulate as a consequence of the disease, is a challenge. In this article, we present an effective machine learning approach for identifying cancer-associated mutations in human protein kinases, a class of signaling proteins known to be frequently mutated in human cancers. We evaluate the performance of 11 well known supervised learners and show that a multiple-classifier approach, which combines the performances of individual learners, significantly improves the classification of known cancer-associated mutations. We introduce several novel features related specifically to structural and functional characteristics of protein kinases and find that the level of conservation of the mutated residue at specific evolutionary depths is an important predictor of oncogenic effect. We consolidate the novel features and the multiple-classifier approach to prioritize and experimentally test a set of rare unconfirmed mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase (EGFR). Our studies identify T725M and L861R as rare cancer-associated mutations inasmuch as these mutations increase EGFR activity in the absence of the activating EGF ligand in cell-based assays.

Cancer progresses by accumulation of mutations in a subset of genes that confer growth advantage. The 518 protein kinase genes encoded in the human genome, collectively called the kinome, represent one of the largest families of oncogenes. Targeted sequencing studies of many different cancers have shown that the mutational landscape comprises both cancer-causing “driver” mutations and harmless “passenger” mutations. While the frequent recurrence of some driver mutations in human cancers helps distinguish them from the large number of passenger mutations, a significant challenge is to identify the rare “driver” mutations that are less frequently observed in patient samples and yet are causative. Here we combine computational and experimental approaches to identify rare cancer-associated mutations in Epidermal Growth Factor receptor kinase (EGFR), a signaling protein frequently mutated in cancers. Specifically, we evaluate a novel multiple-classifier approach and features specific to the protein kinase super-family in distinguishing known cancer-associated mutations from benign mutations. We then apply the multiple classifier to identify and test the functional impact of rare cancer-associated mutations in EGFR. We report, for the first time, that the EGFR mutations T725M and L861R, which are infrequently observed in cancers, constitutively activate EGFR in a manner analogous to the frequently observed driver mutations.

Deciphering the structural basis of eukaryotic protein kinase regulation

Biochemical and structural analysis of two features of kinase structure, the “R-spine” and “Shell,” afford a detailed insight into the regulation of eukaryotic protein kinases.

Eukaryotic protein kinases (EPKs) regulate numerous signaling processes by phosphorylating targeted substrates through the highly conserved catalytic domain. Our previous computational studies proposed a model stating that a properly assembled nonlinear motif termed the Regulatory (R) spine is essential for catalytic activity of EPKs. Here we define the required intramolecular interactions and biochemical properties of the R-spine and the newly identified “Shell” that surrounds the R-spine using site-directed mutagenesis and various in vitro phosphoryl transfer assays using cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase as a representative of the entire kinome. Analysis of the 172 available Apo EPK structures in the protein data bank (PDB) revealed four unique structural conformations of the R-spine that correspond with catalytic inactivation of various EPKs. Elucidating the molecular entities required for the catalytic activation of EPKs and the identification of these inactive conformations opens new avenues for the design of efficient therapeutic EPK inhibitors.

Eukaryotic protein kinases (EPKs) have a highly conserved enzymatic kinase core that is involved in the regulation of numerous cell signaling processes through the transfer of a phosphate group from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to more than 30% of human proteins. EPKs have been implicated in numerous human diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes, making them one of the most sought-after therapeutic drug targets. The lack of structural diversity of the active kinase core has created a bottle-neck for designing successful therapeutic inhibitors. Here we describe the intramolecular interactions required for differentiating between the active and inactive states of EPKs. Kinases contain a hydrophobic regulatory spine (“R-spine”) that is disassembled in inactive kinases, and here we define an additional hydrophobic “Shell” that surrounds one end of the R-spine. Biochemical analysis of the five nonconsecutive R-spine residues and three nonconsecutive Shell residues shows that proper assembly of the R-spine and Shell is essential for maintaining kinase activity. Structural analysis of the 172 known structures of EPKs without bound ligands led to the identification of four inactive conformations that correlate with the disassembly of the R-spine. Understanding the molecular elements involved in the regulation of kinase activity and the identification of these diverse groups of inactive conformations should aid the design of more specific therapeutic EPK inhibitors.

