Continuous-state HMMs for modeling time-series single-cell RNA-Seq data

Cellular proliferation biases clonal lineage tracing and trajectory inference

MOTIVATION

Lineage tracing and trajectory inference from single-cell RNA-sequencing data hold tremendous potential for uncovering the genetic programs driving development and disease. Single cell datasets are thought to provide an unbiased view on the diverse cellular architecture of tissues. Sampling bias, however, can skew single cell datasets away from the cellular composition they are meant to represent.

RESULTS

We demonstrate a novel form of sampling bias, caused by a statistical phenomenon related to repeated sampling from a growing, heterogeneous population. Relative growth rates of cells influence the probability that they will be sampled in clones observed across multiple time points. We support our probabilistic derivations with a simulation study and an analysis of a real time-course of T-cell development. We find that this bias can impact fate probability predictions, and we explore how to develop trajectory inference methods which are robust to this bias.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

Source code for the simulated datasets and to create the figures in this manuscript is freely available in python at https://github.com/rbonhamcarter/simulate-clones. A python implementation of the extension of the LineageOT method is freely available at https://github.com/rbonhamcarter/LineageOT/tree/multi-time-clones.

Single-cell omics: experimental workflow, data analyses and applications

Cells are the fundamental units of biological systems and exhibit unique development trajectories and molecular features. Our exploration of how the genomes orchestrate the formation and maintenance of each cell, and control the cellular phenotypes of various organismsis, is both captivating and intricate. Since the inception of the first single-cell RNA technology, technologies related to single-cell sequencing have experienced rapid advancements in recent years. These technologies have expanded horizontally to include single-cell genome, epigenome, proteome, and metabolome, while vertically, they have progressed to integrate multiple omics data and incorporate additional information such as spatial scRNA-seq and CRISPR screening. Single-cell omics represent a groundbreaking advancement in the biomedical field, offering profound insights into the understanding of complex diseases, including cancers. Here, we comprehensively summarize recent advances in single-cell omics technologies, with a specific focus on the methodology section. This overview aims to guide researchers in selecting appropriate methods for single-cell sequencing and related data analysis.

An increment of diversity method for cell state trajectory inference of time-series scRNA-seq data

The increasing emergence of the time-series single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data, inferring developmental trajectory by connecting transcriptome similar cell states (i.e., cell types or clusters) has become a major challenge. Most existing computational methods are designed for individual cells and do not take into account the available time series information. We present IDTI based on the Increment of Diversity for Trajectory Inference, which combines time series information and the minimum increment of diversity method to infer cell state trajectory of time-series scRNA-seq data. We apply IDTI to simulated and three real diverse tissue development datasets, and compare it with six other commonly used trajectory inference methods in terms of topology similarity and branching accuracy. The results have shown that the IDTI method accurately constructs the cell state trajectory without the requirement of starting cells. In the performance test, we further demonstrate that IDTI has the advantages of high accuracy and strong robustness.

Modeling single cell trajectory using forward-backward stochastic differential equations

Recent advances in single-cell sequencing technology have provided opportunities for mathematical modeling of dynamic developmental processes at the single-cell level, such as inferring developmental trajectories. Optimal transport has emerged as a promising theoretical framework for this task by computing pairings between cells from different time points. However, optimal transport methods have limitations in capturing nonlinear trajectories, as they are static and can only infer linear paths between endpoints. In contrast, stochastic differential equations (SDEs) offer a dynamic and flexible approach that can model non-linear trajectories, including the shape of the path. Nevertheless, existing SDE methods often rely on numerical approximations that can lead to inaccurate inferences, deviating from true trajectories. To address this challenge, we propose a novel approach combining forward-backward stochastic differential equations (FBSDE) with a refined approximation procedure. Our FBSDE model integrates the forward and backward movements of two SDEs in time, aiming to capture the underlying dynamics of single-cell developmental trajectories. Through comprehensive benchmarking on multiple scRNA-seq datasets, we demonstrate the superior performance of FBSDE compared to other methods, highlighting its efficacy in accurately inferring developmental trajectories.

