The impact of early and late damage to the human amygdala on ‘theory of mind’ reasoning

Navigating Social Waters: Understanding Theory-of-Mind Challenges in Patients with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy

Background: Temporal lobe epilepsy is a common neurological disease that affects many areas of patients' lives, including social competence. The aim of the study was to assess theory of mind in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy and to investigate the demographic and clinical factors associated with this function. Methods: A total of 65 participants took part in the study, which included 44 patients with epilepsy and 21 demographically matched healthy individuals. The following neuropsychological tests were used to examine theory of mind: the Faux Pas Test, the Hinting Task, the Emotion Comprehension Test, and a cognitive function screen, the Montreal Cognitive Assessment. Results: Patients with epilepsy scored lower on all measures of the theory-of-mind tests. Moreover, in the clinical group, numerous moderate and strong correlations were found between the theory-of-mind tests and education, age at onset of epilepsy, lateralization of epileptic focus, cognitive status, and, to a lesser degree, number of anti-epileptic drugs, frequency of seizures, and age. In contrast, in the control group, significant correlations were found mostly between the theory-of-mind tests and sex, and, to a lesser degree, age. Education and cognitive functioning were not associated. Conclusions: Patients with epilepsy experience difficulties in theory of mind, which may have a negative impact on the quality of their social relationships. The level of theory-of-mind abilities correlates with particular clinical and demographic indicators. Recognizing these issues allows clinicians to implement tailored interventions, potentially improving patients' quality of life.

Measures of individual differences in adult theory of mind: A systematic review

Theory of mind (ToM), the ability to understand and reason about mental states, has been extensively studied in young children and clinical populations. A growing interest in examining ToM in adults has emerged over the past two decades, but the extent to which existing measures are suitable for studying adults, especially in detecting individual differences, remains understudied. In this systematic review of 273 studies, 75 measures used to investigate individual differences in adults' ToM were identified. Their sensitivity to individual differences, reliability, and validity were examined. Results suggest that ceiling effects were prevalent, and there was limited evidence to establish the reliability or validity of these measures due to the lack of reports of psychometric properties. Interrelations among measures were inconsistent. These findings highlight the need for future empirical and theoretical work to broaden the evidence base regarding psychometric properties of measures, to develop new measures, and to lay out more specific hypotheses about the relevance of ToM for different social outcomes.

Social cognitive regions of human association cortex are selectively connected to the amygdala

Reasoning about someone's thoughts and intentions - i.e., forming a theory of mind - is an important aspect of social cognition that relies on association areas of the brain that have expanded disproportionately in the human lineage. We recently showed that these association zones comprise parallel distributed networks that, despite occupying adjacent and interdigitated regions, serve dissociable functions. One network is selectively recruited by theory of mind processes. What circuit properties differentiate these parallel networks? Here, we show that social cognitive association areas are intrinsically and selectively connected to regions of the anterior medial temporal lobe that are implicated in emotional learning and social behaviors, including the amygdala at or near the basolateral complex and medial nucleus. The results suggest that social cognitive functions emerge through coordinated activity between amygdala circuits and a distributed association network, and indicate the medial nucleus may play an important role in social cognition in humans.

Social Cognition in Temporal and Frontal Lobe Epilepsy: Systematic Review, Meta-analysis, and Clinical Recommendations

OBJECTIVE

Despite the importance of social cognitive functions to mental health and social adjustment, examination of these functions is absent in routine assessment of epilepsy patients. Thus, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the literature on four major aspects of social cognition among temporal and frontal lobe epilepsy, which is a critical step toward designing new interventions.

METHOD

Papers from 1990 to 2021 were reviewed and examined for inclusion in this study. After the deduplication process, a systematic review and meta-analysis of 44 and 40 articles, respectively, involving 113 people with frontal lobe epilepsy and 1482 people with temporal lobe epilepsy were conducted.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that while patients with frontal or temporal lobe epilepsy have difficulties in all aspects of social cognition relative to nonclinical controls, the effect sizes were larger for theory of mind (g = .95), than for emotion recognition (g = .69) among temporal lobe epilepsy group. The frontal lobe epilepsy group exhibited significantly greater impairment in emotion recognition compared to temporal lobe. Additionally, people with right temporal lobe epilepsy (g =  1.10) performed more poorly than those with a left-sided (g = .90) seizure focus, specifically in the theory of mind domain.

CONCLUSIONS

These data point to a potentially important difference in the severity of deficits within the emotion recognition and theory of mind abilities depending on the laterlization of seizure side. We also suggest a guide for the assessment of impairments in social cognition that can be integrated into multidisciplinary clinical evaluation for people with epilepsy.

Cortico-limbic disruption, material-specificity, and deficits in cognitive-affective theory of mind

The Theory of Mind deficit due to cognitive-affective disintegration is a poorly understood cognitive consequence of cortical and subcortical disruption in right temporal lobe epilepsy. Following Marr's trilevel approach, we used the material-specific processing model to understand the Theory of Mind deficit in drug-resistant epilepsy (N = 30). We examined pre- and post-surgery changes in first-order (somatic-affective, non-verbal component) and second-order Theory of Mind (cognitive-verbal component) in three groups formed using: (i) seizure side (right versus left), (ii) right temporal epilepsy (right temporal lobe epilepsy versus non-right temporal lobe epilepsy), and (iii) right temporal lobe epilepsy with amygdalohippocampectomy (right temporal lobe epilepsy versus left temporal lobe epilepsy amygdalohippocampectomy versus non-amygdalohippocampectomy). We observed a marked deficit in the first-order Theory of Mind in the right temporal lobe amygdalohippocampectomy group; we mapped this deficit to decline in the non-verbal component of Theory of Mind (somatic-affective component). Preliminary results support using a material-specific processing model to understand the Theory of Mind deficits in right temporal lobe epilepsy amygdalohippocampectomy. Malleability of verbal processing in presence of deterioration of non-verbal processing might have clinical relevance for post-surgery recovery in right temporal lobe epilepsy amygdalohippocampectomy. Documenting the material-specific nature of deficits (verbal versus non-verbal) in non-western, linguistically, and socioeconomically diverse country enables us to understand the problem of heterogeneity in post-surgery cognitive consequences in the right amygdalohippocampectomy.

The Puzzle of Functional Recovery in Schizophrenia-Spectrum Disorders-Replicating a Network Analysis Study

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS

Recovery from psychosis is a complex phenomenon determined by an array of variables mutually impacting each other in a manner that is not fully understood. The aim of this study is to perform an approximated replication of a previous network analysis study investigating how different clinical aspects-covering psychopathology, cognition, personal resources, functional capacity, and real-life functioning-are interrelated in the context of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.

STUDY DESIGN

A sample of 843 subjects from a multisite cohort study, with the diagnosis of a schizophrenia-spectrum disorder, was used to estimate a network comprising 27 variables. The connectivity and relative importance of the variables was examined through network analysis. We used a quantitative and qualitative approach to infer replication quality.

