Interleukin-22 promotes epithelial cell transformation and breast tumorigenesis via MAP3K8 activation

IL-1β-activated PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK pathways coordinately promote induction of partial epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a cellular process in embryonic development, wound healing, organ fibrosis, and cancer metastasis. Previously, we and others have reported that proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β (IL-1β) induces EMT. However, the exact mechanisms, especially the signal transduction pathways, underlying IL-1β-mediated EMT are not yet completely understood. Here, we found that IL-1β stimulation leads to the partial EMT-like phenotype in human lung epithelial A549 cells, including the gain of mesenchymal marker (vimentin) and high migratory potential, without the complete loss of epithelial marker (E-cadherin). IL-1β-mediated partial EMT induction was repressed by PI3K inhibitor LY294002, indicating that the PI3K/AKT pathway plays a significant role in the induction. In addition, ERK1/2 inhibitor FR180204 markedly inhibited the IL-1β-mediated partial EMT induction, demonstrating that the MEK/ERK pathway was also involved in the induction. Furthermore, we found that the activation of the PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK pathways occurred downstream of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathway and the IL-1 receptor (IL-1R) pathway, respectively. Our findings suggest that the PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK pathways coordinately promote the IL-1β-mediated partial EMT induction. The inhibition of not one but both pathways is expected yield clinical benefits by preventing partial EMT-related disorders such as organ fibrosis and cancer metastasis.

Pin1-catalyzed conformational regulation after phosphorylation: A distinct checkpoint in cell signaling and drug discovery

Protein phosphorylation is one of the most common mechanisms regulating cellular signaling pathways, and many kinases and phosphatases are proven drug targets. Upon phosphorylation, protein functions can be further regulated by the distinct isomerase Pin1 through cis-trans isomerization. Numerous protein targets and many important roles have now been elucidated for Pin1. However, no tools are available to detect or target cis and trans conformation events in cells. The development of Pin1 inhibitors and stereo- and phospho-specific antibodies has revealed that cis and trans conformations have distinct and often opposing cellular functions. Aberrant conformational changes due to the dysregulation of Pin1 can drive pathogenesis but can be effectively targeted in age-related diseases, including cancers and neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we review advances in understanding the roles of Pin1 signaling in health and disease and highlight conformational regulation as a distinct signal transduction checkpoint in disease development and treatment.

Tumour-associated myeloid cells expressing IL-10R2/IL-22R1 as a potential biomarker for diagnosis and recurrence of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is an aggressive malignancy with a poor survival rate, largely due to the lack of early diagnosis. Although myeloid cells are crucial in the tumour microenvironment, whether their specific subset can be a biomarker of PDAC progression is unclear.

METHODS

We analysed IL-22 receptor expression in PDAC and peripheral blood. Additionally, we analysed gene expression profiles of IL-10R2+/IL-22R1+ myeloid cells and the presence of these cells using single-cell RNA sequencing and murine orthotropic PDAC models, respectively, followed by examining the immunosuppressive function of IL-10R2+/IL-22R1+ myeloid cells. Finally, the correlation between IL-10R2 expression and PDAC progression was evaluated.

RESULTS

IL-10R2+/IL-22R1+ myeloid cells were present in PDAC and peripheral blood. Blood IL-10R2+ myeloid cells displayed a gene expression signature associated with tumour-educated circulating monocytes. IL-10R2+/IL-22R1+ myeloid cells from human myeloid cell culture inhibited T cell proliferation. By mouse models for PDAC, we found a positive correlation between pancreatic tumour growth and increased blood IL-10R2+/IL-22R1+ myeloid cells. IL-10R2+/IL-22R1+ myeloid cells from an early phase of the PDAC model suppressed T cell proliferation and cytotoxicity. IL-10R2+ myeloid cells indicated tumour recurrence 130 days sooner than CA19-9 in post-pancreatectomy patients.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-10R2+/IL-22R1+ myeloid cells in the peripheral blood might be an early marker of PDAC prognosis.

Overexpression of TPL2 may be a predictor of good prognosis in patients with breast invasive ductal carcinoma

The objective of this study was to investigate the clinical significance and roles of tumor progression locus 2 (TPL2) and peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase 1 (Pin1) in the occurrence and development of breast invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC). Immunohistochemistry was used to detect the expression of TPL2 and Pin1 in human breast tissues, which included normal breast tissues (Normal), tissues with fibrocystic changes (FCC), ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), and IDC. The roles of TPL2 and Pin1 in the occurrence and development of IDC, as well as the correlation between their expression levels and clinicopathological parameters, were analyzed. Compared with Normal and FCC groups, the overexpression of TPL2 and Pin1 was significantly increased in DCIS and IDC groups (DCIS vs Normal: P = 0.002/P < 0.001; IDC vs Normal: P = 0.007/P = 0.003; DCIS vs. FCC: P = 0.008/P = 0.004; IDC vs. FCC: P = 0.04/P = 0.043). The expression levels of TPL2 and Pin1 were positively correlated in DCIS and IDC groups (P = 0.001, P = 0.011). In the IDC group, the Ki67 level in the TPL2 overexpression group was significantly lower than that in the TPL2 low expression group (P = 0.02). The TPL2 overexpression rate was significantly higher in IDC with histological grades 1-2 than that in IDC with histological grade 3 (P = 0.029). The TPL2 overexpression rate in IDC with tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) stage I was significantly higher than that in IDC with TNM stages II-III (P = 0.035). We conclude that TPL2 and Pin1 may synergistically promote the occurrence and development of IDC, but TPL2 overexpression may be an early molecular event in IDC development. TPL2 overexpression is significantly related with IDC with lower malignancy or earlier TNM stage, suggesting that the prognosis of IDC patients with TPL2 overexpression may be better and TPL2 overexpression may be a predictor of good prognosis in IDC.

T cell-derived interleukin-22 drives the expression of CD155 by cancer cells to suppress NK cell function and promote metastasis

Although T cells can exert potent anti-tumor immunity, a subset of T helper (Th) cells producing interleukin-22 (IL-22) in breast and lung tumors is linked to dismal patient outcome. Here, we examined the mechanisms whereby these T cells contribute to disease. In murine models of lung and breast cancer, constitutional and T cell-specific deletion of Il22 reduced metastases without affecting primary tumor growth. Deletion of the IL-22 receptor on cancer cells decreases metastasis to a degree similar to that seen in IL-22-deficient mice. IL-22 induced high expression of CD155, which bound to the activating receptor CD226 on NK cells. Excessive activation led to decreased amounts of CD226 and functionally impaired NK cells, which elevated the metastatic burden. IL-22 signaling was also associated with CD155 expression in human datasets and with poor patient outcomes. Taken together, our findings reveal an immunosuppressive circuit activated by T cell-derived IL-22 that promotes lung metastasis.

Environmental exposure and the role of AhR in the tumor microenvironment of breast cancer

Activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) through environmental exposure to chemicals including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) can lead to severe adverse health effects and increase the risk of breast cancer. This review considers several mechanisms which link the tumor promoting effects of environmental pollutants with the AhR signaling pathway, contributing to the development and progression of breast cancer. We explore AhR's function in shaping the tumor microenvironment, modifying immune tolerance, and regulating cancer stemness, driving breast cancer chemoresistance and metastasis. The complexity of AhR, with evidence for both oncogenic and tumor suppressor roles is discussed. We propose that AhR functions as a "molecular bridge", linking disproportionate toxin exposure and policies which underlie environmental injustice with tumor cell behaviors which drive poor patient outcomes.

A Critical Role of the IL-22-IL-22 Binding Protein Axis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) ranks among the five most common cancer entities worldwide and leads to hundred-thousands of deaths every year. Despite some groundbreaking therapeutical revelations during the last years, the overall prognosis remains poor. Although the immune system fights malignant transformations with a robust anti-tumor response, certain immune mediators have also been shown to promote cancer development. For example, interleukin (IL)-22 has been associated with HCC progression and worsened prognosis in multiple studies. However, the underlying mechanisms of the pathological role of IL-22-signaling as well as the role of its natural antagonist IL-22 binding protein (IL-22BP) in HCC remain elusive. Here, we corroborate the pathogenic role of IL-22 in HCC by taking advantage of two mouse models. Moreover, we observed a protective role of IL-22BP during liver carcinogenesis. While IL-22 was mainly produced by CD4⁺ T cells in HCC, IL-22BP was abundantly expressed by neutrophils during liver carcinogenesis. Hepatocytes could be identified as a major target of this pathological IL-22-signaling. Moreover, abrogation of IL-22 signaling in hepatocytes in IL22ra1^flox/flox × Alb^Cre+ mice reduced STEAP4 expression-a known oncogene-in HCC in vivo. Likewise, STEAP4 expression correlated with IL22 levels in human HCC samples, but not in healthy liver specimens. In conclusion, these data encourage the development of therapeutical approaches that target the IL-22-IL-22BP axis in HCC.