Studying temporal dynamics of single cells: expression, lineage and regulatory networks

Learning how multicellular organs are developed from single cells to different cell types is a fundamental problem in biology. With the high-throughput scRNA-seq technology, computational methods have been developed to reveal the temporal dynamics of single cells from transcriptomic data, from phenomena on cell trajectories to the underlying mechanism that formed the trajectory. There are several distinct families of computational methods including Trajectory Inference (TI), Lineage Tracing (LT), and Gene Regulatory Network (GRN) Inference which are involved in such studies. This review summarizes these computational approaches which use scRNA-seq data to study cell differentiation and cell fate specification as well as the advantages and limitations of different methods. We further discuss how GRNs can potentially affect cell fate decisions and trajectory structures.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12551-023-01090-5.

Unagi: Deep Generative Model for Deciphering Cellular Dynamics and In-Silico Drug Discovery in Complex Diseases

Human diseases are characterized by intricate cellular dynamics. Single-cell sequencing provides critical insights, yet a persistent gap remains in computational tools for detailed disease progression analysis and targeted in-silico drug interventions. Here, we introduce UNAGI, a deep generative neural network tailored to analyze time-series single-cell transcriptomic data. This tool captures the complex cellular dynamics underlying disease progression, enhancing drug perturbation modeling and discovery. When applied to a dataset from patients with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF), UNAGI learns disease-informed cell embeddings that sharpen our understanding of disease progression, leading to the identification of potential therapeutic drug candidates. Validation via proteomics reveals the accuracy of UNAGI's cellular dynamics analyses, and the use of the Fibrotic Cocktail treated human Precision-cut Lung Slices confirms UNAGI's predictions that Nifedipine, an antihypertensive drug, may have antifibrotic effects on human tissues. UNAGI's versatility extends to other diseases, including a COVID dataset, demonstrating adaptability and confirming its broader applicability in decoding complex cellular dynamics beyond IPF, amplifying its utility in the quest for therapeutic solutions across diverse pathological landscapes.

LVPT: Lazy Velocity Pseudotime Inference Method

The emergence of RNA velocity has enriched our understanding of the dynamic transcriptional landscape within individual cells. In light of this breakthrough, we embarked on integrating RNA velocity with cellular pseudotime inference, aiming to improve the prediction of cell orders along biological trajectories beyond existing methods. Here, we developed LVPT, a novel method for pseudotime and trajectory inference. LVPT introduces a lazy probability to indicate the probability that the cell stays in the original state and calculates the transition matrix based on RNA velocity to provide the probability and direction of cell differentiation. LVPT shows better and comparable performance of pseudotime inference compared with other existing methods on both simulated datasets with different structures and real datasets. The validation results were consistent with prior knowledge, indicating that LVPT is an accurate and efficient method for pseudotime inference.

The specious art of single-cell genomics

Dimensionality reduction is standard practice for filtering noise and identifying relevant features in large-scale data analyses. In biology, single-cell genomics studies typically begin with reduction to 2 or 3 dimensions to produce "all-in-one" visuals of the data that are amenable to the human eye, and these are subsequently used for qualitative and quantitative exploratory analysis. However, there is little theoretical support for this practice, and we show that extreme dimension reduction, from hundreds or thousands of dimensions to 2, inevitably induces significant distortion of high-dimensional datasets. We therefore examine the practical implications of low-dimensional embedding of single-cell data and find that extensive distortions and inconsistent practices make such embeddings counter-productive for exploratory, biological analyses. In lieu of this, we discuss alternative approaches for conducting targeted embedding and feature exploration to enable hypothesis-driven biological discovery.

Understanding tumour endothelial cell heterogeneity and function from single-cell omics

Anti-angiogenic therapies (AATs) are used to treat different types of cancers. However, their success is limited owing to insufficient efficacy and resistance. Recently, single-cell omics studies of tumour endothelial cells (TECs) have provided new mechanistic insight. Here, we overview the heterogeneity of human TECs of all tumour types studied to date, at the single-cell level. Notably, most human tumour types contain varying numbers but only a small population of angiogenic TECs, the presumed targets of AATs, possibly contributing to the limited efficacy of and resistance to AATs. In general, TECs are heterogeneous within and across all tumour types, but comparing TEC phenotypes across tumours is currently challenging, owing to the lack of a uniform nomenclature for endothelial cells and consistent single-cell analysis protocols, urgently raising the need for a more consistent approach. Nonetheless, across most tumour types, universal TEC markers (ACKR1, PLVAP and IGFBP3) can be identified. Besides angiogenesis, biological processes such as immunomodulation and extracellular matrix organization are among the most commonly predicted enriched signatures of TECs across different tumour types. Although angiogenesis and extracellular matrix targets have been considered for AAT (without the hoped success), the immunomodulatory properties of TECs have not been fully considered as a novel anticancer therapeutic approach. Therefore, we also discuss progress, limitations, solutions and novel targets for AAT development.