STUDY RESULTS

Functional capacity and real-life functioning were central and bridged different domains of the network, in line with the replicated study. Neurocognition, interpersonal relationships, and avolition were also key elements of the network, in close relation to aspects of functioning. Despite significant methodological differences, the current study could substantially replicate previous findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Results solidify the network analysis approach in the context of mental disorders and further inform future studies about key variables in the context of recovery from psychotic disorders.

Amygdala connectivity and implications for social cognition and disorders

The amygdala is a hub of subcortical region that is crucial in a wide array of affective and motivation-related behaviors. While early research contributed significantly to our understanding of this region's extensive connections to other subcortical and cortical regions, recent methodological advances have enabled researchers to better understand the details of these circuits and their behavioral contributions. Much of this work has focused specifically on investigating the role of amygdala circuits in social cognition. In this chapter, we review both long-standing knowledge and novel research on the amygdala's structure, function, and involvement in social cognition. We focus specifically on the amygdala's circuits with the medial prefrontal cortex, the orbitofrontal cortex, and the hippocampus, as these regions share extensive anatomic and functional connections with the amygdala. Furthermore, we discuss how dysfunction in the amygdala may contribute to social deficits in clinical disorders including autism spectrum disorder, social anxiety disorder, and Williams syndrome. We conclude that social functions mediated by the amygdala are orchestrated through multiple intricate interactions between the amygdala and its interconnected brain regions, endorsing the importance of understanding the amygdala from network perspectives.

Theory of mind and facial emotion recognition in adults with temporal lobe epilepsy: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Mounting studies have investigated impairments in social cognitive domains (including theory of mind [ToM] and facial emotion recognition [FER] in adult patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). However, to date, inconsistent findings remain.

METHODS

A search of PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase databases was conducted until December 2021. Hedges g effect sizes were computed with a random-effects model. Meta-regressions were used to assess the potential confounding factors of between-study variability in effect sizes.

RESULTS

The meta-analysis included 41 studies, with a combined sample of 1,749 adult patients with TLE and 1,324 healthy controls (HCs). Relative to HCs, adult patients with TLE showed large impairments in ToM (g = -0.92) and cognitive ToM (g = -0.92), followed by medium impairments in affective ToM (g = -0.79) and FER (g = -0.77). Besides, no (statistically) significant differences were observed between the magnitude of social cognition impairment in adult with TLE who underwent and those who did not undergo epilepsy surgery. Meta-regressions exhibited that greater severity of executive functioning was associated with more severe ToM defects, and older age was associated with more severe FER defects.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of this meta-analysis suggest that adult patients with TLE show differential impairments in the core aspects of social cognitive domains (including ToM and FER), which may help in planning individualized treatment with appropriate cognitive and behavioral interventions.

Affective Empathy, Theory of Mind and Social Functioning in Patients With Focal Epilepsy

OBJECTIVE

Social cognition comprises basic and more complex functions, such as theory of mind (ToM) and affective empathy. Although everyday social interactions may be impaired if such higher-order social cognitive functions are compromised, associations between social functioning and social cognition in people with focal epilepsy (PWFE) are still poorly understood. We used a novel, naturalistic approach to investigate ToM in PWFE by applying the Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition (MASC). Furthermore, we studied affective empathy, the relationship between social cognitive parameters and measures of social functioning, as well as between epilepsy focus and ToM.

METHODS

Thirty patients with either temporal (TLE) or frontal lobe epilepsy (FLE) were compared to 29 healthy control subjects (HC). In addition to the MASC, we applied questionnaire measures assessing empathy and everyday social functioning.

RESULTS

PWFE, especially with FLE, performed significantly worse than HC on the MASC. Perceived social integration and social activities, but not affective empathy, were reduced in PWFE. Regression analyses revealed associations between perceived social integration, clinical group status, affective empathy and ToM.

CONCLUSION

PWFE displayed ToM deficits during a naturalistic task, whereas affective empathy was unimpaired. FLE may be associated with especially compromised ToM performance. Social cognition and social functioning appear to be interrelated in PWFE, whose self-perceived levels of social integration and social activities are lower than those of HC. More research into the association between social cognition and social functioning in PWFE is needed, in order to develop tailored intervention programs for these patients.

Theory of Mind and Empathy in Adults With Epilepsy: A Meta-Analysis

Mounting evidence suggests that social cognitive abilities [including theory of mind (ToM) and empathy] are impaired in adult patients with epilepsy. Although the deficits in overall ToM in epilepsy have been documented well, the effects of epilepsy on empathic ability and specific subcomponents of ToM remain unclear. The primary aim of this study was to provide the first meta-analytic integration of ToM and empathy in adult patients with epilepsy, and to decompose these constructs to clearly differentiate their distinct (cognitive ToM and affective empathy) and overlapping (affective ToM/cognitive empathy) components. This meta-analysis included 28 studies. Adult patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) and frontal lobe epilepsy (FLE) showed impairments in cognitive ToM and affective ToM/cognitive empathy compared to the healthy controls (HCs); no group differences were identified for affective empathy. Besides, cognitive ToM was impaired in adult patients with idiopathic generalized epilepsy (IGE) and focal seizures (caused by epileptogenic foci) outside the temporal and frontal lobes (extra-TLE/FLE) and no group differences were evident for affective ToM/cognitive empathy compared to the HCs. Moreover, relative to the HCs, no group differences were identified for affective empathy in adult patients with IGE. Additionally, no (statistically) significant difference was observed between the magnitude of ToM/empathy impairment in adult patients who underwent and those who did not undergo epilepsy surgery. These quantitative findings suggest differential impairment of the core aspects of social cognitive processing in adult patients with epilepsy, which may contribute to the development of structured cognitive interventions (i.e., social cognitive training) for adult patients with epilepsy.

The relationship between alexithymia and theory of mind: A systematic review

Theory of Mind (ToM), the ability to represent the mental states of oneself and others, is an essential social skill disrupted across many psychiatric conditions. The transdiagnostic nature of ToM impairment means it is plausible that ToM impairment is related to alexithymia (difficulties identifying and describing one's own emotions), as alexithymia is seen across psychiatric conditions. Whilst many studies have examined links between alexithymia and ToM, results are mixed. Therefore, the purpose of this systematic review is to provide a taxonomy of ToM tests and assess their relationship with alexithymia. Tests are grouped according to whether they assess propensity to engage spontaneously in ToM or accuracy of ToM inferences, with tests further subdivided into those that do, and do not, require emotion recognition. A review of 63 suitable studies suggests that alexithymia is often associated with reduced ToM, and inaccurate ToM when tasks require emotion recognition. This latter finding appears due to impaired emotion recognition, rather than ToM impairment per se. Further directions and considerations for future research are discussed.

Case of Asperger's Syndrome and Lesion of the Right Amygdala: Deficits in Implicit and Explicit Fearful Face Recognition

Introduction: Studies of brain-damaged patients revealed that amygdala lesions cause deficits in the processing and recognition of emotional faces. Patients with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have similar deficits also related to dysfunctions of the limbic system including the amygdala.