Global analysis of protein expression and phosphorylation of three stages of Plasmodium falciparum intraerythrocytic development

During asexual intraerythrocytic development, Plasmodium falciparum diverges from the paradigm of the eukaryotic cell cycles by undergoing multiple rounds of DNA replication and nuclear division without cytokinesis. A better understanding of the molecular switches that coordinate a myriad of events for the progression of the parasite through the intraerythrocytic developmental stages will be of fundamental importance for rational design of intervention strategies. To achieve this goal, we performed isobaric tag-based quantitative proteomics and phosphoproteomics analyses of three developmental stages in the Plasmodium asexual cycle and identified 2767 proteins, 1337 phosphoproteins, and 6293 phosphorylation sites. Approximately 34% of identified proteins and 75% of phosphorylation sites exhibit changes in abundance as the intraerythrocytic cycle progresses. Our study identified 43 distinct phosphorylation motifs and a range of potential MAPK/CDK substrates. Further analysis of phosphorylated kinases identified 30 protein kinases with 126 phosphorylation sites within the kinase domain or in N- or C-terminal tails. Many of these phosphorylations are likely CK2-mediated. We define the constitutive and regulated expression of the Plasmodium proteome during the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle, offering an insight into the dynamics of phosphorylation during asexual cycle progression. Our system-wide comprehensive analysis is a major step toward defining kinase-substrate pairs operative in various signaling networks in the parasite.

Structural and evolutionary adaptation of rhoptry kinases and pseudokinases, a family of coccidian virulence factors

Background

The widespread protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii interferes with host cell functions by exporting the contents of a unique apical organelle, the rhoptry. Among the mix of secreted proteins are an expanded, lineage-specific family of protein kinases termed rhoptry kinases (ROPKs), several of which have been shown to be key virulence factors, including the pseudokinase ROP5. The extent and details of the diversification of this protein family are poorly understood.

Results

In this study, we comprehensively catalogued the ROPK family in the genomes of Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Eimeria tenella, as well as portions of the unfinished genome of Sarcocystis neurona, and classified the identified genes into 42 distinct subfamilies. We systematically compared the rhoptry kinase protein sequences and structures to each other and to the broader superfamily of eukaryotic protein kinases to study the patterns of diversification and neofunctionalization in the ROPK family and its subfamilies. We identified three ROPK sub-clades of particular interest: those bearing a structurally conserved N-terminal extension to the kinase domain (NTE), an E. tenella-specific expansion, and a basal cluster including ROP35 and BPK1 that we term ROPKL. Structural analysis in light of the solved structures ROP2, ROP5, ROP8 and in comparison to typical eukaryotic protein kinases revealed ROPK-specific conservation patterns in two key regions of the kinase domain, surrounding a ROPK-conserved insert in the kinase hinge region and a disulfide bridge in the kinase substrate-binding lobe. We also examined conservation patterns specific to the NTE-bearing clade. We discuss the possible functional consequences of each.

Conclusions

Our work sheds light on several important but previously unrecognized features shared among rhoptry kinases, as well as the essential differences between active and degenerate protein kinases. We identify the most distinctive ROPK-specific features conserved across both active kinases and pseudokinases, and discuss these in terms of sequence motifs, evolutionary context, structural impact and potential functional relevance.

By characterizing the proteins that enable these parasites to invade the host cell and co-opt its signaling mechanisms, we provide guidance on potential therapeutic targets for the diseases caused by coccidian parasites.

Evolutionary variation and adaptation in a conserved protein kinase allosteric network: implications for inhibitor design

The activation of protein kinases involves conformational changes in key functional regions of the kinase domain, a detailed understanding of which is essential for the design of selective protein kinase inhibitors. Through statistical analysis of protein kinase sequences and crystal structures from diverse organisms, we recently proposed that the activation of protein kinases involves a hidden strain switch in the catalytic loop. Specifically, we demonstrated that the backbone torsion-angles of residues in the catalytic loop switch from a "relaxed" to "strained" conformation upon kinase activation and the strained geometry results in a network of hydrogen bonds involving conserved non-catalytic residues in the ATP and substrate binding lobes. Here, we further explore this activation mechanism by analyzing families that lack the canonical hydrogen bonding interactions with the strained backbone. We find that alternative mechanisms have evolved to maintain catalytic loop strain. In PIM kinase, for example, two water molecules account for the lack of a conserved aspartate in the substrate binding by hydrogen bonds to the strained backbone. We discuss the relevance of these findings in the design of family-specific allosteric inhibitors, and in predicting the structural and functional impact of cancer mutations that alter the strain associated hydrogen bonding network. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Inhibitors of Protein Kinases (2012).

Next-generation phylogenomics

Thanks to advances in next-generation technologies, genome sequences are now being generated at breadth (e.g. across environments) and depth (thousands of closely related strains, individuals or samples) unimaginable only a few years ago. Phylogenomics--the study of evolutionary relationships based on comparative analysis of genome-scale data--has so far been developed as industrial-scale molecular phylogenetics, proceeding in the two classical steps: multiple alignment of homologous sequences, followed by inference of a tree (or multiple trees). However, the algorithms typically employed for these steps scale poorly with number of sequences, such that for an increasing number of problems, high-quality phylogenomic analysis is (or soon will be) computationally infeasible. Moreover, next-generation data are often incomplete and error-prone, and analysis may be further complicated by genome rearrangement, gene fusion and deletion, lateral genetic transfer, and transcript variation. Here we argue that next-generation data require next-generation phylogenomics, including so-called alignment-free approaches.