Density-based detection of cell transition states to construct disparate and bifurcating trajectories

Tree- and linear-shaped cell differentiation trajectories have been widely observed in developmental biologies and can be also inferred through computational methods from single-cell RNA-sequencing datasets. However, trajectories with complicated topologies such as loops, disparate lineages and bifurcating hierarchy remain difficult to infer accurately. Here, we introduce a density-based trajectory inference method capable of constructing diverse shapes of topological patterns including the most intriguing bifurcations. The novelty of our method is a step to exploit overlapping probability distributions to identify transition states of cells for determining connectability between cell clusters, and another step to infer a stable trajectory through a base-topology guided iterative fitting. Our method precisely re-constructed various benchmark reference trajectories. As a case study to demonstrate practical usefulness, our method was tested on single-cell RNA sequencing profiles of blood cells of SARS-CoV-2-infected patients. We not only re-discovered the linear trajectory bridging the transition from IgM plasmablast cells to developing neutrophils, and also found a previously-undiscovered lineage which can be rigorously supported by differentially expressed gene analysis.

TraSig: inferring cell-cell interactions from pseudotime ordering of scRNA-Seq data

A major advantage of single cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-Seq) data is the ability to reconstruct continuous ordering and trajectories for cells. Here we present TraSig, a computational method for improving the inference of cell-cell interactions in scRNA-Seq studies that utilizes the dynamic information to identify significant ligand-receptor pairs with similar trajectories, which in turn are used to score interacting cell clusters. We applied TraSig to several scRNA-Seq datasets and obtained unique predictions that improve upon those identified by prior methods. Functional experiments validate the ability of TraSig to identify novel signaling interactions that impact vascular development in liver organoids.Software https://github.com/doraadong/TraSig .

Temporal modelling using single-cell transcriptomics

Methods for profiling genes at the single-cell level have revolutionized our ability to study several biological processes and systems including development, differentiation, response programmes and disease progression. In many of these studies, cells are profiled over time in order to infer dynamic changes in cell states and types, sets of expressed genes, active pathways and key regulators. However, time-series single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) also raises several new analysis and modelling issues. These issues range from determining when and how deep to profile cells, linking cells within and between time points, learning continuous trajectories, and integrating bulk and single-cell data for reconstructing models of dynamic networks. In this Review, we discuss several approaches for the analysis and modelling of time-series scRNA-seq, highlighting their steps, key assumptions, and the types of data and biological questions they are most appropriate for.

Dynamic inference of cell developmental complex energy landscape from time series single-cell transcriptomic data

Time series single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data are emerging. However, dynamic inference of an evolving cell population from time series scRNA-seq data is challenging owing to the stochasticity and nonlinearity of the underlying biological processes. This calls for the development of mathematical models and methods capable of reconstructing cellular dynamic transition processes and uncovering the nonlinear cell-cell interactions. In this study, we present GraphFP, a nonlinear Fokker-Planck equation on graph based model and dynamic inference framework, with the aim of reconstructing the cell state-transition complex potential energy landscape from time series single-cell transcriptomic data. The free energy of our model explicitly takes into account of the cell-cell interactions in a nonlinear quadratic term. We then recast the model inference problem in the form of a dynamic optimal transport framework and solve it efficiently with the adjoint method of optimal control. We evaluated GraphFP on the time series scRNA-seq data set of embryonic murine cerebral cortex development. We illustrated that it 1) reconstructs cell state potential energy, which is a measure of cellular differentiation potency, 2) faithfully charts the probability flows between paired cell states over the dynamic processes of cell differentiation, and 3) accurately quantifies the stochastic dynamics of cell type frequencies on probability simplex in continuous time. We also illustrated that GraphFP is robust in terms of cluster labelling with different resolutions, as well as parameter choices. Meanwhile, GraphFP provides a model-based approach to delineate the cell-cell interactions that drive cell differentiation. GraphFP software is available at https://github.com/QiJiang-QJ/GraphFP.