Methods: We investigated a male patient who had been diagnosed with Asperger's syndrome. He also presented with a lesion of the right mesial temporal cortex, including the amygdala. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate neuronal processing during a passive viewing task of implicit and explicit emotional faces. Clinical assessment included a facial emotion recognition task.

Results: There was no amygdala activation on both sides during the presentation of masked emotional faces compared to the no-face control condition. Presentation of unmasked happy and angry faces activated the left amygdala compared to the no-face control condition. There was no amygdala activation in response to unmasked fearful faces on both sides. In the facial emotion recognition task, the patient biased positive and neutral expressions as negative.

Conclusions: This case report describes a male patient with right amygdala damage and an ASD. He displayed a non-response of the amygdala to fearful faces and tended to misinterpret fearful expressions. Moreover, a non-reactivity of both amygdalae to emotional facial expressions at an implicit processing level was revealed. It is discussed whether the deficient implicit processing of facial emotional information and abnormalities in fear processing could contribute and aggravate the patient's impairments in social behavior and interaction.

Diversified social cognition in temporal lobe epilepsy

OBJECTIVES

In an integrated model of social cognition (SC), the theory of mind (ToM), the recognition of behavior in social situations (RBSS), empathy, and sensitivity to moral and conventional rules (SMCR) cooperate in generating mental representations of the interpersonal relationships. The aim of this study was to extend our knowledge of the SC of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients by characterizing its various aspects and predictors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty adult patients with TLE and 50 healthy controls were assessed using ToM, RBSS and SMCR neuropsychological tests, the Empathy Questionnaire, and the psychopathology Symptoms Check List 90R (SCL90-R).

RESULTS

Patients and controls were similar in terms of occupation, income level, age, sex, marital status and the number of family members. Multivariate analysis of variance with demographic variables as the covariates showed that they were similar in SMCR and empathy. The patients, conversely, had lower ToM and RBSS scores, and higher scores on the SCL90-R psychoticism, depression, paranoid ideation, obsessive-compulsive, somatization and anxiety scales. Impaired RBSS was predicted by psychopathological symptoms, income level, schooling and the duration of epilepsy; ToM related to TLE laterality, seizure frequency and epilepsy duration.

CONCLUSIONS

In adult patients with TLE, SC is simultaneously partially impaired and partially preserved, and the fact this is associated with clinical, demographic and psychological variables suggests that SC depends on the integrity of the temporal lobe and the interconnected brain regions, as well as psychosocial stimuli. This approach may contribute to clarify the neurobehavioural phenotype of TLE.

On the (lack of) association between theory of mind and executive functions: a study in a non-clinical adult sample

We investigated in a sample of non-clinical adults the association between Theory of Mind (ToM) and Executive Functions (EFs), that is the set of skills that allow people to control and modulate lower-level cognitive processes in order to produce appropriate behaviour. To this aim, we assessed both affective (i.e., understanding other people's emotions and feelings) and cognitive (i.e., understanding others' beliefs and intentions) ToM, as well four subcomponents of EFs, that is Updating, Shifting, Inhibition, and Access. The association between ToM and non-verbal fluid intelligence, verbal reasoning, and cognitive estimation abilities was also investigated. Eighty-one healthy participants were recruited, and a set of psychometrically validated tests was administered. Multiple regression analyses were run to assess significant predictors of ToM performance when potentially confounding predictors (sociodemographic variables) were controlled for. Results showed a lack of association between affective/cognitive ToM and EFs, whereas non-verbal fluid intelligence for cognitive ToM and verbal reasoning for affective ToM were found to be significant predictors of ToM performance. These results represent a contribution toward a deeper understanding of the ToM-EFs relationships and highlight the importance of broadening the analysis of these relationships to the role played by other domain-general functions in both affective and cognitive ToM.

Social brain dysfunctionality in individuals with autism spectrum disorder and their first-degree relatives: An activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis

The social brain hypothesis is regarded as a powerful theory to understand social cognition. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have specific deficits in social and communicative behavior, but the exact relationship between these deficits and abnormalities in the social brain remains unclear. The high heritability of this disorder makes it important to focus on the first-degree relatives of those affected. Research focusing on genetically at-risk (yet healthy) relatives of patients with ASD is critical to the study of neuroimaging endophenotypes. We conducted a voxel-wise activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis of 9 functional neuroimaging studies published during the period from 2006 to 2018. These studies included 200 individuals with ASD, 216 unaffected family members (UF), and 235 typical development controls (TD). The voxel-wise significance threshold was p < 0.01 (uncorrected p = 0.001).The ALE meta-analyses showed hyperactivation in the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and superior temporal gyrus (STG) among individuals with ASD and UF, compared with TD individuals. Group comparisons showed greater likelihood of hyperactivation in the amygdala for ASD, compared with UF and TD.

Expressive deficits and amotivation as mediators of the associations between cognitive problems and functional outcomes: Results from two independent cohorts

Many individuals with severe mental disorders have difficulties in vocational and social functioning, which are regarded the most important outcomes, together with clinical symptoms. To understand the underlying mechanisms, research is increasingly focused on factors influencing functional outcomes. One established association has been shown between cognition and community functioning with negative symptoms as a possible mediator. Although it has been shown that negative symptoms consist of two subdomains, thus far negative symptoms have been assessed as one unitary construct. This study considers for the first time subdomains of negative symptoms as putative mediators (expressive deficits, amotivation) of the association between cognition (neuro- and social cognition) and functional outcome (living situation, occupation, social functioning). We expected that specific subdomains of negative symptoms (e.g. amotivation) would mediate the effect of cognition on specific functional outcomes (e.g. social functioning) independently from illness duration. To assess this, we included two independent cohorts, consisting of participants with different illness duration. These two independent cohorts consisted of patients with a recent-onset psychotic disorder: PROGR-S (first time treated; N = 1129) and GROUP (illness duration preferably <5 years; N = 1200). Using linear regression, mediation analyses were performed with two cognition domains (neurocognition and social cognition) as predictors, negative symptoms (Expressive deficits and Amotivation as indexed with items from the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale) as mediators and three measures of functional outcomes (living situation, occupation and social functioning) as outcome measures. The analyses were repeated with the same outcome measures three years later. Three main results were obtained. I) Both in the cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, the associations of neurocognition (both cohorts) and social cognition (GROUP) with social functioning were mediated by amotivation. II) The association between cognition and living situation was mediated by Expressive deficits in one cohort (GROUP) but not in the cohort assessing first-episode psychosis (PROGR-S). III) The association between cognition and occupation was mediated by Amotivation in PROGR-S and by Expressive deficits in GROUP. CONCLUSION: The current results show a less robust mediating role for specific negative symptom domains regarding the associations of cognition with occupation and living situation that may depend on the duration of psychotic illness. However, Amotivation, mediates the association between cognition and social functioning, which holds true for patients experiencing a first-onset and patients with a longer illness duration alike. The results may have implications for the development of therapeutic approaches focusing on amotivation to improve social functioning. GENERAL SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY: This study stresses the importance of distinguishing subdomains of negative symptoms, cognition and functioning. Our results show that specific negative symptom dimensions mediate the effects of cognition on specific functional outcomes.

