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Xia W, Liu S, Chu H, Chen X, Huang L, Bai T, Jiao X, Wang W, Jiang H, Wang X. Rational Design and Modification of NphB for Cannabinoids Biosynthesis. Molecules 2024; 29:4454. [PMID: 39339449 PMCID: PMC11434003 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29184454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2024] [Revised: 09/14/2024] [Accepted: 09/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024] Open
Abstract
The rapidly growing field of cannabinoid research is gaining recognition for its impact in neuropsychopharmacology and mood regulation. However, prenyltransferase (NphB) (a key enzyme in cannabinoid precursor synthesis) still needs significant improvement in order to be usable in large-scale industrial applications due to low activity and limited product range. By rational design and high-throughput screening, NphB's catalytic efficiency and product diversity have been markedly enhanced, enabling direct production of a range of cannabinoids, without the need for traditional enzymatic conversions, thus broadening the production scope of cannabinoids, including cannabigerol (CBG), cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), cannabigerovarin (CBGV), and cannabigerovarinic acid (CBGVA). Notably, the W3 mutant achieved a 10.6-fold increase in CBG yield and exhibited a 10.3- and 20.8-fold enhancement in catalytic efficiency for CBGA and CBGV production, respectively. The W4 mutant also displayed an 9.3-fold increase in CBGVA activity. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that strategic reconfiguration of the active site's hydrogen bonding network, disulfide bond formation, and enhanced hydrophobic interactions are pivotal for the improved synthetic efficiency of these NphB mutants. Our findings advance the understanding of enzyme optimization for cannabinoid synthesis and lay a foundation for the industrial-scale production of these valuable compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhao Xia
- New Cornerstone Science Laboratory, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Qinling Ecological Intelligent Monitoring and Protection, School of Ecology and Environment, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China; (W.X.); (X.C.)
- Jiaxing Synbiolab Technology Co., Ltd., Jiaxing 314000, China; (S.L.); (L.H.); (T.B.); (X.J.)
| | - Shimeng Liu
- Jiaxing Synbiolab Technology Co., Ltd., Jiaxing 314000, China; (S.L.); (L.H.); (T.B.); (X.J.)
| | - Huanyu Chu
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China;
| | - Xianqing Chen
- New Cornerstone Science Laboratory, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Qinling Ecological Intelligent Monitoring and Protection, School of Ecology and Environment, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China; (W.X.); (X.C.)
- Jiaxing Synbiolab Technology Co., Ltd., Jiaxing 314000, China; (S.L.); (L.H.); (T.B.); (X.J.)
| | - Lihui Huang
- Jiaxing Synbiolab Technology Co., Ltd., Jiaxing 314000, China; (S.L.); (L.H.); (T.B.); (X.J.)
| | - Tao Bai
- Jiaxing Synbiolab Technology Co., Ltd., Jiaxing 314000, China; (S.L.); (L.H.); (T.B.); (X.J.)
| | - Xi Jiao
- Jiaxing Synbiolab Technology Co., Ltd., Jiaxing 314000, China; (S.L.); (L.H.); (T.B.); (X.J.)
| | - Wen Wang
- New Cornerstone Science Laboratory, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Qinling Ecological Intelligent Monitoring and Protection, School of Ecology and Environment, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China; (W.X.); (X.C.)
| | - Huifeng Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China;
| | - Xiao Wang
- Jiaxing Synbiolab Technology Co., Ltd., Jiaxing 314000, China; (S.L.); (L.H.); (T.B.); (X.J.)