Regulation of Interleukin-36γ/IL-36R Signaling Axis by PIN1 in Epithelial Cell Transformation and Breast Tumorigenesis

Simple Summary

Members of the interleukin (IL)-1 cytokine family exhibit dual functions in the regulation of inflammation and cancer. Recent studies have shown the critical role of IL-36γ, the newly identified IL-1 family member, in the regulation of cellular processes implicated in the progression of cancer. Therefore, the underlying mechanism of IL-36γ in tumor development is of considerable interest. Here, we identified the pivotal role of IL-36γ in the proliferation of breast cancer cells. Consistently, IL-36γ was found to promote epithelial cell transformation via the activation of c-Fos, c-Jun, and AP-1 transcription factors, followed by the IL36R-mediated MEK/ERK and JNK/c-Jun cascades. Furthermore, our findings demonstrate the critical role of PIN1 in the regulation of IL-36γ-induced mammary gland tumorigenesis.

Abstract

Given the increasing recognition of the relationship between IL-1 cytokines, inflammation, and cancer, the significance of distinct members of the IL-1 cytokine family in the etiology of cancer has been widely researched. In the present study, we investigated the underlying mechanism of the IL-36γ/IL-36R axis during breast cancer progression, which has not yet been elucidated. Initially, we determined the effects of IL-36γ on the proliferation and epithelial cell transformation of JB6 Cl41 mouse epidermal and MCF7 human breast cancer cells using BrdU incorporation and anchorage-independent growth assays. We found that treatment with IL-36γ increased the proliferation and colony formation of JB6 Cl41 and MCF7 cells. Analysis of the mechanism underlying the neoplastic cell transformation revealed that IL-36γ induced IL-36R-mediated phosphorylation of MEK1/2, ERK1/2, JNK1/2, and c-Jun, resulting in increased c-Fos, c-Jun, and AP-1 activities in JB6 Cl41 and MCF7 cells. Furthermore, the IL-36γ-induced tumorigenic capacity of MCF7 cells was considerably enhanced by PIN1, following MEK/ERK and JNK/c-Jun signaling. Interestingly, blocking PIN1 activity using juglone suppressed the IL-36γ-induced increase in the anchorage-independent growth of 4T1 metastatic mouse breast cancer cells. Finally, in a syngeneic mouse model, IL-36γ-induced tumor growth in the breast mammary gland was significantly inhibited following PIN1 knockout.

MicroRNAs as the critical regulators of cell migration and invasion in thyroid cancer

Thyroid cancer (TC) is one of the most frequent endocrine malignancies that is more common among females. Tumor recurrence is one of the most important clinical manifestations in differentiated TC which is associated with different factors including age, tumor size, and histological features. Various molecular processes such as genetic or epigenetic modifications and non-coding RNAs are also involved in TC progression and metastasis. The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is an important biological process during tumor invasion and migration that affects the initiation and transformation of early-stage tumors into invasive malignancies. A combination of transcription factors, growth factors, signaling pathways, and epigenetic regulations affect the thyroid cell migration and EMT process. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important molecular factors involved in tumor metastasis by regulation of EMT-activating signaling pathways. Various miRNAs are involved in the signaling pathways associated with TC metastasis which can be used as diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers. Since, the miRNAs are sensitive, specific, and non-invasive, they can be suggested as efficient and optimal biomarkers of tumor invasion and metastasis. In the present review, we have summarized all of the miRNAs which have been significantly involved in thyroid tumor cells migration and invasion. We also categorized all of the reported miRNAs based on their cellular processes to clarify the molecular role of miRNAs during thyroid tumor cell migration and invasion. This review paves the way of introducing a non-invasive diagnostic and prognostic panel of miRNAs in aggressive and metastatic TC patients.

The Deletion of IL-17A Enhances Helicobacter hepaticus Colonization and Triggers Colitis

Objective

IL-17 is a key regulator of the inflammatory response, and as such, it is involved in the constraint and clearance of pathogens. The mechanism of IL-17 in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) caused by microbial infection is still unclear. Helicobacter hepaticus infection can induce colitis in many mouse strains, and thus, it has been widely used in the study of IBD pathogenesis.

Methods

In this study, male C57BL/6, BALB/c, Il-10^−/−, and Il-17a^−/− mice were infected with H. hepaticus for several weeks. Histopathology, H. hepaticus colonization and distribution, expression of inflammatory cytokines and lysozyme, and distribution of mucus in proximal colon were examined.

Results

The colonic colonization of H. hepaticus was abnormally high in Il-17a^−/− mice. H. hepaticus infection caused only mild to moderate colitis symptoms in Il-17a^−/− mice, including low levels of lymphocyte infiltration, epithelial cell defects, goblet cell reduction, and crypt atrophy without obvious hyperplasia in the later stage of infection. Furthermore, many inflammatory genes were significantly increased in the proximal colon of H. hepaticus-infected Il-17a^−/− mice compared with C57BL/6 mice. In addition, the reduction of colonic mucus and the down-regulation of ZO-1, Claudin-1, and IL-22 were observed in Il-17a^−/− mice compared with C57BL/6 mice post H. hepaticus infection.

Conclusion

These results demonstrated that the deletion of IL-17A impaired the integrity of the intestinal epithelium, weakened the secretion of mucus, attenuated colonic mucosal regeneration, reduced the ability to resist microbial infection, and finally led to colitis caused by H. hepaticus.

The role of Th17 cells in the pathogenesis and treatment of breast cancer

Breast cancer is a severe problem worldwide due to an increase in mortality and prevalence among women. Despite early diagnostic procedures as well as advanced therapies, more investigation is required to find new treatment targets. Various factors and mechanisms, such as inflammatory conditions, can play a crucial role in cancer progression. Among them, Th17 cells are identified as effective CD4⁺ T cells that play an essential role in autoimmune diseases and inflammation which may be associated with anti-tumor responses. In addition, Th17 cells are one of the main factors involved in cancer, especially breast cancer via the inflammatory process. In tumor immunity, the exact mechanism of Th17 cells is not entirely understood and seems to have a dual function in tumor development. Various studies have reported that cytokines secreted by Th17 cells are in close relation to cancer stem cells and tumor microenvironment. Therefore, they play a critical role in the growth, proliferation, and invasion of tumor cells. On the other hand, most studies have reported that T cells suppress the growth of tumor cells by the induction of immune responses. In patients with breast cancer compared to normal individuals, various studies have been reported that the Th17 population dramatically increases in peripheral blood which results in cancer progression. It seems that Th17 cells by creating inflammatory conditions through the secretion of cytokines, including IL-22, IL-17, TNF-α, IL-21, and IL-6, can significantly enhance breast cancer progression. Therefore, to identify the mechanisms and factors involved in the activation and development of Th17 cells, they can provide an essential role in preventing breast cancer progression. In the present review, the role of Th17 cells in breast cancer progression and its therapeutic potential was investigated.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Signaling Synergizes with TLR/NF-κB-Signaling for Induction of IL-22 Through Canonical and Non-Canonical AhR Pathways

Interleukin 22 (IL-22) is critically involved in gut immunity and host defense and primarily produced by activated T cells. In different circumstances IL-22 may contribute to pathological conditions or act as a cancer promoting cytokine secreted by infiltrating immune cells. Here we show that bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMM) express and produce IL-22 after activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) when cells are activated through the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family. The additional activation of AhR triggered a significant induction of IL-22 in TLR-activated BMM. Deletion and mutation constructs of the IL-22 promoter revealed that a consensus DRE and RelBAhRE binding element are necessary to mediate the synergistic effects of AhR and TLR ligands. Inhibitor studies and analysis of BMM derived from knockout mice confirmed that the synergistic induction of IL-22 by AhR and TLR ligands depend on the expression of AhR and Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-κB) member RelB. The exposure to particulate matter (PM) collected from traffic related air pollution (TRAP) and wildfires activated AhR as well as NF-κB signaling and significantly induced the expression of IL-22. In summary this study shows that simultaneous activation of the AhR and NF-κB signaling pathways leads to synergistic and prolonged induction of IL-22 by integrating signals of the canonical and non-canonical AhR pathway.