Resting-State Functional Correlates of Social Cognition in Multiple Sclerosis: An Explorative Study

Social cognition includes mental operations essential for functional social interactions, and several studies revealed an impairment of social cognition abilities in patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS). These deficits have been related to global and focal gray matter atrophy as well as microstructural white matter damage. Although some studies reveal a correlation between social cognition and task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), no studies to date have explored the association between brain resting-state functional connectivity (RS-FC) abnormalities and several measures of social cognition in MS. The aim of this explorative study was to assess the contribution of RS-FC abnormalities of major brain networks to social cognition in MS patients. Clinical, neuropsychological, and MRI data were collected from 41 non-depressed and cognitively preserved relapsing-remitting MS patients (mean disease duration = 8.8 ± 8.2 years; median Expanded Disability Status Scale = 1.5, range 0–6.5) and 25 matched healthy controls (HCs). The ToM Pictures Sequencing Task (TMPS) and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task were employed to evaluate social cognition. All participants underwent a structural MRI and RS functional MRI 3T protocol. Regional gray matter atrophy was measured, and FCs of the default mode (DMN), right and left fronto-parietal, executive (EN), salience, cerebellar, and limbic (LN) networks were evaluated by independent component analysis (ICA). Differences on TMPS were found between MS patients and HC (MS < HC). In the MS group, associations were found between right middle temporal gyrus FC (in the DMN) and reciprocity subscale of TMPS, posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) FC (in the DMN) and first-order false-belief subscale of TMPS, cingulate gyrus FC (in the EN) and TMPS as well as reciprocity subscale of TMPS, and right superior temporal gyrus (in the LN) and reciprocity subscale of TMPS. All detected RS-FC changes did not co-localize with regional gray matter atrophy. The results suggest an association between social cognition and RS-FC changes of DMN, EN, and LN in MS. Future studies should further explore the possible adaptive or maladaptive mechanisms of these FC abnormalities in MS.

Children with Behavioural Problems Misinterpret the Emotions and Intentions of Others

Research indicates that the misinterpretation of other's emotions or intentions may lead to antisocial behaviour. This study investigated emotion and intention recognition in children with behavioural problems and examined their relationship and relations with behaviour problem severity. Participants were 7-11 year old children with behavioural problems (n = 93, mean age: 8.78, 82.8% male) who were taking part in an early intervention program and typically developing controls (n = 44, mean age: 9.82, 79.5% male). Participants completed emotion recognition and Theory of Mind tasks. Teachers and parents rated children's emotional and behavioural problems. Children with behavioural problems showed impaired emotion and intention recognition. Emotion recognition and intention recognition were positively related and inversely associated with behavioural problem severity and, independently of one another, predicted behavioural problems. This study is the first to show that children with behavioural problems are impaired in identifying others' emotions as well as intentions. These social cognitive processes were found to be related and inversely associated with severity of behavioural problems. This has important implications for intervention and prevention programmes for children with behavioural difficulties.

Theory of mind across lifespan from ages 16 to 81 years

PURPOSE

Impaired theory of mind (ToM) is a neurobehavioral phenotype of epilepsy. Given that the age transitions affect cognitive development and decline, it is important to refine ToM across the lifespan. This study evaluated ToM in healthy subjects, taking into account education, gender, and other functions, aiming to clarify its specificity and relationships to major demographic and cognitive domains.

METHODS

A hundred and seventy subjects from ages 16 to 81 years (68 men) who received five to 17 years of schooling were evaluated using a Faux Pas Task (FPT) that is solved at the end of childhood and is highly sensitive to brain damage and tests for language, memory, praxis, visual perception, initiative, attention, shifting, and planning. Factor analysis, analysis of variance, and correlation and regression analyses were used to assess the data.

RESULTS

The analysis yielded six factors: Beliefs, Delusions, and Facts, which express the understanding of mental states and contextual details; Matching-Learning, Executive, and Working Memory. On this basis, six composite scores (CSs) were computed. Age and schooling showed significant effects on the Matching-Learning, Executive, and Working Memory CSs. The FPT raw scores and CSs were unrelated to age or schooling, while females showed better performance than males. The Beliefs CS and FPT scores were predicted by the Executive, Working Memory, Delusions, and Facts CSs and gender.

CONCLUSIONS

Theory of mind is a specific cognitive domain independent of age and formal education, but related to gender. Working memory, executive functions, and reality examination support some ToM processes. These findings may provide reference points against which impairment can be assessed. This article is part of the Special Issue "Epilepsy and social cognition across the lifespan".

Social cognition in idiopathic generalized epilepsies and potential neuroanatomical correlates

Social cognition allows us to elaborate mental representations of social relationships and use them appropriately in a social environment. One of its main attributes is the so-called Theory of Mind (ToM), which consists of the ability to attribute beliefs, intentions, emotions, and feelings to self and others. Investigating social cognition may help understand the poor social outcome often experienced by persons with Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsies (IGE), who otherwise present with normal intelligence. In recent years, several studies have addressed social cognition in subjects with focal epilepsies, while literature on social cognition in IGE is scarce, and findings are often conflicting. Some studies on samples of patients with mixed IGE showed difficulties in emotion attribution tasks, which were not replicated in a homogeneous population of patients with Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy alone. Impairment of higher order social skills, such as those assessed by Strange Stories Test and Faux Pas Tasks, were consistently found by different studies on mixed IGE, suggesting that this may be a more distinctive IGE-associated trait, irrespective of the specific syndrome subtype. Though an interplay between social cognition and executive functions (EF) was suggested by several authors, and their simultaneous impairment was shown in several epilepsy syndromes including IGE, no formal correlations among the two domains were identified in most studies. People with IGE exhibit subtle brain structural alterations in areas potentially involved in sociocognitive functional networks, including mesial prefrontal and temporoparietal cortices, which may relate to impairment in social cognition. Heterogeneity in patient samples, mostly consisting of groups with mixed IGE, and lack of analyses in specific IGE subsyndromes, represent evident limitations of the current literature. Larger studies, focusing on specific subsyndromes and implementing standardized test batteries, will improve our understanding of sociocognitive processing in IGE. Concomitant high-resolution structural and functional neuroimaging may aid the identification of its neural correlates. This article is part of the Special Issue "Epilepsy and social cognition across the lifespan".