Dynamic inference of cell development processes from time series scRNA-seq data is a major challenge. Here, we present GraphFP, a coherent computational framework that simultaneously reconstructs the cell state-transition complex potential energy landscape and infers cell-cell interactions from time series single-cell transcriptomic data. Based on the mathematical framework of nonlinear Fokker-Planck equation on graph, GraphFP models the stochastic dynamics of the cell state/type frequencies on probability simplex in continuous time, where the free energy with a nonlinear quadratic interaction term is employed to characterize cell-cell interactions. We formulate the model inference problem in the form of a dynamic optimal transport framework and solve it efficiently with the celebrated adjoint method. GraphFP allows for 1) reconstructing cell state potential energy, which is a measure of cellular differentiation potency, 2) charting the probability flows between paired cell states over dynamic processes, 3) quantifying the stochastic dynamics of cell type frequencies on probability simplex in continuous time, and 4) delineating cell-cell interactions that drive cell differentiation. We show how GraphFP can be used to faithfully reveal and accurately quantify the cell development processes using the embryonic murine cerebral cortex development time series scRNA-seq dataset.

Reconstructed signaling and regulatory networks identify potential drugs for SARS-CoV-2 infection

Several molecular datasets have been recently compiled to characterize the activity of SARS-CoV-2 within human cells. Here we extend computational methods to integrate several different types of sequence, functional and interaction data to reconstruct networks and pathways activated by the virus in host cells. We identify key proteins in these networks and further intersect them with genes differentially expressed at conditions that are known to impact viral activity. Several of the top ranked genes do not directly interact with virus proteins. We experimentally tested treatments for a number of the predicted targets. We show that blocking one of the predicted indirect targets significantly reduces viral loads in stem cell-derived alveolar epithelial type II cells (iAT2s).

Optimal transport analysis reveals trajectories in steady-state systems

Understanding how cells change their identity and behaviour in living systems is an important question in many fields of biology. The problem of inferring cell trajectories from single-cell measurements has been a major topic in the single-cell analysis community, with different methods developed for equilibrium and non-equilibrium systems (e.g. haematopoeisis vs. embryonic development). We show that optimal transport analysis, a technique originally designed for analysing time-courses, may also be applied to infer cellular trajectories from a single snapshot of a population in equilibrium. Therefore, optimal transport provides a unified approach to inferring trajectories that is applicable to both stationary and non-stationary systems. Our method, StationaryOT, is mathematically motivated in a natural way from the hypothesis of a Waddington's epigenetic landscape. We implement StationaryOT as a software package and demonstrate its efficacy in applications to simulated data as well as single-cell data from Arabidopsis thaliana root development.

Computational tools for analyzing single-cell data in pluripotent cell differentiation studies

Single-cell technologies are revolutionizing the ability of researchers to infer the causes and results of biological processes. Although several studies of pluripotent cell differentiation have recently utilized single-cell sequencing data, other aspects related to the optimization of differentiation protocols, their validation, robustness, and usage are still not taking full advantage of single-cell technologies. In this review, we focus on computational approaches for the analysis of single-cell omics and imaging data and discuss their use to address many of the major challenges involved in the development, validation, and use of cells obtained from pluripotent cell differentiation.

Integrating single-cell genomics pipelines to discover mechanisms of stem cell differentiation

Pluripotent stem cells underpin a growing sector that leverages their differentiation potential for research, industry, and clinical applications. This review evaluates the landscape of methods in single-cell transcriptomics that are enabling accelerated discovery in stem cell science. We focus on strategies for scaling stem cell differentiation through multiplexed single-cell analyses, for evaluating molecular regulation of cell differentiation using new analysis algorithms, and methods for integration and projection analysis to classify and benchmark stem cell derivatives against in vivo cell types. By discussing the available methods, comparing their strengths, and illustrating strategies for developing integrated analysis pipelines, we provide user considerations to inform their implementation and interpretation.