IFNγ-IL-17-IL-22+CD4+ subset and IL-22-producing cells in tumor draining lymph nodes of patients with breast cancer

BACKGROUND

A recently introduced CD4+ T subset that mainly secretes interleukin (IL-) 22 has been reported to be associated with a variety of tumors, including colon, gastric, hepatocellular, and small- and large-cell lung carcinoma. Both tumor-promoting and - suppressing roles have been suggested for these cells. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the frequency of IL-22-producing subsets in tumor-draining lymph nodes (TDLNs) of the patients with breast cancer and determine their association with the clinicopathological characterizations of the disease.

METHODS

Thirty untreated women diagnosed with breast cancer were enrolled and their axillary lymph nodes were dissected during surgery. Mononuclear cells were isolated using Ficoll density gradient, activated, permeabilized, and stained by fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies against CD4, IL-22, IL-17, and IFNγ. The cells were then acquired on the FACSCalibur flow cytometer, and raw data was analyzed by the FlowJo software package (V10).

RESULTS

Our results demonstrated that 2.39% ± 0.39 of CD4+ lymphocytes in TDLNs of patients with breast cancer produced IL-22. Among them, 0.64% ± 0.8 just produced IL-22 but were negative for IFNγ and IL-17. Statistical analysis indicated that the frequency of CD4+IL-22+ cells was significantly higher in the patients with stage III and the ones with 3-9 tumor involved lymph nodes (N2) compared to those with stage II and those having 1-3 tumor involved lymph nodes (N1) (P = 0.008 and P = 0.004, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The higher frequency of IL-22-producing cells in draining lymph nodes of patients with more advanced tumors (higher stage (stage III) and more involved lymph nodes) suggests a role for IL-22-producing cells in the tumor progression and invasion. However, further studies with larger sample size and more functional studies are needed to clarify the role of IL-22-producing cells in breast cancer pathogenesis.

Multifaceted functions of chronic inflammation in regulating tumor dormancy and relapse

Inflammation is a double-edged sword exhibiting multifaceted functions. On one hand, it either induces tumor cell apoptosis, or establishes tumor dormancy by inhibiting tumor cell proliferation; on the other hand, it either facilitates the tumorigenesis process or reawakens dormant tumor cells, resulting in disease recurrences. Each outcome would depend on the balance between type I and type II inflammation as well as the duration of inflammation being acute or chronic. In this essay, we provide a critical review of the empirical evidence suggesting that chronic inflammation, dominated by type I inflammatory cells and cytokines as a result of trauma and microbiome dysbiosis, could facilitate the carcinogenesis process in normal cells and retain nascent transformed cells in a dormant state. On the other hand, an elevated type II inflammation along with inefficient resolution of type I inflammation following trauma or major surgeries could delay the wound healing process and promote the growth and reawakening of dormant tumor cells, resulting in disease recurrences. Finally, cytokines exhibiting type I and II inflammatory functions, simultaneously, tend to promote tumor recurrence when become chronic. Therefore, the risk of reawakening dormant tumor cells should be considered in cancer survivors who experience major surgeries and trauma, or suffer from chronic inflammatory diseases.

Amelioration of DSS-Induced Acute Colitis in Mice by Recombinant Monomeric Human Interleukin-22

IL-22, a pleiotropic cytokine, is known to have a profound effect on the regeneration of damaged intestinal barriers. The tissue-protective properties of IL-22 are expected to be potentially exploited in the attenuation and treatment of colitis. However, because of the disease-promoting role of IL-22 in chronic inflammation, a comprehensive evaluation is required to translate IL-22 into the clinical domain. Here, we present the effective production of soluble human IL-22 in bacteria to prove whether recombinant IL-22 has the ability to ameliorate colitis and inflammation. IL-22 was expressed in the form of a biologically active monomer and non-functional oligomers. Monomeric IL-22 (mIL-22) was highly purified through a series of 3 separate chromatographic methods and an enzymatic reaction. We reveal that the resulting mIL-22 is correctly folded and is able to phosphorylate STAT3 in HT-29 cells. Subsequently, we demonstrate that mIL-22 enables the attenuation of dextran sodium sulfate-induced acute colitis in mice, as well as the suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Collectively, our results suggest that the recombinant mIL-22 is suitable to study the biological roles of endogenous IL-22 in immune responses and can be developed as a biological agent associated with inflammatory disorders.

Rationalizing heptadecaphobia: TH 17 cells and associated cytokines in cancer and metastasis

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. When cancer patients are diagnosed with metastasis, meaning that the primary tumor has spread to at least one different site, their life expectancy decreases dramatically. In the past decade, the immune system´s role in fighting cancer and metastasis has been studied extensively. Importantly, immune cells and inflammatory reactions generate potent antitumor responses but also contribute to tumor development. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying this dichotomic interaction between the immune system and cancer are still poorly understood. Recently, a spotlight has been cast on the distinct subsets of immune cells and their derived cytokines since evidence has implicated their crucial impact on cancer development. T helper 17 cell (TH 17) cells, which express the master transcriptional factor Retinoic acid-receptor-related orphan receptor gamma t, are among these critical cell subsets and are defined by their production of type 3 cytokines, such as IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-22. Depending on the tumor microenvironment, these cytokines can also be produced by other immune cell sources, such as T cytotoxic 17 cell, innate lymphoid cells, NKT cells, or γδ T cells. To date, a lot of data have been collected describing the divergent functions of IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-22 in malignancies. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the role of these TH 17- and non-TH 17-derived type 3 cytokines in different tumor entities. Furthermore, we will provide a structured insight into the strict regulation and subsequent downstream mechanisms of these cytokines in cancer and metastasis.

Recombinant IL-22 promotes protection in a murine model of Aspergillus flavus keratitis and mediates host immune responses in human corneal epithelial cells

Aspergillus flavus is a leading cause of corneal infections in India and worldwide, resulting in severe visual impairment. We studied the host immune response towards A. flavus in immortalised human corneal epithelial cells (HCEC) and found increased expression of Toll-like receptors, antimicrobial peptides and proinflammatory cytokines like IL-6 and IL-8. Differential expressions of antimicrobial peptides were determined in corneal scrapings from A. flavus keratitis patients with significantly increased expression of LL-37, S100A12 and RNase 7. Increased levels of IL-22 expression were observed both in patients with A. flavus keratitis and in experimental mice model of corneal infections along with IL-17, IL-23 and IL-18. IL-22 is an important mediator of inflammation during microbial infections, and acts primarily on fibroblasts and epithelial cells. We observed constitutive expression of IL-22 receptors in HCEC, and IL-22 mediated activation of NF-κB, MAPK pathways and STAT3, along with increased expression of antimicrobial peptides in these cells. IL-22 also efficiently lessened cell deaths in corneal epithelial cells during A. flavus infection in vitro. Furthermore, recombinant IL-22 reduced fungal burden and corneal opacity in an experimental murine model of A. flavus keratitis.

A molecular link between diabetes and breast cancer: Therapeutic potential of repurposing incretin-based therapies for breast cancer

Female breast cancer recently surpassed lung cancer and became the most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide. As per the recent data from WHO, breast cancer accounts for one out of every 8 cancer cases diagnosed among an estimated 2.3 million new cancer cases. Breast cancer is the most prevailing cancer type among women causing the highest number of cancer-related mortality. It has been estimated that in 2020, 68,5000 women died due to this disease. Breast cancers have varying degrees of molecular heterogeneity; therefore, they are divided into various molecular clinical sub types. Recent reports suggest that type 2 diabetes (one of the common chronic diseases worldwide) is linked to the higher incidence, accelerated progression, and aggressiveness of different cancers; especially breast cancer. Breast cancer is hormone-dependent in nature and has a cross-talk with metabolism. A number of antidiabetic therapies are known to exert beneficial effects on various types of cancers, including breast cancer. However, only a few reports are available on the role of incretin-based antidiabetic therapies in cancer as a whole and in breast cancer in particular. The present review sheds light on the potential of incretin based therapies on breast cancer and explores the plausible underlying mechanisms. Additionally, we have also discussed the sub types of breast cancer as well as the intricate relationship between diabetes and breast cancer.

Features and roles of T helper 22 cells in immunological diseases and malignancies

T helper 22 (Th22) cell populations are a newly identified subset of CD4+  T cells that primarily mediate biological effects on the epithelial barrier through interleukin (IL)-22. Although, new studies showed that both Th22 and IL-22 are closely associated with the pathogenesis of inflammatory, autoimmune and allergic disease as well as malignancies. In this review, we aim to describe the development and characteristics of Th22 cells as well as their roles in the immunopathogenesis of immune-related disorders and cancer.