What Do You Have in Mind? Measures to Assess Mental State Reasoning in Neuropsychiatric Populations

Social interaction is closely associated with both functional capacity and well-being. Previous research has not only revealed evidence of social dysfunction in individuals with a wide range of psychiatric and neurological disorders but also generated an abundance of potential measures for assessing social cognition. This review explores the most popular measures used within neuropsychiatric populations to investigate the ability to recognize or reason about the mental states of others. Measures are also critically analyzed in terms of strengths and limitations to aid task selection in future clinical studies. The most frequently applied assessment tools use verbal, visual or audiovisual forms of presentation and assess recognition of mental states from facial features, self-rated empathy, the understanding of other's cognitive mental states such as beliefs and intentions, or the ability to combine knowledge of other's thoughts and emotions in order to understand subtle communications or socially inappropriate behavior. Key weaknesses of previous research include limited investigation of relationships with clinical symptoms, and underutilization of measures of everyday social functioning that offer a useful counterpart to traditional "lab" tasks. Future studies should aim to carefully select measures not only based on the range of skills to be assessed but also taking into account potential difficulties with interpretation and the need to gain insight into the application of social cognitive skills as well as ability per se. Some of the best measures include those with well-matched control trials (e.g., Yoni Task) or those that restrict the influence of verbal deficits (e.g., intentions comic strip task), elicit spontaneous mentalizing (e.g., Animations Task), and possess greater ecological validity (e.g., Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition). Social cognitive research within psychiatric populations will be further enhanced through the development of more closely matched control tasks, and the exploration of relationships between task performance, medication, strategy use, and broader emotional and motor functions.

The relationship between "Eyes Reading" ability and verbal memory in bipolar disorder

In psychiatric disorders, neurocognitive impairments are prevalent and have been associated with poor outcome. Deficits in Theory of Mind (ToM, "mentalising") have also been observed in bipolar disorder (BD); however, the literature shows inconsistent data. The aim of this study was to explore ToM performance in a well-characterized sample of euthymic individuals with BD and its relationship with neurocognitive function. One hundred sixteen euthymic patients with BD between 18 and 74 years (mean age = 42.4, SD = 13.8) and 79 healthy controls (mean age = 39.8, SD = 16.5) were investigated with an extensive neurocognitive test battery (Trail Making Test A/B, d2 Test of Attention, Stroop Color-Word Test, California Verbal Learning Test, Multiple Choice Vocabulary Test). Additionally, all participants were given the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) to measure affective ToM, the ability to make assumptions about other people´s feelings. Overall, "Eyes Reading" performance was not impaired in individuals with BD compared with controls. However, a significant relationship between RMET and verbal memory in BD was shown, particularly in males. Data showed worse RMET performance in patients with memory deficits compared to patients without memory deficits and controls. Due to cross-sectional data, no conclusions can be made with respect to cause and effect.

The relationship of IQ and emotional processing with insula volume in schizophrenia

OBJECTIVE

The insula is involved in general and social cognition, in particular emotion regulation. Aim of this study is to investigate whether insula volume is associated with Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and emotional processing in schizophrenia patients versus healthy controls (HC).

METHODS

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scans, IQ and emotional processing tests (Benton Facial Recognition Test [BFRT], Degraded Facial Affect Recognition Task [DFAR], Emotional Mentalizing Task [EMT]) were administered in 246 subjects (133 schizophrenia patients and 113 controls). First order linear regression analyses were performed with group as independent variable and IQ/emotional processing test scores as dependent variables. Second order stepwise linear regression analyses were performed with IQ/emotional processing test scores as independent variables (as well as intracranial volumes, age, gender and cannabis abuse) and right/left insula volumes as dependent ones. A final mediation analysis (Sobel test) was performed to verify if IQ or emotional processing test scores could explain the eventual differences in insula volumes between the two groups.

RESULTS

Schizophrenia patients presented lower insula volumes (left: F = 9.72, p < 0.01; right: F = 10.93, p < 0.01) as compared with healthy controls. Smaller insula volumes in schizophrenia patients are mediated by lower IQ scores (Sobel tests: 3.07, p < 0.01 for right insula; 2.72, p < 0.01 for left insula), but not by impairments in emotion processing.

CONCLUSIONS

IQ, but not emotional processing mediates smaller insula volumes in schizophrenia patients.

Theory of Mind impairment in focal versus generalized epilepsy

Theory of Mind (ToM) is a critical component of social cognition, and thus, its impairment may adversely affect social functioning and quality of life. Recent evidence has suggested that it is impaired in epilepsy. What is not clear, however, is whether it is related to particular types of epilepsy or other factors. We undertook the present study to explore ToM in patients with focal versus those with generalized epilepsy, the particular pattern of ToM deficits, and the potential influence of antiepileptic medication load. Our sample included 149 adults: 79 patients with epilepsy (34 with generalized epilepsy and 45 with focal epilepsy) and 70 healthy controls. Theory of Mind tasks included a) comprehension of hinting, b) comprehension of sarcasm and metaphor, c) comprehension of false beliefs and deception, d) recognition of faux pas, and e) a visual ToM task in cartoon form. We found significant ToM impairment in the group with focal epilepsy relative to the performance of both the healthy group and the group with generalized epilepsy on all tasks, with the exception of faux pas, on which the group with generalized epilepsy also performed more poorly than the healthy group. Additionally, early age at seizure onset, but not antiepileptic drug (AED) load, was associated with ToM performance. Our findings suggest that focal temporal and frontal lobe, but not generalized, epilepsies were associated with impaired ToM. This may reflect the neuroanatomical abnormalities in the relevant neuronal networks and may have implications for differential cognitive-behavioral interventions based on epilepsy type.

Human amygdala functional network development: A cross-sectional study from 3 months to 5 years of age

Although the amygdala's role in shaping social behavior is especially important during early post-natal development, very little is known of amygdala functional development before childhood. To address this gap, this study uses resting-state fMRI to examine early amygdalar functional network development in a cross-sectional sample of 80 children from 3-months to 5-years of age. Whole brain functional connectivity with the amygdala, and its laterobasal and superficial sub-regions, were largely similar to those seen in older children and adults. Functional distinctions between sub-region networks were already established. These patterns suggest many amygdala functional circuits are intact from infancy, especially those that are part of motor, visual, auditory and subcortical networks. Developmental changes in connectivity were observed between the laterobasal nucleus and bilateral ventral temporal and motor cortex as well as between the superficial nuclei and medial thalamus, occipital cortex and a different region of motor cortex. These results show amygdala-subcortical and sensory-cortex connectivity begins refinement prior to childhood, though connectivity changes with associative and frontal cortical areas, seen after early childhood, were not evident in this age range. These findings represent early steps in understanding amygdala network dynamics across infancy through early childhood, an important period of emotional and cognitive development.

Normal sexual dimorphism in theory of mind circuitry is reversed in Schizophrenia

The ability to mentalize, or theory of mind (ToM), is sexually dimorphic in humans and impaired in schizophrenia. This sex-stratified study probed cognitive (indexed by intelligence) and affective (indexed by olfactory tasks) contributions to ToM performance in 37 individuals with schizophrenia and 31 healthy controls. The schizophrenia group showed impairments in mental state identification and inferring intentions compared to controls. Higher intelligence was correlated with mental state identification and inferring intentions in healthy females, whereas better smell identification was associated with mental state identification in healthy males. Conversely, higher intelligence was associated with mental state identification and inferring intentions in schizophrenia males, while better smell identification was correlated with mental state identification in schizophrenia females. These findings suggest that for ToM circuitry, the cognitive influences in healthy females and affective influences in healthy males are reversed in schizophrenia and may be displaced to lower circuitries by disease pathology. Symptom associations with emotion and cognition are also dimorphic, plausibly due to similar pathology superimposed on normal sex-specific circuitries. Males appear to rely on limbic processing for ToM, and disruption to this circuitry may contribute to development of negative symptoms. These findings highlight the importance of utilizing sex-stratified designs in schizophrenia research.