Identification of a hidden strain switch provides clues to an ancient structural mechanism in protein kinases

The protein kinase catalytic domain contains several conserved residues of unknown functions. Here, using a combination of computational and experimental approaches, we show that the function of some of these residues is to maintain the backbone geometry of the active site in a strained conformation. Specifically, we find that the backbone geometry of the catalytically important HRD motif deviates from ideality in high-resolution structures and the strained geometry results in favorable hydrogen bonds with conserved noncatalytic residues in the active site. In particular, a conserved aspartate in the F-helix hydrogen bonds to the strained HRD backbone in diverse eukaryotic and eukaryotic-like protein kinase crystal structures. Mutations that alter this hydrogen-bonding interaction impair catalytic activity in Aurora kinase. Although the backbone strain is present in most active conformations, several inactive conformations lack the strain because of a peptide flip in the HRD backbone. The peptide flip is correlated with loss of hydrogen bonds with the F-helix aspartate as well as with other interactions associated with kinase regulation. Within protein kinases that are regulated by activation loop phosphorylation, the strained residue is an arginine, which coordinates with the activation loop phosphate. Based on analysis of strain across the protein kinase superfamily, we propose a model in which backbone strain co-evolved with conserved residues for allosteric control of catalytic activity. Our studies provide new clues for the design of allosteric protein kinase inhibitors.

An evolutionary perspective on the kinome of malaria parasites

Malaria parasites belong to an ancient lineage that diverged very early from the main branch of eukaryotes. The approximately 90-member plasmodial kinome includes a majority of eukaryotic protein kinases that clearly cluster within the AGC, CMGC, TKL, CaMK and CK1 groups found in yeast, plants and mammals, testifying to the ancient ancestry of these families. However, several hundred millions years of independent evolution, and the specific pressures brought about by first a photosynthetic and then a parasitic lifestyle, led to the emergence of unique features in the plasmodial kinome. These include taxon-restricted kinase families, and unique peculiarities of individual enzymes even when they have homologues in other eukaryotes. Here, we merge essential aspects of all three malaria-related communications that were presented at the Evolution of Protein Phosphorylation meeting, and propose an integrated discussion of the specific features of the parasite's kinome and phosphoproteome.

Automated hierarchical classification of protein domain subfamilies based on functionally-divergent residue signatures

Background

The NCBI Conserved Domain Database (CDD) consists of a collection of multiple sequence alignments of protein domains that are at various stages of being manually curated into evolutionary hierarchies based on conserved and divergent sequence and structural features. These domain models are annotated to provide insights into the relationships between sequence, structure and function via web-based BLAST searches.

Results

Here we automate the generation of conserved domain (CD) hierarchies using a combination of heuristic and Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling procedures and starting from a (typically very large) multiple sequence alignment. This procedure relies on statistical criteria to define each hierarchy based on the conserved and divergent sequence patterns associated with protein functional-specialization. At the same time this facilitates the sequence and structural annotation of residues that are functionally important. These statistical criteria also provide a means to objectively assess the quality of CD hierarchies, a non-trivial task considering that the protein subgroups are often very distantly related—a situation in which standard phylogenetic methods can be unreliable. Our aim here is to automatically generate (typically sub-optimal) hierarchies that, based on statistical criteria and visual comparisons, are comparable to manually curated hierarchies; this serves as the first step toward the ultimate goal of obtaining optimal hierarchical classifications. A plot of runtimes for the most time-intensive (non-parallelizable) part of the algorithm indicates a nearly linear time complexity so that, even for the extremely large Rossmann fold protein class, results were obtained in about a day.

Conclusions

This approach automates the rapid creation of protein domain hierarchies and thus will eliminate one of the most time consuming aspects of conserved domain database curation. At the same time, it also facilitates protein domain annotation by identifying those pattern residues that most distinguish each protein domain subgroup from other related subgroups.

Structural and evolutionary divergence of eukaryotic protein kinases in Apicomplexa

Background

The Apicomplexa constitute an evolutionarily divergent phylum of protozoan pathogens responsible for widespread parasitic diseases such as malaria and toxoplasmosis. Many cellular functions in these medically important organisms are controlled by protein kinases, which have emerged as promising drug targets for parasitic diseases. However, an incomplete understanding of how apicomplexan kinases structurally and mechanistically differ from their host counterparts has hindered drug development efforts to target parasite kinases.