CStreet: a computed Cell State trajectory inference method for time-series single-cell RNA sequencing data

MOTIVATION

The increasing amount of time-series single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data raises the key issue of connecting cell states (i.e., cell clusters or cell types) to obtain the continuous temporal dynamics of transcription, which can highlight the unified biological mechanisms involved in cell state transitions. However, most existing trajectory methods are specifically designed for individual cells, so they can hardly meet the needs of accurately inferring the trajectory topology of the cell state, which usually contains cells assigned to different branches.

RESULTS

Here, we present CStreet, a computed Cell State trajectory inference method for time-series scRNA-seq data. It uses time-series information to construct the k-nearest neighbors connections between cells within each time point and between adjacent time points. Then, CStreet estimates the connection probabilities of the cell states and visualizes the trajectory, which may include multiple starting points and paths, using a force-directed graph. By comparing the performance of CStreet with that of six commonly used cell state trajectory reconstruction methods on simulated data and real data, we demonstrate the high accuracy and high tolerance of CStreet.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

CStreet is written in Python and freely available on the web at https://github.com/TongjiZhanglab/CStreet and https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4483205.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Computational Stem Cell Biology: Open Questions and Guiding Principles

Computational biology is enabling an explosive growth in our understanding of stem cells and our ability to use them for disease modeling, regenerative medicine, and drug discovery. We discuss four topics that exemplify applications of computation to stem cell biology: cell typing, lineage tracing, trajectory inference, and regulatory networks. We use these examples to articulate principles that have guided computational biology broadly and call for renewed attention to these principles as computation becomes increasingly important in stem cell biology. We also discuss important challenges for this field with the hope that it will inspire more to join this exciting area.

Tempora: Cell trajectory inference using time-series single-cell RNA sequencing data

Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) can map cell types, states and transitions during dynamic biological processes such as tissue development and regeneration. Many trajectory inference methods have been developed to order cells by their progression through a dynamic process. However, when time series data is available, most of these methods do not consider the available time information when ordering cells and are instead designed to work only on a single scRNA-seq data snapshot. We present Tempora, a novel cell trajectory inference method that orders cells using time information from time-series scRNA-seq data. In performance comparison tests, Tempora inferred known developmental lineages from three diverse tissue development time series data sets, beating state of the art methods in accuracy and speed. Tempora works at the level of cell clusters (types) and uses biological pathway information to help identify cell type relationships. This approach increases gene expression signal from single cells, processing speed, and interpretability of the inferred trajectory. Our results demonstrate the utility of a combination of time and pathway information to supervise trajectory inference for scRNA-seq based analysis.

Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) enables an unparalleled ability to map the heterogeneity of dynamic multicellular processes, such as tissue development, tumor growth, wound response and repair, and inflammation. Multiple methods have been developed to order cells along a pseudotime axis that represents a trajectory through such processes using the concept that cells that are closely related in a lineage will have similar transcriptomes. However, time series experiments provide another useful information source to order cells, from earlier to later time point. By introducing a novel use of biological pathway prior information, our Tempora algorithm improves the accuracy and speed of cell trajectory inference from time-series scRNA-seq data as measured by reconstructing known developmental trajectories from three diverse data sets. By analyzing scRNA-seq data at the cluster (cell type) level instead of at the single-cell level and by using known pathway information, Tempora amplifies gene expression signals from one cell using similar cells in a cluster and similar genes within a pathway. This approach also reduces computational time and resources needed to analyze large data sets because it works with a relatively small number of clusters instead of a potentially large number of cells. Finally, it eases interpretation, via operating on a relatively small number of clusters which usually represent known cell types, as well as by identifying time-dependent pathways. Tempora is useful for finding novel insights in dynamic processes.