Targeting Pin1 for Modulation of Cell Motility and Cancer Therapy

Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase NIMA-interacting 1 (Pin1) specifically binds and isomerizes the phosphorylated serine/threonine-proline (pSer/Thr-Pro) motif, which leads to changes in protein conformation and function. Pin1 is widely overexpressed in cancers and plays an important role in tumorigenesis. Mounting evidence has revealed that targeting Pin1 is a potential therapeutic approach for various cancers by inhibiting cell proliferation, reducing metastasis, and maintaining genome stability. In this review, we summarize the underlying mechanisms of Pin1-mediated upregulation of oncogenes and downregulation of tumor suppressors in cancer development. Furthermore, we also discuss the multiple roles of Pin1 in cancer hallmarks and examine Pin1 as a desirable pharmaceutical target for cancer therapy. We also summarize the recent progress of Pin1-targeted small-molecule compounds for anticancer activity.

Interleukin-34-CSF1R Signaling Axis Promotes Epithelial Cell Transformation and Breast Tumorigenesis

IL-34 has been recently identified as a ligand for CSF1R that regulates various cellular processes including cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation. Although the binding of IL-34 to CSF1R modulates several cancer-driving signaling pathways, little is known about the role of IL-34/CSF1R signaling in breast cancer. Herein, we report that IL-34 induces epithelial cell transformation and breast tumorigenesis through activation of MEK/ERK and JNK/c-Jun pathways. IL-34 increased the phosphorylation of MEK1/2, ERK1/2, JNK1/2, and c-Jun through CSF1R in mouse skin epidermal JB6 C141 cells and human breast cancer MCF7 cells. IL-34 enhanced c-Fos and c-Jun promoter activity, resulting in increased AP-1 transactivation activity in JB6 Cl41 and MCF7 cells. Moreover, PIN1 enhanced IL-34-induced phosphorylation of MEK1/2, ERK1/2, JNK1/2, and c-Jun in JB6 Cl41 and MCF7 cells. Inhibition of PIN1 using juglone prevented the IL-34-induced transformation of JB6 C141 cells. Similarly, silencing of PIN1 reduced the IL-34-induced tumorigenicity of MCF7 cells. Consistent with these results, the synergistic model showed that treatment with juglone suppressed the IL-34-induced growth of tumors formed by 4T1 cells in BALB/c mice. Our study demonstrates the role of IL-34-induced MEK/ERK and JNK/c-Jun cascades in breast cancer and highlights the regulatory role of PIN1 in IL-34-induced breast tumorigenesis.

Detecting the Multiomics Signatures of Factor-Specific Inflammatory Effects on Airway Smooth Muscles

Smooth muscles are a specific muscle subtype that is widely identified in the tissues of internal passageways. This muscle subtype has the capacity for controlled or regulated contraction and relaxation. Airway smooth muscles are a unique type of smooth muscles that constitute the effective, adjustable, and reactive wall that covers most areas of the entire airway from the trachea to lung tissues. Infection with SARS-CoV-2, which caused the world-wide COVID-19 pandemic, involves airway smooth muscles and their surrounding inflammatory environment. Therefore, airway smooth muscles and related inflammatory factors may play an irreplaceable role in the initiation and progression of several severe diseases. Many previous studies have attempted to reveal the potential relationships between interleukins and airway smooth muscle cells only on the omics level, and the continued existence of numerous false-positive optimal genes/transcripts cannot reflect the actual effective biological mechanisms underlying interleukin-based activation effects on airway smooth muscles. Here, on the basis of newly presented machine learning-based computational approaches, we identified specific regulatory factors and a series of rules that contribute to the activation and stimulation of airway smooth muscles by IL-13, IL-17, or the combination of both interleukins on the epigenetic and/or transcriptional levels. The detected discriminative factors (genes) and rules can contribute to the identification of potential regulatory mechanisms linking airway smooth muscle tissues and inflammatory factors and help reveal specific pathological factors for diseases associated with airway smooth muscle inflammation on multiomics levels.

IL-22 Signaling in the Tumor Microenvironment

Interleukin (IL)-22 belongs to the IL-10 cytokine family which performs biological functions by binding to heterodimer receptors comprising a type 1 receptor chain (R1) and a type 2 receptor chain (R2). IL-22 is mainly derived from CD4+ helper T cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T cells, innate lymphocytes, and natural killer T cells. It can activate downstream signaling pathways such as signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)1/3/5, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-protein kinase B (AKT)-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) through these heterodimer receptors. Although IL-22 is produced by immune cells, its specific receptor IL-22R1 is selectively expressed in nonimmune cells, such as hepatocytes, colonic epithelial cells, and pancreatic epithelial cells (Jiang et al. Hepatology 54(3):900-9, 2011; Jiang et al. BMC Cancer 13:59, 2013; Curd et al. Clin Exp Immunol 168(2):192-9, 2012). Immune cells do not respond to IL-22 stimulation directly within tumors, reports from different groups have revealed that IL-22 can indirectly regulate the tumor microenvironment (TME). In the present chapter, we discuss the roles of IL-22 in malignant cells and immunocytes within the TME, meanwhile, the potential roles of IL-22 as a target for drug discovery will be discussed.

Circulating Th22 cells, as well as Th17 cells, are elevated in patients with renal cell carcinoma

T-helper (Th) 22 cells serve an essential role in different types of tumors and autoimmune diseases. No research has been conducted to study the role of Th22 cells in the pathogenesis of renal cell carcinoma (RCC). We aimed to evaluate the prognostic value of circulating Th22, Th17, and Th1 cells in RCC patients. Thirty-two newly diagnosed RCC patients and thirty healthy controls were enlisted in the research. Their peripheral blood was collected, and the frequencies of circulating Th22, Th17, and Th1 cells were detected by flow cytometry. Plasma IL-22 concentrations were examined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to identify the mRNA expression levels of aromatic hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and RAR-associated orphan receptor C (RORC) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Compared with the healthy control group, the frequency of circulating Th22 and Th17 cells and concentrations of plasma IL-22 were significantly increased in RCC patients. However, there was no significant difference in the frequency of Th1 cells. A positive correlation between Th22 cells and plasma IL-22 levels was found in RCC patients. Also, there was a significant positive correlation between Th22 and Th17 cells in RCC patients. An up-regulated expression of AHR and RORC transcription factors were also observed in RCC patients. As tumor stage and grade progressed, the frequencies of Th22 and Th17 cells and the level of plasma IL-22 significantly increased. Meanwhile, there was a positive correlation between Th22 and Th17 cells and RCC tumor stage or grade. Furthermore, patients with high Th22 or Th17 cells frequency displayed a decreased trend in survival rate. Our research indicated that the increased circulating Th22 and Th17 cells and plasma IL-22 may be involved in the pathogenesis of RCC and may be involved in the occurrence and development of tumors. Th22 cells, plasma IL-22, and Th17 cells may be promising new clinical biomarkers and may be used as cellular targets for RCC therapeutic intervention.

An overview of the tumor microenvironment, from cells to complex networks (Review)

For a long period, cancer has been believed to be a gene disease, in which oncogenic and suppressor mutations accumulate gradually, finally leading to the malignant transformation of cells. This vision has changed in the last few years, the involvement of the tumor microenvironment, the non-malignant part of the tumors, as an important contributor to the malignant growth being now largely recognized. There is a consensus according to which the understanding of the tumor microenvironment is important as a means to develop new approaches in the therapy of cancer. In this context, the present study is a review of the different types of non-malignant cells that can be found in tumors, with their pro or antitumoral actions, presence in tumors and therapeutic targeting. These cells establish complex relations between them, through cytokines, exosomes, cell adhesion, co-stimulation and co-inhibition; these relations will also be examined in the present work.

Paroxetine combined with fluorouracil plays a therapeutic role in mouse models of colorectal cancer with depression through inhibiting IL-22 expression to regulate the MAPK signaling pathway

The objective of the present study was to observe the therapeutic effect of paroxetine combined with fluorouracil on mice with colorectal cancer (CRC) complicated with depression and to explore its mechanism of action. Using chronic mild stress and xenograft tumor methods to model CRC complicated with depression, 60 BALB/c mice were randomly divided into control, tumor model, tumor depression model, tumor depression antidepressant, tumor depression chemotherapy and tumor depression antidepressant plus chemotherapeutic drug groups. Changes in mouse sucrose preference and forced swimming tests were tracked. Changes in tumor volume and weight were compared, the tumor inhibition rate was calculated, Ki-67 expression in tumor tissues was detected using immunohistochemistry and IL-22 levels in peripheral blood were detected using ELISAs. Additionally, protein expression levels of IL-22, Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3, p38, phosphorylated (p)-p38, ERK, p-ERK, JNK and p-JNK in tumor tissue were detected using western blotting. Following treatment with paroxetine and chemotherapy drugs, the sucrose preference index was increased, autonomic behavior dysfunction was alleviated and tumor growth was significantly inhibited. Furthermore, the expression levels of Ki-67 and apoptosis-related proteins, Bax and caspase-3, increased in tumor tissues, anti-apoptosis protein Bcl2 expression levels decreased significantly, IL-22 levels in the blood and tumor tissues were reduced and p-p38, p-ERK and p-JNK proteins were significantly reduced. It was concluded that paroxetine combined with chemotherapy drugs improved depressive behavior and promoted the survival state in a mouse model of CRC and depression, possibly through inhibiting IL-22 expression to regulate the activity of the MAPK signaling pathway.