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2
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Wang F, Zang Z, Zhao Q, Xiaoyang C, Lei X, Wang Y, Ma Y, Cao R, Song X, Tang L, Deyholos MK, Zhang J. Advancement of Research Progress on Synthesis Mechanism of Cannabidiol (CBD). ACS Synth Biol 2024; 13:2008-2018. [PMID: 38900848 PMCID: PMC11264327 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.4c00239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is a multipurpose crop with high value for food, textiles, and other industries. Its secondary metabolites, including cannabidiol (CBD), have potential for broad application in medicine. With the CBD market expanding, traditional production may not be sufficient. Here we review the potential for the production of CBD using biotechnology. We describe the chemical and biological synthesis of cannabinoids, the associated enzymes, and the application of metabolic engineering, synthetic biology, and heterologous expression to increasing production of CBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu Wang
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Zhenyuan Zang
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Qian Zhao
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Chunxiao Xiaoyang
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Xiujuan Lei
- College
of Chinese Medicinal Materials, Jilin Agricultural
University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Yingping Wang
- College
of Chinese Medicinal Materials, Jilin Agricultural
University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Yiqiao Ma
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Rongan Cao
- College
of Food Science, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural
University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xixia Song
- Institute
of Industrial Crops of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Haerbin 150000, China
| | - Lili Tang
- Institute
of Industrial Crops of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Haerbin 150000, China
| | - Michael K. Deyholos
- Department
of Biology, University of British Columbia,
Okanagan, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Jian Zhang
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
- Department
of Biology, University of British Columbia,
Okanagan, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
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3
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Ye M, Gao J, Li J, Yu W, Bai F, Zhou YJ. Promoter engineering enables precise metabolic regulation towards efficient β-elemene production in Ogataea polymorpha. Synth Syst Biotechnol 2024; 9:234-241. [PMID: 38385152 PMCID: PMC10877135 DOI: 10.1016/j.synbio.2024.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Precisely controlling gene expression is beneficial for optimizing biosynthetic pathways for improving the production. However, promoters in nonconventional yeasts such as Ogataea polymorpha are always limited, which results in incompatible gene modulation. Here, we expanded the promoter library in O. polymorpha based on transcriptional data, among which 13 constitutive promoters had the strengths ranging from 0-55% of PGAP, the commonly used strong constitutive promoter, and 2 were growth phase-dependent promoters. Subsequently, 2 hybrid growth phase-dependent promoters were constructed and characterized, which had 2-fold higher activities. Finally, promoter engineering was applied to precisely regulate cellular metabolism for efficient production of β-elemene. The glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene GAP was downregulated to drive more flux into pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) and then to enhance the supply of acetyl-CoA by using phosphoketolase-phosphotransacetylase (PK-PTA) pathway. Coupled with the phase-dependent expression of synthase module (ERG20∼LsLTC2 fusion), the highest titer of 5.24 g/L with a yield of 0.037 g/(g glucose) was achieved in strain YY150U under fed-batch fermentation in shake flasks. This work characterized and engineered a series of promoters, that can be used to fine-tune genes for constructing efficient yeast cell factories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Ye
- Division of Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian, 116023, PR China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, PR China
| | - Jiaoqi Gao
- Division of Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian, 116023, PR China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, PR China
- Dalian Key Laboratory of Energy Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, PR China
| | - Jingjing Li
- Division of Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian, 116023, PR China
- Dalian Key Laboratory of Energy Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, PR China
| | - Wei Yu
- Division of Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian, 116023, PR China
- Dalian Key Laboratory of Energy Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, PR China
| | - Fan Bai
- Division of Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian, 116023, PR China
- Dalian Key Laboratory of Energy Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, PR China
| | - Yongjin J. Zhou
- Division of Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian, 116023, PR China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, PR China
- Dalian Key Laboratory of Energy Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, PR China