Single-cell lineage tracing by integrating CRISPR-Cas9 mutations with transcriptomic data

Recent studies combine two novel technologies, single-cell RNA-sequencing and CRISPR-Cas9 barcode editing for elucidating developmental lineages at the whole organism level. While these studies provided several insights, they face several computational challenges. First, lineages are reconstructed based on noisy and often saturated random mutation data. Additionally, due to the randomness of the mutations, lineages from multiple experiments cannot be combined to reconstruct a species-invariant lineage tree. To address these issues we developed a statistical method, LinTIMaT, which reconstructs cell lineages using a maximum-likelihood framework by integrating mutation and expression data. Our analysis shows that expression data helps resolve the ambiguities arising in when lineages are inferred based on mutations alone, while also enabling the integration of different individual lineages for the reconstruction of an invariant lineage tree. LinTIMaT lineages have better cell type coherence, improve the functional significance of gene sets and provide new insights on progenitors and differentiation pathways.

Reconstructed Single-Cell Fate Trajectories Define Lineage Plasticity Windows during Differentiation of Human PSC-Derived Distal Lung Progenitors

Alveolar epithelial type 2 cells (AEC2s) are the facultative progenitors responsible for maintaining lung alveoli throughout life but are difficult to isolate from patients. Here, we engineer AEC2s from human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) in vitro and use time-series single-cell RNA sequencing with lentiviral barcoding to profile the kinetics of their differentiation in comparison to primary fetal and adult AEC2 benchmarks. We observe bifurcating cell-fate trajectories as primordial lung progenitors differentiate in vitro, with some progeny reaching their AEC2 fate target, while others diverge to alternative non-lung endodermal fates. We develop a Continuous State Hidden Markov model to identify the timing and type of signals, such as overexuberant Wnt responses, that induce some early multipotent NKX2-1+ progenitors to lose lung fate. Finally, we find that this initial developmental plasticity is regulatable and subsides over time, ultimately resulting in PSC-derived AEC2s that exhibit a stable phenotype and nearly limitless self-renewal capacity.

Inferring TF activation order in time series scRNA-Seq studies

Methods for the analysis of time series single cell expression data (scRNA-Seq) either do not utilize information about transcription factors (TFs) and their targets or only study these as a post-processing step. Using such information can both, improve the accuracy of the reconstructed model and cell assignments, while at the same time provide information on how and when the process is regulated. We developed the Continuous-State Hidden Markov Models TF (CSHMM-TF) method which integrates probabilistic modeling of scRNA-Seq data with the ability to assign TFs to specific activation points in the model. TFs are assumed to influence the emission probabilities for cells assigned to later time points allowing us to identify not just the TFs controlling each path but also their order of activation. We tested CSHMM-TF on several mouse and human datasets. As we show, the method was able to identify known and novel TFs for all processes, assigned time of activation agrees with both expression information and prior knowledge and combinatorial predictions are supported by known interactions. We also show that CSHMM-TF improves upon prior methods that do not utilize TF-gene interaction.

An important attribute of time series single cell RNA-Seq (scRNA-Seq) data, is the ability to infer continuous trajectories of genes based on orderings of the cells. While several methods have been developed for ordering cells and inferring such trajectories, to date it was not possible to use these to infer the temporal activity of several key TFs. These TFs are are only post-transcriptionally regulated and so their expression does not provide complete information on their activity. To address this we developed the Continuous-State Hidden Markov Models TF (CSHMM-TF) methods that assigns continuous activation time to TFs based on both, their expression and the expression of their targets. Applying our method to several time series scRNA-Seq datasets we show that it correctly identifies the key regulators for the processes being studied. We analyze the temporal assignments for these TFs and show that they provide new insights about combinatorial regulation and the ordering of TF activation. We used several complementary sources to validate some of these predictions and discuss a number of other novel suggestions based on the method. As we show, the method is able to scale to large and noisy datasets and so is appropriate for several studies utilizing time series scRNA-Seq data.

Application of Computational Biology to Decode Brain Transcriptomes

The rapid development of high-throughput sequencing technologies has generated massive valuable brain transcriptome atlases, providing great opportunities for systematically investigating gene expression characteristics across various brain regions throughout a series of developmental stages. Recent studies have revealed that the transcriptional architecture is the key to interpreting the molecular mechanisms of brain complexity. However, our knowledge of brain transcriptional characteristics remains very limited. With the immense efforts to generate high-quality brain transcriptome atlases, new computational approaches to analyze these high-dimensional multivariate data are greatly needed. In this review, we summarize some public resources for brain transcriptome atlases and discuss the general computational pipelines that are commonly used in this field, which would aid in making new discoveries in brain development and disorders.