Results

We used the wealth of sequence data recently made available for 15 apicomplexan species to identify the kinome of each species and quantify the evolutionary constraints imposed on each family of apicomplexan kinases. Our analysis revealed lineage-specific adaptations in selected families, namely cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK), calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) and CLK/LAMMER, which have been identified as important in the pathogenesis of these organisms. Bayesian analysis of selective constraints imposed on these families identified the sequence and structural features that most distinguish apicomplexan protein kinases from their homologs in model organisms and other eukaryotes. In particular, in a subfamily of CDKs orthologous to Plasmodium falciparum crk-5, the activation loop contains a novel PTxC motif which is absent from all CDKs outside Apicomplexa. Our analysis also suggests a convergent mode of regulation in a subset of apicomplexan CDPKs and mammalian MAPKs involving a commonly conserved arginine in the αC helix. In all recognized apicomplexan CLKs, we find a set of co-conserved residues involved in substrate recognition and docking that are distinct from metazoan CLKs.

Conclusions

We pinpoint key conserved residues that can be predicted to mediate functional differences from eukaryotic homologs in three identified kinase families. We discuss the structural, functional and evolutionary implications of these lineage-specific variations and propose specific hypotheses for experimental investigation. The apicomplexan-specific kinase features reported in this study can be used in the design of selective kinase inhibitors.

Surveying the manifold divergence of an entire protein class for statistical clues to underlying biochemical mechanisms

Certain residues have no known function yet are co-conserved across distantly related protein families and diverse organisms, suggesting that they perform critical roles associated with as-yet-unidentified molecular properties and mechanisms. This raises the question of how to obtain additional clues regarding these mysterious biochemical phenomena with a view to formulating experimentally testable hypotheses. One approach is to access the implicit biochemical information encoded within the vast amount of genomic sequence data now becoming available. Here, a new Gibbs sampling strategy is formulated and implemented that can partition hundreds of thousands of sequences within a major protein class into multiple, functionally-divergent categories based on those pattern residues that best discriminate between categories. The sampler precisely defines the partition and pattern for each category by explicitly modeling unrelated, non-functional and related-yet-divergent proteins that would otherwise obscure the analysis. To aid biological interpretation, auxiliary routines can characterize pattern residues within available crystal structures and identify those structures most likely to shed light on the roles of pattern residues. This approach can be used to define and annotate automatically subgroup-specific conserved domain profiles based on statistically-rigorous empirical criteria rather than on the subjective and labor-intensive process of manual curation. Incorporating such profiles into domain database search sites (such as the NCBI BLAST site) will provide biologists with previously inaccessible molecular information useful for hypothesis generation and experimental design. Analyses of P-loop GTPases and of AAA+ ATPases illustrate the sampler's ability to obtain such information.

Co-conserved features associated with cis regulation of ErbB tyrosine kinases

Background

The epidermal growth factor receptor kinases, or ErbB kinases, belong to a large sub-group of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), which share a conserved catalytic core. The catalytic core of ErbB kinases have functionally diverged from other RTKs in that they are activated by a unique allosteric mechanism that involves specific interactions between the kinase core and the flanking Juxtamembrane (JM) and COOH-terminal tail (C-terminal tail). Although extensive studies on ErbB and related tyrosine kinases have provided important insights into the structural basis for ErbB kinase functional divergence, the sequence features that contribute to the unique regulation of ErbB kinases have not been systematically explored.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In this study, we use a Bayesian approach to identify the selective sequence constraints that most distinguish ErbB kinases from other receptor tyrosine kinases. We find that strong ErbB kinase-specific constraints are imposed on residues that tether the JM and C-terminal tail to key functional regions of the kinase core. A conserved RIxKExE motif in the JM-kinase linker region and a glutamine in the inter-lobe linker are identified as two of the most distinguishing features of the ErbB family. While the RIxKExE motif tethers the C-terminal tail to the N-lobe of the kinase domain, the glutamine tethers the C-terminal tail to hinge regions critical for inter-lobe movement. Comparison of the active and inactive crystal structures of ErbB kinases indicates that the identified residues are conformationally malleable and can potentially contribute to the cis regulation of the kinase core by the JM and C-terminal tail. ErbB3, and EGFR orthologs in sponges and parasitic worms, diverge from some of the canonical ErbB features, providing insights into sub-family and lineage-specific functional specialization.

Conclusion/Significance

Our analysis pinpoints key residues for mutational analysis, and provides new clues to cancer mutations that alter the canonical modes of ErbB kinase regulation.