Her2 promotes early dissemination of breast cancer by suppressing the p38 pathway through Skp2-mediated proteasomal degradation of Tpl2

While mechanisms for metastasis were extensively studied in cancer cells from patients with detectable tumors, pathways underlying metastatic dissemination from early lesions before primary tumors appear are poorly understood. Her2 promotes breast cancer early dissemination by suppressing p38, but how Her2 downregulates p38 is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that in early lesion breast cancer models, Her2 inhibits p38 by inducing Skp2 through Akt-mediated phosphorylation, which promotes ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of Tpl2, a p38 MAP3K. The early disseminating cells are Her2⁺Skp2^highTpl2^lowp-p38^lowE-cadherin^low in the MMTV-Her2 breast cancer model. In human breast carcinoma, high Skp2 and low Tpl2 expression are associated with the Her2⁺ status; Tpl2 expression positively correlates with that of activated p38; Skp2 expression negatively correlates with that of Tpl2 and activated p38. Moreover, the Her2-Akt-Skp2-Tpl2-p38 axis plays a key role in the disseminating phenotypes in early lesion breast cancer cells; inhibition of Tpl2 enhances early dissemination in vivo. These findings identify the Her2-Akt-Skp2-Tpl2-p38 cascade as a novel mechanism mediating breast cancer early dissemination and a potential target for novel therapies targeting early metastatic dissemination.

Tumor progression locus 2 (TPL2) in tumor-promoting Inflammation, Tumorigenesis and Tumor Immunity

Over the years, tumor progression locus 2 (TPL2) has been identified as an essential modulator of immune responses that conveys inflammatory signals to downstream effectors, subsequently modulating the generation and function of inflammatory cells. TPL2 is also differentially expressed and activated in several cancers, where it is associated with increased inflammation, malignant transformation, angiogenesis, metastasis, poor prognosis and therapy resistance. However, the relationship between TPL2-driven inflammation, tumorigenesis and tumor immunity has not been addressed. Here, we reconcile the function of TPL2-driven inflammation to oncogenic functions such as inflammation, proliferation, apoptosis resistance, angiogenesis, metastasis, immunosuppression and immune evasion. We also address the controversies reported on TPL2 function in tumor-promoting inflammation and tumorigenesis, and highlight the potential role of the TPL2 adaptor function in regulating the mechanisms leading to pro-tumorigenic inflammation and tumor progression. We discuss the therapeutic implications and limitations of targeting TPL2 for cancer treatment. The ideas presented here provide some new insight into cancer pathophysiology that might contribute to the development of more integrative and specific anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer therapeutics.

Interleukin-22 enhances chemoresistance of lung adenocarcinoma cells to paclitaxel

The chemoresistance of tumors is the main barrier to cancer treatment. Interleukin-22 (IL-22) plays an important role in the chemoresistance of multi-cancers; however, the roles of IL-22 in the paclitaxel resistance of lung adenocarcinoma cells remain to be investigated. The present study aims to investigate the potential mechanisms of IL-22 enhancing the chemoresistance of lung adenocarcinoma cells to paclitaxel. We cultured A549, H358, and A549/PTX cell lines. qRT-PCR and western blot assays were performed to examine the mRNA and/or protein levels of IL-22 in A549, A549/PTX, H358, and H358/PTX. Moreover, cells were transfected with IL-22 siRNA1, IL-22 siRNA2, and siRNA NC, and treated with paclitaxel, and the proliferation rate of lung adenocarcinoma cells was evaluated by MTT assay. Flow cytometry was conducted to determine the apoptosis rate of lung adenocarcinoma cells. The results showed that the expression of IL-22 in lung adenocarcinoma tissues was higher than that in normal tissues, and the expression of IL-22 was higher in A549/PTX and H358/PTX compared with A549 and H358 cells. Meanwhile, the expression of IL-22 was strongly correlated with smoking history and TMN stage, as well. Furthermore, IL-22 siRNA inhibited the proliferation and promoted the apoptosis of A549/PTX and H358/PTX cells, and IL-22 siRNA also suppressed the expression levels of AKT and Bcl-2 and increased the expression levels of Bax and cleaved caspase 3. To sum up, IL-22 may mediate the chemosensitivity of lung adenocarcinoma cells to paclitaxel through inhibiting the AKT signaling pathways.

Computational modeling reveals MAP3K8 as mediator of resistance to vemurafenib in thyroid cancer stem cells

MOTIVATION

Val600Glu (V600E) mutation is the most common BRAF mutation detected in thyroid cancer. Hence, recent research efforts have been performed trying to explore several inhibitors of the V600E mutation-containing BRAF kinase as potential therapeutic options in thyroid cancer refractory to standard interventions. Among them, vemurafenib is a selective BRAF inhibitor approved by Food and Drug Administration for clinical practice. Unfortunately, vemurafenib often displays limited efficacy in poorly differentiated and anaplastic thyroid carcinomas probably because of intrinsic and/or acquired resistance mechanisms. In this view, cancer stem cells (CSCs) may represent a possible mechanism of resistance to vemurafenib, due to their self-renewal and chemo resistance properties.

RESULTS

We present a computational framework to suggest new potential targets to overcome drug resistance. It has been validated with an in vitro model based upon a spheroid-forming method able to isolate thyroid CSCs that may mimic resistance to vemurafenib. Indeed, vemurafenib did not inhibit cell proliferation of BRAF V600E thyroid CSCs, but rather stimulated cell proliferation along with a paradoxical over-activation of ERK and AKT pathways. The computational model identified a fundamental role of mitogen-activated protein kinase 8 (MAP3K8), a serine/threonine kinase expressed in thyroid CSCs, in mediating this drug resistance. To confirm model prediction, we set a suitable in vitro experiment revealing that the treatment with MAP3K8 inhibitor restored the effect of vemurafenib in terms of both DNA fragmentation and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage (apoptosis) in thyroid CSCs. Moreover, MAP3K8 expression levels may be a useful marker to predict the response to vemurafenib.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

The model is available in GitHub repository visiting the following URL: https://github.com/francescopappalardo/MAP3K8-Thyroid-Spheres-V-3.0.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Interleukin 23 and autoimmune diseases: current and possible future therapies

PURPOSE

IL-23 is a central proinflammatory cytokine with a wide range of influence over immune response. It is implicated in several autoimmune diseases due to the infinite inflammatory loops it can create through the positive feedbacks of both IL-17 and IL-22 arms. This made IL-23 a key target of autoimmune disorders therapy, which indeed was proven to inhibit inflammation and ameliorate diseases. Current autoimmune treatments targeting IL-23 are either by preventing IL-23 ligation to its receptor (IL-23R) via antibodies or inhibiting IL-23 signaling by signaling downstream mediators' inhibitors, with each approach having its own pros and cons.

METHODS

Literature review was done to further understand the biology of IL-23 and current therapies.

RESULTS

In this review, we discuss the biological features of IL-23 and its role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases including psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel diseases. Advantages, limitations and side effects of each concept will be reviewed, suggesting several advanced IL-23-based bio-techniques to generate new and possible future therapies to overcome current treatments problems.

Function of PIN1 in Cancer Development and Its Inhibitors as Cancer Therapeutics

Peptidyl-prolyl isomerase (PIN1) specifically binds and isomerizes the phosphorylated serine/threonine-proline (pSer/Thr-Pro) motif, which results in the alteration of protein structure, function, and stability. The altered structure and function of these phosphorylated proteins regulated by PIN1 are closely related to cancer development. PIN1 is highly expressed in human cancers and promotes cancer as well as cancer stem cells by breaking the balance of oncogenes and tumor suppressors. In this review, we discuss the roles of PIN1 in cancer and PIN1-targeted small-molecule compounds.