Associations between olfactory identification and (social) cognitive functioning: A cross-sectional study in schizophrenia patients and healthy controls

Schizophrenia patients have difficulties identifying odors, possibly a marker of cognitive and social impairment. This study investigated olfactory identification (OI) differences between patients and controls, related to cognitive and social functioning in childhood and adolescence, to present state cognition and to present state social cognition. 132 schizophrenia patients and 128 healthy controls were assessed on OI performance with the Sniffin' Sticks task. Multiple regression analyses were conducted investigating OI in association with cognitive and social functioning measures in childhood/adolescence and in association with IQ, memory, processing speed, attention, executive functioning, face recognition, emotion recognition and theory of mind. Patients had reduced OI performance compared to controls. Also, patients scored worse on childhood/adolescence cognitive and social functioning, on present state cognitive functioning and present state social cognition compared to controls. OI in patients and controls was significantly related to cognitive and social functioning in childhood/adolescence, to present state cognition and to present state social cognition, with worse functioning being associated with worse OI. In this study, findings of worse OI in patients relative to controls were replicated. We also showed associations between OI and cognitive and social functioning which are not specific to schizophrenia.

RDoC-based categorization of amygdala functions and its implications in autism

Confusion endures as to the exact role of the amygdala in relation to autism. To help resolve this we turned to the NIMH's Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) which provides a classification schema that identifies different categories of behaviors that can turn pathologic in mental health disorders, e.g. autism. While RDoC incorporates all the known neurobiological substrates for each domain, this review will focus primarily on the amygdala. We first consider the amygdala from an anatomical, historical, and developmental perspective. Next, we examine the different domains and constructs of RDoC that the amygdala is involved in: Negative Valence Systems, Positive Valence Systems, Cognitive Systems, Social Processes, and Arousal and Regulatory Systems. Then the evidence for a dysfunctional amygdala in autism is presented with a focus on alterations in development, prenatal valproic acid exposure as a model for ASD, and changes in the oxytocin system therein. Finally, a synthesis of RDoC, the amygdala, and autism is offered, emphasizing the task of disambiguation and suggestions for future research.

Let's chat: developmental neural bases of social motivation during real-time peer interaction

Humans are motivated to interact with each other, but the neural bases of social motivation have been predominantly examined in non-interactive contexts. Understanding real-world social motivation is of special importance during middle childhood (ages 8-12), a period when social skills improve, social networks grow, and social brain networks specialize. To assess interactive social motivation, the current study used a novel fMRI paradigm in which children believed they were chatting with a peer. The design targeted two phases of interaction: (1) Initiation, in which children engaged in a social bid via sharing a like or hobby, and (2) Reply, in which children received either an engaged ("Me too") or non-engaged ("I'm away") reply from the peer. On control trials, children were told that their answers were not shared and that they would receive either engaged ("Matched") or non-engaged ("Disconnected") replies from the computer. Results indicated that during Initiation and Reply, key components of reward circuitry (e.g., ventral striatum) were more active for the peer than the computer trials. In addition, during Reply, social cognitive regions were more activated by the peer, and this social cognitive specialization increased with age. Finally, the effect of engagement type on reward circuitry activation was larger for social than non-social trials, indicating developmental sensitivity to social contingency. These findings demonstrate that both reward and social cognitive brain systems support real-time social interaction in middle childhood. An interactive approach to understanding social reward has implications for clinical disorders, where social motivation is more affected in real-world contexts.

Potential effects of severe bilateral amygdala damage on psychopathic personality features: A case report

The fearlessness model posits that psychopathy is underpinned by a deficiency in the capacity to experience fear, predisposing to other features of the condition, such as superficial charm, guiltlessness, callousness, narcissism, and dishonesty. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether fearlessness is irrelevant, necessary, sufficient, or merely contributory to psychopathy. In the present case study, we sought to examine the fearlessness model by studying an extensively investigated female patient-S. M.-who experienced early emerging bilateral calcifications of the amygdala, resulting in a virtual absence of fear. We aimed to replicate findings regarding S. M.'s deficient experience of self-reported fear and examine her levels of triarchic psychopathy dimensions (boldness, meanness, disinhibition). We also examined S. M.'s history of heroic behaviors given conjectures that fearlessness contributes to both heroism and psychopathy. Compared with population-based norms, S. M. reported deficient levels of self-reported fear and self-control, as well as elevated levels of heroism. She did not, however, exhibit elevated levels of the core affective deficits of psychopathy, as reflected in measures of coldheartedness and meanness. These findings suggest that severe fear deficits may be insufficient to yield the full clinical picture of psychopathy, although they do not preclude the possibility that these deficits are necessary. (PsycINFO Database Record

Perceived Gaze Direction Modulates Neural Processing of Prosocial Decision Making

Gaze direction is a common social cue implying potential interpersonal interaction. However, little is known about the neural processing of social decision making influenced by perceived gaze direction. Here, we employed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) method to investigate 27 females when they were engaging in an economic exchange game task during which photos of direct or averted eye gaze were shown. We found that, when averted but not direct gaze was presented, prosocial vs. selfish choices were associated with stronger activations in the right superior temporal gyrus (STG) as well as larger functional couplings between right STG and the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC). Moreover, stronger activations in right STG was associated with quicker actions for making prosocial choice accompanied with averted gaze. The findings suggest that, when the cue implying social contact is absent, the processing of understanding others’ intention and the relationship between self and others is more involved for making prosocial than selfish decisions. These findings could advance our understanding of the roles of subtle cues in influencing prosocial decision making, as well as shedding lights on deficient social cue processing and functioning among individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Interactions Between Oxytocin Receptor Gene Methylation and Callous-Unemotional Traits Impact Socioaffective Brain Systems in Conduct-Disordered Offenders

BACKGROUND

The developmental trajectory of psychopathy seemingly begins early in life and includes the presence of callous-unemotional (CU) traits (e.g., perturbed socioaffective reactivity and empathy, callousness) in youths with conduct disorder (CD). Whereas oxytocin receptor gene methylation (OXTR_Meth) and its downstream neuromodulatory effects are deemed relevant to CU traits, nothing is known of how OXTR_Meth interacts with CU traits to impact socioaffective brain systems in youngsters with CD.

METHODS

Hence, we uniquely probed OXTR_Meth × CU trait interactions on corticolimbic activity and amygdala subregional connections during recognition and resonance of distressing socioaffective stimuli (angry and fearful faces), in juvenile offenders with CD (n = 39) versus matched healthy control youths (n = 27).

RESULTS

Relative to healthy control youths, elevated OXTR_Meth and CU levels in youths with CD essentially interacted to predict frontoparietal hyperactivity and amygdalo-frontoparietal disconnection during task performance. Specifically, increasing OXTR_Meth and CU levels in youths with CD interactively predicted midcingulate hyperactivity during both emotion conditions, with insular, temporoparietal, and precuneal hyperactivity additionally emerging during emotion recognition. Interactions between high OXTR_Meth and CU levels in youths with CD additionally predicted centromedial amygdala decoupling from ventromedial/orbitofrontal regions during emotion recognition, along with basolateral amygdala decoupling from precuneal and temporoparietal cortices during emotion resonance.

CONCLUSIONS

These results uniquely suggest that interactions between OXTR_Meth and CU traits in youths with CD may affect brain systems critical to decoding and integrating socioaffective information. Developmental models of CU traits and psychopathy could thus possibly advance by further examining OXTR epigenetic effects, which may hold promise for indicated prevention and personalized treatment by targeting oxytocinergic function.

Structural connectivity of the amygdala in young adults with autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by impairments in social cognition, a function associated with the amygdala. Subdivisions of the amygdala have been identified which show specificity of structure, connectivity, and function. Little is known about amygdala connectivity in ASD. The aim of this study was to investigate the microstructural properties of amygdala-cortical connections and their association with ASD behaviours, and whether connectivity of specific amygdala subregions is associated with particular ASD traits. The brains of 51 high-functioning young adults (25 with ASD; 26 controls) were scanned using MRI. Amygdala volume was measured, and amygdala-cortical connectivity estimated using probabilistic tractography. An iterative 'winner takes all' algorithm was used to parcellate the amygdala based on its primary cortical connections. Measures of amygdala connectivity were correlated with clinical scores. In comparison with controls, amygdala volume was greater in ASD (F(1,94) = 4.19; p = .04). In white matter (WM) tracts connecting the right amygdala to the right cortex, ASD subjects showed increased mean diffusivity (t = 2.35; p = .05), which correlated with the severity of emotion recognition deficits (rho = -0.53; p = .01). Following amygdala parcellation, in ASD subjects reduced fractional anisotropy in WM connecting the left amygdala to the temporal cortex was associated with with greater attention switching impairment (rho = -0.61; p = .02). This study demonstrates that both amygdala volume and the microstructure of connections between the amygdala and the cortex are altered in ASD. Findings indicate that the microstructure of right amygdala WM tracts are associated with overall ASD severity, but that investigation of amygdala subregions can identify more specific associations.

The role of oxytocin in the pathogenesis and treatment of schizophrenia

Introduction: Until recently, oxytocin was mainly associated with the pathophysiology of childbirth and sexual functions, but lately this hormone has become the object of interest to psychiatry and psychology due to the significant influence of oxytocin on human behavior in the field of social and emotional functioning. Current scientific research focuses on the participation of oxytocin in the pathogenesis and therapy of mental disorders.

Aim: The aim of the paper is to present, on the basis of available literature, the significance of oxytocin for various psychological functions, with particular emphasis on the influence of oxytocin on the course and clinical picture of schizophrenia.

Method: Available articles from the Medline / PubMed database were analyzed, which were searched using keywords: oxytocin, schizophrenia, therapeutic use of oxytocin, social cognition, positive symptoms, negative symptoms and time descriptors: 2013-2017. There are included articles published in Polish and English.

Results:The research results carried out so far suggest that oxytocin plays a significant role in modulating complex socio-emotional behaviors in schizophrenic patients. The existing research results also indicate a relationship between the dysregulation of the oxytocinergic system and the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Many of the studies prove that there is a relationship between the level of oxytocin in the patients' blood plasma and the severity of the disease symptoms. Recent genetic studies indicate a possible relationship between polymorphism of oxytocin genesand polymorphism of oxytocin receptor genes and the risk of developing schizophrenia.

Conclusions: Contemporary research on the therapeutic potential of oxytocin and its influence on the functioning of schizophrenia patients seem to be very promising and may contribute to increasing the effectiveness of treatment of schizophrenia and possibly other mental disorders, which in turn will improve the quality of life of patients in cognitive, social and emotional functioning.

Uncovering the neuroanatomical correlates of cognitive, affective and conative theory of mind in paediatric traumatic brain injury: a neural systems perspective

Deficits in theory of mind (ToM) are common after neurological insult acquired in the first and second decade of life, however the contribution of large-scale neural networks to ToM deficits in children with brain injury is unclear. Using paediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) as a model, this study investigated the sub-acute effect of paediatric traumatic brain injury on grey-matter volume of three large-scale, domain-general brain networks (the Default Mode Network, DMN; the Central Executive Network, CEN; and the Salience Network, SN), as well as two domain-specific neural networks implicated in social-affective processes (the Cerebro-Cerebellar Mentalizing Network, CCMN and the Mirror Neuron/Empathy Network, MNEN). We also evaluated prospective structure-function relationships between these large-scale neural networks and cognitive, affective and conative ToM. 3D T1- weighted magnetic resonance imaging sequences were acquired sub-acutely in 137 children [TBI: n = 103; typically developing (TD) children: n = 34]. All children were assessed on measures of ToM at 24-months post-injury. Children with severe TBI showed sub-acute volumetric reductions in the CCMN, SN, MNEN, CEN and DMN, as well as reduced grey-matter volumes of several hub regions of these neural networks. Volumetric reductions in the CCMN and several of its hub regions, including the cerebellum, predicted poorer cognitive ToM. In contrast, poorer affective and conative ToM were predicted by volumetric reductions in the SN and MNEN, respectively. Overall, results suggest that cognitive, affective and conative ToM may be prospectively predicted by individual differences in structure of different neural systems-the CCMN, SN and MNEN, respectively. The prospective relationship between cerebellar volume and cognitive ToM outcomes is a novel finding in our paediatric brain injury sample and suggests that the cerebellum may play a role in the neural networks important for ToM. These findings are discussed in relation to neurocognitive models of ToM. We conclude that detection of sub-acute volumetric abnormalities of large-scale neural networks and their hub regions may aid in the early identification of children at risk for chronic social-cognitive impairment.

Maternal deprivation alters expression of neural maturation gene tbr1 in the amygdala paralaminar nucleus in infant female macaques

Early parental loss is associated with social-emotional dysregulation and amygdala physiologic changes. Previously, we examined whole amygdala gene expression in infant monkeys exposed to early maternal deprivation. Here, we focus on an amygdala region with immature neurons at birth: the paralaminar nucleus (PL). We hypothesized that 1) the normal infant PL is enriched in a subset of neural maturation (NM) genes compared to a nearby amygdala subregion; and 2) maternal deprivation would downregulate expression of NM transcripts (mRNA). mRNAs for bcl2, doublecortin, neuroD1, and tbr1-genes expressed in post-mitotic neurons-were enriched in the normal PL. Maternal deprivation at either 1 week or 1 month of age resulted in PL-specific downregulation of tbr1-a transcription factor necessary for directing neuroblasts to a glutamatergic phenotype. tbr1 expression also correlated with typical social behaviors. We conclude that maternal deprivation influences glutamatergic neuronal development in the PL, possibly influencing circuits mediating social learning.