Functional polymorphism of PIN1 rs2233679 is associated with the progression of CIN to early cervical cancer in Hunan Chinese

OBJECTIVE

Peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase NIMA-interacting 1 (PIN1) involves alteration of the structure, function, intracellular localization and/or stability of the phosphorylated protein on serine or threonine residues which relates to inflammation and tumorigenesis. Association between PIN1 promoter polymorphisms and cancer risk were reported in several cancers. We intend to study the relationship between the polymorphism of PIN1 promoter and cervical cancer initiation and development.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We genotyped two common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (rs2233678 and rs2233679) in the promoter of the PIN1 gene in healthy controls, patients with CIN or cervical cancer. We used polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequencing methods to analyze these two SNPs in 179 patients and 223 healthy controls. Luciferase activity assay was used to detect PIN1 expression driven by the rs2233679.

RESULTS

The results revealed that the carriers of rs2233679 genotypes CT/TT had a significantly increased risk of cervical cancer in patients with CIN compared with genotype CC (odds ration [OR] = 2.924, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.093-7.819, P = 0.033). Luciferase activity assay results revealed that PIN1 expression driven by the rs2233679 genotype TT was higher than the genotype CC (P < 0.05). On the other hand, no significant correlation between the healthy controls and patients was found for PIN1 rs2233678 which showed that rs2233678 genotypes CG/GG is 95% in healthy controls and 100% in patients.

CONCLUSION

PIN1 rs2233679 genotype CT/TT may be a risk factor of early cervical cancer compared with genotype CC in Hunan populations. Our findings suggest that PIN1 rs2233679 genotype CT/TT might involve in the progression of the precancerous stage developing to early cancer by enhancing PIN1 expression.

Interleukin-22 orchestrates a pathological endoplasmic reticulum stress response transcriptional programme in colonic epithelial cells

OBJECTIVE

The functional role of interleukin-22 (IL22) in chronic inflammation is controversial, and mechanistic insights into how it regulates target tissue are lacking. In this study, we evaluated the functional role of IL22 in chronic colitis and probed mechanisms of IL22-mediated regulation of colonic epithelial cells.

DESIGN

To investigate the functional role of IL22 in chronic colitis and how it regulates colonic epithelial cells, we employed a three-dimentional mini-gut epithelial organoid system, in vivo disease models and transcriptomic datasets in human IBD.

RESULTS

As well as inducing transcriptional modules implicated in antimicrobial responses, IL22 also coordinated an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response transcriptional programme in colonic epithelial cells. In the colon of patients with active colonic Crohn's disease (CD), there was enrichment of IL22-responsive transcriptional modules and ER stress response modules. Strikingly, in an IL22-dependent model of chronic colitis, targeting IL22 alleviated colonic epithelial ER stress and attenuated colitis. Pharmacological modulation of the ER stress response similarly impacted the severity of colitis. In patients with colonic CD, antibody blockade of IL12p40, which simultaneously blocks IL12 and IL23, the key upstream regulator of IL22 production, alleviated the colonic epithelial ER stress response.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data challenge perceptions of IL22 as a predominantly beneficial cytokine in IBD and provide novel insights into the molecular mechanisms of IL22-mediated pathogenicity in chronic colitis. Targeting IL22-regulated pathways and alleviating colonic epithelial ER stress may represent promising therapeutic strategies in patients with colitis.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT02749630.

Interleukin-22 promotes development of malignant lesions in a mouse model of spontaneous breast cancer

Interleukin (IL)-22 is recognized as a tumor-supporting cytokine and is implicated in the proliferation of multiple epithelial cancers. In breast cancer, the current knowledge of IL-22 function is based on cell line models and little is known about how IL-22 affects the tumor initiation, proliferation, invasion, and metastasis in the in vivo system. Here, we investigated the tumor stage-specific function of IL-22 in disease development by evaluating the stage-by-stage progression of breast cancer in an IL-22 knockout spontaneous breast cancer mouse model. We found that among all the stages, IL-22 is specifically upregulated in tumor microenvironment (TME) during the malignant transformation stage of breast tumor progression. The deletion of IL-22 gene leads to the arrest of malignant transition stage, and reduced invasion and tumor burden. Administration of recombinant IL-22 in the TME does not influence in vivo tumor initiation and proliferation but only promotes malignant transformation of cancer cells. Mechanistically, deletion of IL-22 gene causes downregulation of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-associated transcription factors in breast tumors, suggesting EMT as the mechanism of regulation of malignancy by IL-22. Clinically, in human breast tumor tissues, increased number of IL-22+ cells in the TME is associated with an aggressive phenotype of breast cancer. For the first time, this study provides an insight into the tumor stage-specific function of IL-22 in breast tumorigenesis.

The plasma peptides of breast versus ovarian cancer

Background

There is a need to demonstrate a proof of principle that proteomics has the capacity to analyze plasma from breast cancer versus other diseases and controls in a multisite clinical trial design. The peptides or proteins that show a high observation frequency, and/or precursor intensity, specific to breast cancer plasma might be discovered by comparison to other diseases and matched controls. The endogenous tryptic peptides of breast cancer plasma were compared to ovarian cancer, female normal, sepsis, heart attack, Alzheimer's and multiple sclerosis along with the institution-matched normal and control samples collected directly onto ice.

Methods

Endogenous tryptic peptides were extracted from individual breast cancer and control EDTA plasma samples in a step gradient of acetonitrile, and collected over preparative C18 for LC-ESI-MS/MS with a set of LTQ XL linear quadrupole ion traps working together in parallel to randomly and independently sample clinical populations. The MS/MS spectra were fit to fully tryptic peptides or phosphopeptides within proteins using the X!TANDEM algorithm. The protein observation frequency was counted using the SEQUEST algorithm after selecting the single best charge state and peptide sequence for each MS/MS spectra. The observation frequency was subsequently tested by Chi Square analysis. The log₁₀ precursor intensity was compared by ANOVA in the R statistical system.

Results

Peptides and/or phosphopeptides of common plasma proteins such as APOE, C4A, C4B, C3, APOA1, APOC2, APOC4, ITIH3 and ITIH4 showed increased observation frequency and/or precursor intensity in breast cancer. Many cellular proteins also showed large changes in frequency by Chi Square (χ² > 100, p < 0.0001) in the breast cancer samples such as CPEB1, LTBP4, HIF-1A, IGHE, RAB44, NEFM, C19orf82, SLC35B1, 1D12A, C8orf34, HIF1A, OCLN, EYA1, HLA-DRB1, LARS, PTPDC1, WWC1, ZNF562, PTMA, MGAT1, NDUFA1, NOGOC, OR1E1, OR1E2, CFI, HSA12, GCSH, ELTD1, TBX15, NR2C2, FLJ00045, PDLIM1, GALNT9, ASH2L, PPFIBP1, LRRC4B, SLCO3A1, BHMT2, CS, FAM188B2, LGALS7, SAT2, SFRS8, SLC22A12, WNT9B, SLC2A4, ZNF101, WT1, CCDC47, ERLIN1, SPFH1, EID2, THOC1, DDX47, MREG, PTPRE, EMILIN1, DKFZp779G1236 and MAP3K8 among others. The protein gene symbols with large Chi Square values were significantly enriched in proteins that showed a complex set of previously established functional and structural relationships by STRING analysis. An increase in mean precursor intensity of peptides was observed for QSER1 as well as SLC35B1, IQCJ-SCHIP1, MREG, BHMT2, LGALS7, THOC1, ANXA4, DHDDS, SAT2, PTMA and FYCO1 among others. In contrast, the QSER1 peptide QPKVKAEPPPK was apparently specific to ovarian cancer.

Conclusion

There was striking agreement between the breast cancer plasma peptides and proteins discovered by LC-ESI-MS/MS with previous biomarkers from tumors, cells lines or body fluids by genetic or biochemical methods. The results indicate that variation in plasma peptides from breast cancer versus ovarian cancer may be directly discovered by LC-ESI-MS/MS that will be a powerful tool for clinical research. It may be possible to use a battery of sensitive and robust linear quadrupole ion traps for random and independent sampling of plasma from a multisite clinical trial.

Type 3 cytokines in liver fibrosis and liver cancer

The type 3 cytokines IL-17 and IL-22 play a crucial, well synchronized physiological role in wound healing and repairing tissue damage due to infections or injury at barrier surfaces. These cytokines act on epithelial cells to induce secretion of early immune mediators, recruitment of inflammatory cells to the site of injury, and to trigger tissue repair mechanisms. However, if the damage persists or if these cytokines are dysregulated, then they contribute to a number of inflammatory pathologies, autoimmune conditions and cancer. The liver is a multifunctional organ that plays an essential role in metabolism, detoxification, and immune surveillance. It is also exposed to a variety of pathogens, toxins and injuries. Over the past decade, IL-17 and IL-22 have been implicated in various aspects of liver inflammation. IL-17 is upregulated in chronic liver injury and associated with liver disease progression. In contrast, IL-22 was shown to be hepatoprotective during acute liver injury but exhibited inflammatory effects in other models. Furthermore, IL-22 and IL-17 are both associated with poor prognosis in liver cancer. Finally, the regulatory mechanisms governing the physiological versus the pathological role of these two cytokines during acute and chronic liver injury remain poorly understood. In this review, we will summarize the current state of knowledge about IL-17 and IL-22 in wound healing during acute and chronic liver injury, their contribution to pathogenesis, their regulation, and their role in the transition from advanced liver disease to liver cancer.