Dissociable relations between amygdala subregional networks and psychopathy trait dimensions in conduct-disordered juvenile offenders

Psychopathy is a serious psychiatric phenomenon characterized by a pathological constellation of affective (e.g., callous, unemotional), interpersonal (e.g., manipulative, egocentric), and behavioral (e.g., impulsive, irresponsible) personality traits. Though amygdala subregional defects are suggested in psychopathy, the functionality and connectivity of different amygdala subnuclei is typically disregarded in neurocircuit-level analyses of psychopathic personality. Hence, little is known of how amygdala subregional networks may contribute to psychopathy and its underlying trait assemblies in severely antisocial people. We addressed this important issue by uniquely examining the intrinsic functional connectivity of basolateral (BLA) and centromedial (CMA) amygdala networks in relation to affective, interpersonal, and behavioral traits of psychopathy, in conduct-disordered juveniles with a history of serious delinquency (N = 50, mean age = 16.83 ± 1.32). As predicted, amygdalar connectivity profiles exhibited dissociable relations with different traits of psychopathy. Interpersonal psychopathic traits not only related to increased connectivity of BLA and CMA with a corticostriatal network formation accommodating reward processing, but also predicted stronger CMA connectivity with a network of cortical midline structures supporting sociocognitive processes. In contrast, affective psychopathic traits related to diminished CMA connectivity with a frontolimbic network serving salience processing and affective responding. Finally, behavioral psychopathic traits related to heightened BLA connectivity with a frontoparietal cluster implicated in regulatory executive functioning. We suggest that these trait-specific shifts in amygdalar connectivity could be particularly relevant to the psychopathic phenotype, as they may fuel a self-centered, emotionally cold, and behaviorally disinhibited profile. Hum Brain Mapp 37:4017-4033, 2016. © 2016 The Authors Human Brain Mapping Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

General and social cognition in remitted first-episode schizophrenia patients: a comparative study

The aim of this paper was to investigate whether both neurocognitive and social cognitive performances were different between remitted first-episode schizophrenia patients, non-remitters and healthy controls (HC). We assessed social cognition (Degraded Facial Affect Recognition Task-DFAR and Emotional Mentalizing Task-EMT) and neurocognition (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and Word Learning Test-WLT) in 174 remitted first-episode schizophrenia patients, 110 non-remitted first-episode schizophrenia patients and 320 HC. Multivariate analyses of variance with age, gender and IQ as covariates (MANCOVA) were performed to compare mean cognitive test scores between the three groups. Remitted first-episode schizophrenia patients performed significantly worse than HC only in one verbal memory task (WLT immediate recall; p = 0.004); in the same test, they were significantly better than non-remitters (p = 0.027). Non-remitted first-episode schizophrenia patients, differently from remitters, performed significantly worse than HC in terms of social cognition (EMT-p < 0.05 and DFAR-p < 0.05). Remitted first-episode schizophrenia patients presented worse cognitive performance than HC in verbal memory tasks, but not in facial affect recognition and in ToM, while non-remitters did; these results suggest that neurocognitive deficits are the core hallmark of schizophrenia and that social cognition is relatively unaffected in remitted patients after their first episode.

The transition from childhood to adolescence is marked by a general decrease in amygdala reactivity and an affect-specific ventral-to-dorsal shift in medial prefrontal recruitment

Understanding how and why affective responses change with age is central to characterizing typical and atypical emotional development. Prior work has emphasized the role of the amygdala and prefrontal cortex (PFC), which show age-related changes in function and connectivity. However, developmental neuroimaging research has only recently begun to unpack whether age effects in the amygdala and PFC are specific to affective stimuli or may be found for neutral stimuli as well, a possibility that would support a general, rather than affect-specific, account of amygdala-PFC development. To examine this, 112 individuals ranging from 6 to 23 years of age viewed aversive and neutral images while undergoing fMRI scanning. Across age, participants reported more negative affect and showed greater amygdala responses for aversive than neutral stimuli. However, children were generally more sensitive to both neutral and aversive stimuli, as indexed by affective reports and amygdala responses. At the same time, the transition from childhood to adolescence was marked by a ventral-to-dorsal shift in medial prefrontal responses to aversive, but not neutral, stimuli. Given the role that dmPFC plays in executive control and higher-level representations of emotion, these results suggest that adolescence is characterized by a shift towards representing emotional events in increasingly cognitive terms.

Sex differences in Gadd45b expression and methylation in the developing rodent amygdala

Precise spatiotemporal epigenetic regulation of the genome facilitates species-typical development; sexual differentiation of the brain by gonadal hormones and sex chromosomes causes extensive epigenetic reprogramming of many cells in the body, including the brain, and may indirectly predispose males and females to different psychiatric conditions. We and others have demonstrated sex differences in DNA methylation, as well as in the enzymes that form, or 'write', this epigenetic modification. However, while a growing body of evidence suggests that DNA methylation undergoes rapid turnover and is dynamically regulated in vivo, to our knowledge no studies have been done investigating whether sex differences exist in the epigenetic 'erasers' during postnatal development. Here we report sex differences in the expression of growth arrest and DNA damage inducible factor β (Gadd45b), but not family members α (a) or γ (g), in the neonatal and juvenile rodent amygdala.

Tracking the Neurodevelopmental Correlates of Mental State Inference in Early Childhood

Between ages 4 and 6, children become better at inferring what others are thinking and feeling. However, the neural correlates of these advances are understudied. The current study investigated the relation between performance on a face-based mental state inference task and white matter characteristics. Two tracts of interest, the uncinate fasciculus (UF) and inferior longitudinal fasciculus, were analyzed due to their involvement in social-emotional and face processing, respectively. Findings demonstrate a significant relation between fractional anisotropy in the UF and task performance in 4- but not 6-year-old children. Findings have implications for typical and atypical populations.

Callous-unemotional traits and the treatment of conduct problems in childhood and adolescence: a comprehensive review

The treatment of conduct problems among children and adolescents with callous-unemotional (CU) traits has been subject to much speculation; however, treatment outcome research has been surprisingly limited and findings have been mixed. This review examines the research to date in this field as it pertains to two key questions. First, are CU traits associated with clinical outcomes and processes in the family based treatment of child and adolescent conduct problems? Second, can family based intervention produce change in CU traits? Using a systematic search strategy, we identified 16 treatment outcomes studies that can be brought to bear on these questions. These studies provide strong evidence of unique associations between CU traits and risk for poor treatment outcomes, while at the same time indicating that social-learning-based parent training is capable of producing lasting improvement in CU traits, particularly when delivered early in childhood. We discuss the potential for this emerging evidence base to inform the planning and delivery of treatments for clinic-referred children with CU traits, and detail an ongoing program of translational research into the development of novel interventions for this high-risk subgroup.