Identification of Alternatively-Activated Pathways between Primary Breast Cancer and Liver Metastatic Cancer Using Microarray Data

Alternatively-activated pathways have been observed in biological experiments in cancer studies, but the concept had not been fully explored in computational cancer system biology. Therefore, an alternatively-activated pathway identification method was proposed and applied to primary breast cancer and breast cancer liver metastasis research using microarray data. Interestingly, the results show that cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction and calcium signaling were significantly enriched under both conditions. TGF beta signaling was found to be the hub in network topology analysis. In total, three types of alternatively-activated pathways were recognized. In the cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction pathway, four active alteration patterns in gene pairs were noticed. Thirteen cytokine-cytokine receptor pairs with inverse activity changes of both genes were verified by the literature. The second type was that some sub-pathways were active under only one condition. For the third type, nodes were significantly active in both conditions, but with different active genes. In the calcium signaling and TGF beta signaling pathways, node E2F5 and E2F4 were significantly active in primary breast cancer and metastasis, respectively. Overall, our study demonstrated the first time using microarray data to identify alternatively-activated pathways in breast cancer liver metastasis. The results showed that the proposed method was valid and effective, which could be helpful for future research for understanding the mechanism of breast cancer metastasis.

MiR-486-5p inhibits IL-22-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition of breast cancer cell by repressing Dock1

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is one of important steps that lead to cancer metastasis. Interleukin-22 (IL-22) is a T helper 17 (Th17) cells-secreted cytokine, it can promote invasion and metastasis of many cancers. MiR-486-5p is a microRNA that known to function as a tumor suppressor, and bioinformatics analysis predicts that Dock-1 has a binding site of miR-486-5p. In current research, we examined the relative expression levels of miR-486-5p and Dock-1 in 80 pairs of breast cancer tissues and corresponding adjacent normal tissues, also the effects of modifying their levels in cultured cells. We illustrated that IL-22 and Dock1 promote the invasion, metastasis, and EMT of breast cancer using Transwell invasion assay, western blot and immunofluorescence. MiR-486-5p directly bound the Dock1 mRNA 3' untranslated region and inhibited IL-22-induced EMT of breast cancer cells via the Dock1/NF-κB/Snail signaling pathway. Dock1 overexpression reversed the effect caused by the overexpression of miR-486-5p. Overexpression of miR-486-5p or downregulation of Dock1 reduced pulmonary metastasis in mice. This study provided insight into a potential mechanism where miRNAs regulate breast cancer metastasis and provided a novel therapeutic target for breast cancer treatment.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 8 (MAP3K8) mediates the LH-induced stimulation of progesterone synthesis in the porcine corpus luteum

Progesterone (P4) synthesized by the corpus luteum (CL) plays a key role in the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. The LH signal is important for luteinisation and P4 synthesis in pigs. In a previous study, we demonstrated that mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 8 (MAP3K8) regulates P4 synthesis in mouse CL, but whether the function and mechanism of MAP3K8 in the pig is similar to that in the mouse is not known. Thus, in the present study we investigated the effects of MAP3K8 on porcine CL. Abundant expression of MAP3K8 was detected in porcine CL, and, in pigs, MAP3K8 expression was higher in mature CLs (or those of the mid-luteal phase) than in regressing CLs (late luteal phase). Further functional studies in cultured porcine luteal cells showed that P4 synthesis and the expression of genes encoding the key enzymes in P4 synthesis are significantly reduced when MAP3K8 is inhibited with the MAP3K8 inhibitor Tpl2 kinase inhibitor (MAP3K8i, 10μM). After 12-24h treatment of luteal cells with 100ngmL-1 LH, MAP3K8 expression and P4 secretion were significantly upregulated. In addition, the 10μM MAP3K8 inhibitor blocked the stimulatory effect of LH on P4 synthesis and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 phosphorylation in porcine luteal cells. The LH-induced increases in MAP3K8 phosphorylation and expression, ERK1/2 phosphorylation and P4 synthesis were all blocked when protein kinase A was inhibited by its inhibitor H89 (20 μM) in porcine luteal cells. In conclusion, MAP3K8 mediates the LH-induced stimulation of P4 synthesis through the PKA/mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling pathway in porcine CL.

Comparison of Coding Transcriptomes in Fibroblasts Irradiated With Low and High LET Proton Beams and Cobalt-60 Photons

PURPOSE

To identify differential cellular responses after proton and photon irradiation by comparing transcriptomes of primary fibroblasts irradiated with either radiation type.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A panel of primary dermal fibroblast cultures was irradiated with low and higher linear energy transfer (LET) proton beams. Cobalt-60 photon irradiation was used as reference. Dose was delivered in 3 fractions of 3.5 Gy (relative biological effectiveness) using a relative biological effectiveness of 1.1 for proton doses. Cells were harvested 2 hours after the final fraction was delivered, and RNA was purified. RNA sequencing was performed using Illumina NextSeq 500 with high-output kit. The edgeR package in R was used for differential gene expression analysis.

RESULTS

Pairwise comparisons of the transcriptomes in the 3 treatment groups showed that there were 84 and 56 differentially expressed genes in the low LET group compared with the Cobalt-60 group and the higher LET group, respectively. The higher LET proton group and the Cobalt-60 group had the most distinct transcriptome profiles, with 725 differentially regulated genes. Differentially regulated canonical pathways and various regulatory factors involved in regulation of biological mechanisms such as inflammation, carcinogenesis, and cell cycle control were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Inflammatory regulators associated with the development of normal tissue complications and malignant transformation factors seem to be differentially regulated by higher LET proton and Cobalt-60 photon irradiation. The reported transcriptome differences could therefore influence the progression of adverse effects and the risk of developing secondary cancers.

Interleukin-22 Promotes Osteosarcoma Cell Proliferation and Invasion via STAT3 Activation

BACKGROUND Interleukin-22 (IL-22) is one of the cytokines secreted by T-helper 17 (Th17) cells. It belongs to the IL-10 cytokine family and influences a variety of immune reactions. Studies have indicated that IL-22 can promote cancer progression and metastases. However, the function of IL-22 in osteosarcoma (OS) remains unclear. MATERIAL AND METHODS In this study, the expression of IL-22 in the OS cell line was detected by qRT-PCR. The role of IL-22 in proliferation and invasion in OS cells was tested by MTT and Transwell assays. The protein expression of STAT3, phospho-STAT3, AKT, and phospho-AKT was detected by Western blot analysis. RESULTS The results showed that IL-22 was upregulated in OS cells. IL-22 dose-independently promoted OS cells proliferation and invasion, which could be reversed by IL-22 antibody or STAT3 siRNA. Furthermore, IL-22 exposure of OS cells resulted in dose-independently increased levels of phosphorylated STAT3 protein kinases. Interestingly, IL-22 did not influence the expression of phosphorylated AKT. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that IL-22 promotes OS cells proliferation and invasion and its effect is mediated by activation of the STAT3 pathway. These findings demonstrate that IL-22 may serve as a promising molecular biomarker for diagnosis and therapy for OS patients.

Breast Cancer Metastasis: Are Cytokines Important Players During Its Development and Progression?

In breast cancer, an uncontrolled cell proliferation leads to tumor formation and development of a multifactorial disease. Metastasis is a complex process that involves tumor spread to distant parts of the body from its original site. Metastatic dissemination represents the main physiopathology of cancer. Inter- and intracellular communication in all systems in vertebrates is mediated by cytokines, which are highly inducible, secretory proteins, produced not only by immune system cells, but also by endocrine and nervous system cells. It has become clear in recent years that cytokines, as well as their receptors are produced in the organisms under physiological and pathological conditions; recently, they have been closely related to breast cancer metastasis. The exact initiation process of breast cancer metastasis is unknown, although several hypotheses have emerged. In this study, we thoroughly reviewed the role of several cytokines in breast cancer metastasis. Data reviewed suggest that cytokines and growth factors are key players in the breast cancer metastasis induction. This knowledge must be considered with the aim to development of new therapeutic approaches to counter breast cancer metastasis.

Prolyl isomerase Pin1: a promoter of cancer and a target for therapy

Pin1 is the only known peptidyl-prolyl cis–trans isomerase (PPIase) that specifically recognizes and isomerizes the phosphorylated Serine/Threonine-Proline (pSer/Thr-Pro) motif. The Pin1-mediated structural transformation posttranslationally regulates the biofunctions of multiple proteins. Pin1 is involved in many cellular processes, the aberrance of which lead to both degenerative and neoplastic diseases. Pin1 is highly expressed in the majority of cancers and its deficiency significantly suppresses cancer progression. According to the ground-breaking summaries by Hanahan D and Weinberg RA, the hallmarks of cancer comprise ten biological capabilities. Multiple researches illuminated that Pin1 contributes to these aberrant behaviors of cancer via promoting various cancer-driving pathways. This review summarized the detailed mechanisms of Pin1 in different cancer capabilities and certain Pin1-targeted small-molecule compounds that exhibit anticancer activities, expecting to facilitate anticancer therapies by targeting Pin1.

Interleukin-22 (IL-22) Regulates Apoptosis of Paclitaxel-Resistant Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cells Through C-Jun N-Terminal Kinase Signaling Pathway

BACKGROUND Reducing drug resistance in tumor cells has become an important issue for cancer treatment. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether IL-22 was involved in lung cancer cell resistance to paclitaxel (PTX), and to explore the underlying molecular mechanism. MATERIAL AND METHODS Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell line A549 and the drug resistant cell line A549/PTX were used in the present study. The inhibitory rate of PTX on A549 and A549/PTX cell proliferation was determined by MTT assay and the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value was calculated. The expression level of IL-22 was detected using Western blot and qRT-PCR. To elucidate the mechanism by which IL-22 is involved in PTX resistance, a stable IL-22-silenced A549/PTX cell line was generated by using IL-22-siRNA. Cell apoptosis was analyzed by flow cytometry, and the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signal pathway was determined using Western blot analysis. RESULTS We found that IL-22 expression level was markedly higher in A549/PTX cells than in A549 cells, and IL-22 gene knockdown significantly enhanced the cell proliferation inhibition rate of PTX to A549/PTX cells and decreased the IC50 value of PTX to A549/PTX cells, indicating IL-22 was involved in cell PTX resistance. Our findings also suggest that IL-22 knockdown notably increased PTX induced apoptosis in A549/PTX cells. Moreover, the results showed that p-JNK and Caspase 3 expression were significantly increased in IL-22 knockdown A549/PTX cells, while Bcl-2 expression was significantly decreased. CONCLUSIONS IL-22 is involved in A549 cell resistance to PTX through regulating cell apoptosis via the JNK signaling pathway.

Diverse effects of interleukin-22 on pancreatic diseases

Interleukin-22 (IL-22) is involved in the development of lymphocytes and serves as a rapid and early source of the effector cytokines that are released in response to pathogen-induced changes in the microenvironment. Recent research has implicated IL-22 as a potential contributing factor to the spectrum of inflammation-related pancreatic diseases, particularly pancreatitis, fibrosis, carcinoma and diabetes. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the roles of IL-22 in the various pancreatic pathogenesis, providing insights into the underlying cellular and signaling mechanisms that will help guide future research into promising interventional targets with therapeutic potential.

A catch-22: Interleukin-22 and cancer

Barrier surfaces of multicellular organisms are in constant contact with the environment and infractions to the integrity of epithelial surfaces is likely a frequent event. Interestingly, components of the immune system, that can be activated by environmental compounds such as the microbiota or nutrients, are interspersed among epithelial cells or directly underlie the epithelium. It is now appreciated that immune cells continuously receive and integrate signals from the environment. Curiously, such continuous reception of stimulation does not normally trigger an inflammatory response but mediators produced by immune cells in response to such signals seem to rather promote barrier integrity and repair. The molecular mediators involved in this process are poorly understood. In recent years, the cytokine interleukin-22, produced mainly by group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), has been studied as a paradigm for how immune cells can control various aspects of epithelial cell function because expression of its receptor is restricted to non-hematopoietic cells. We will summarize here the diverse roles of IL-22 for the malignant transformation of epithelial cells, for tumor growth, wound healing and tissue repair. Furthermore, we will discuss IL-22 as a potential therapeutic target.

Chronic Rhinosinusitis with Polyps Is Characterized by Increased Mucosal and Blood Th17 Effector Cytokine Producing Cells

Background: Recent studies have implied a role for Th17 cells in CRS with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) patients. However, the capacity of these cells to produce Th17 cytokines is still unknown. Here we sought to quantify IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, and IL-22 cytokines produced by Th17 cells in mucosal tissue and peripheral blood of CRSwNP, CRS without nasal polyps (CRSsNP) and control patients.

Methods: Samples were prospectively collected from CRS patients and non-CRS controls. We used flow cytometry to characterize the Th17 cells and their cytokines in sinonasal tissue and peripheral blood.

Results: A total of 36 patients were recruited to the study. CRSwNP patients had significantly more tissue IL-17A (9.53 ± 2.71 vs. 1.11 ± 0.43 vs. 0.77 ± 0.07), IL-17F (4.96 ± 1.48 vs. 0.88 ± 0.31 vs. 0.56 ± 0.04), IL-21 (5.55 ± 2.01 vs. 1.60 ± 0.71 vs. 1.53 ± 0.55) and IL-22 (4.73 ± 1.58 vs. 0.70 ± 0.28 vs. 0.88 ± 0.26) producing Th17 cells compared to CRSsNP and control mucosa per mg of tissue, respectively. Allergic CRSwNP patients had decreased numbers of IL-21 producing Th17 cells compared to non-Allergic CRSwNP. (1.69 ± 0.57 vs. 9.41 ± 3.23) per mg of tissue, respectively (Kruskal-Wallis p < 0.05).

Conclusion: In summary our study identified increased numbers of IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21 and IL-22 positive Th17 cells in CRSwNP patient polyps and peripheral blood suggesting an altered activation state of those cells both locally and systemically. Atopic CRSwNP had decreased amounts of tissue Th17 cell derived IL-21 implying a potential protective role for IL-21 in CRSwNP allergic inflammation.

Evolution of the magic bullet: Single chain antibody fragments for the targeted delivery of immunomodulatory proteins

Immunocytokines are fusion proteins that combine the specific antigen binding capacities of an antibody or derivative thereof and the potent bioactivity of a cytokine partner. These novel biopharmaceuticals have been directed to various targets of oncological as well as non-oncological origin and a handful of promising constructs are currently advancing in the clinical trial pipeline. Several factors such as the choice of a disease specific antigen, the antibody format and the modulatory nature of the payload are crucial, not only for therapeutic efficacy and safety but also for the commercial success of such a product. In this review, we provide an overview of the basic principles and obstacles in immunocytokine design with a specific focus on single chain antibody fragment-based constructs that employ interleukins as the immunoactive component. Impact statement Selective activation of the immune system in a variety of malignancies represents an attractive approach when existing strategies have failed to provide adequate treatment options. Immunocytokines as a novel class of bifunctional protein therapeutics have emerged recently and generated promising results in preclinical and clinical studies. In order to harness their full potential, multiple different aspects have to be taken into consideration. Several key points of these fusion constructs are discussed here and should provide an outline for the development of novel products based on an overview of selected formats.

Cancer cells induce interleukin-22 production from memory CD4+ T cells via interleukin-1 to promote tumor growth

IL-22 has been identified as a cancer-promoting cytokine that is secreted by infiltrating immune cells in several cancer models. We hypothesized that IL-22 regulation would occur at the interface between cancer cells and immune cells. Breast and lung cancer cells of murine and human origin induced IL-22 production from memory CD4+ T cells. In the present study, we found that IL-22 production in humans is dependent on activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome with the subsequent release of IL-1β from both myeloid and T cells. IL-1 receptor signaling via the transcription factors AhR and RORγt in T cells was necessary and sufficient for IL-22 production. In these settings, IL-1 induced IL-22 production from a mixed T helper cell population comprised of Th1, Th17, and Th22 cells, which was abrogated by the addition of anakinra. We confirmed these findings in vitro and in vivo in two murine tumor models, in primary human breast and lung cancer cells, and in deposited expression data. Relevant to ongoing clinical trials in breast cancer, we demonstrate here that the IL-1 receptor antagonist anakinra abrogates IL-22 production and reduces tumor growth in a murine breast cancer model. Thus, we describe here a previously unrecognized mechanism by which cancer cells induce IL-22 production from memory CD4+ T cells via activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and the release of IL-1β to promote tumor growth. These findings may provide the basis for therapeutic interventions that affect IL-22 production by targeting IL-1 activity.