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Jordan EN, Shirali Hossein Zade R, Pillay S, van Lent P, Abeel T, Kayser O. Integrated omics of Saccharomyces cerevisiae CENPK2-1C reveals pleiotropic drug resistance and lipidomic adaptations to cannabidiol. NPJ Syst Biol Appl 2024; 10:63. [PMID: 38821949 PMCID: PMC11143246 DOI: 10.1038/s41540-024-00382-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Yeast metabolism can be engineered to produce xenobiotic compounds, such as cannabinoids, the principal isoprenoids of the plant Cannabis sativa, through heterologous metabolic pathways. However, yeast cell factories continue to have low cannabinoid production. This study employed an integrated omics approach to investigate the physiological effects of cannabidiol on S. cerevisiae CENPK2-1C yeast cultures. We treated the experimental group with 0.5 mM CBD and monitored CENPK2-1C cultures. We observed a latent-stationary phase post-diauxic shift in the experimental group and harvested samples in the inflection point of this growth phase for transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis. We compared the transcriptomes of the CBD-treated yeast and the positive control, identifying eight significantly overexpressed genes with a log fold change of at least 1.5 and a significant adjusted p-value. Three notable genes were PDR5 (an ABC-steroid and cation transporter), CIS1, and YGR035C. These genes are all regulated by pleiotropic drug resistance linked promoters. Knockout and rescue of PDR5 showed that it is a causal factor in the post-diauxic shift phenotype. Metabolomic analysis revealed 48 significant spectra associated with CBD-fed cell pellets, 20 of which were identifiable as non-CBD compounds, including fatty acids, glycerophospholipids, and phosphate-salvage indicators. Our results suggest that mitochondrial regulation and lipidomic remodeling play a role in yeast's response to CBD, which are employed in tandem with pleiotropic drug resistance (PDR). We conclude that bioengineers should account for off-target product C-flux, energy use from ABC-transport, and post-stationary phase cell growth when developing cannabinoid-biosynthetic yeast strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Noel Jordan
- Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Straße 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany.
| | - Ramin Shirali Hossein Zade
- Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Delft University of Technology Van Mourik, Broekmanweg 6, 2628 XE, Delft, The Netherlands
- Department of Biomedical Data Sciences, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Leiden Center for Computational Oncology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Stephanie Pillay
- Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Delft University of Technology Van Mourik, Broekmanweg 6, 2628 XE, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Paul van Lent
- Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Delft University of Technology Van Mourik, Broekmanweg 6, 2628 XE, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Abeel
- Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Delft University of Technology Van Mourik, Broekmanweg 6, 2628 XE, Delft, The Netherlands
- Infectious Disease and Microbiome Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA
| | - Oliver Kayser
- Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Straße 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany.
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5
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Monyela S, Kayoka PN, Ngezimana W, Nemadodzi LE. Evaluating the Metabolomic Profile and Anti-Pathogenic Properties of Cannabis Species. Metabolites 2024; 14:253. [PMID: 38786730 PMCID: PMC11122914 DOI: 10.3390/metabo14050253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The Cannabis species is one of the potent ancient medicinal plants acclaimed for its medicinal properties and recreational purposes. The plant parts are used and exploited all over the world for several agricultural and industrial applications. For many years Cannabis spp. has proven to present a highly diverse metabolomic profile with a pool of bioactive metabolites used for numerous pharmacological purposes ranging from anti-inflammatory to antimicrobial. Cannabis sativa has since been an extensive subject of investigation, monopolizing the research. Hence, there are fewer studies with a comprehensive understanding of the composition of bioactive metabolites grown in different environmental conditions, especially C. indica and a few other Cannabis strains. These pharmacological properties are mostly attributed to a few phytocannabinoids and some phytochemicals such as terpenoids or essential oils which have been tested for antimicrobial properties. Many other discovered compounds are yet to be tested for antimicrobial properties. These phytochemicals have a series of useful properties including anti-insecticidal, anti-acaricidal, anti-nematicidal, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, and anti-viral properties. Research studies have reported excellent antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative multidrug-resistant bacteria as well as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Although there has been an extensive investigation on the antimicrobial properties of Cannabis, the antimicrobial properties of Cannabis on phytopathogens and aquatic animal pathogens, mostly those affecting fish, remain under-researched. Therefore, the current review intends to investigate the existing body of research on metabolomic profile and anti-microbial properties whilst trying to expand the scope of the properties of the Cannabis plant to benefit the health of other animal species and plant crops, particularly in agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shadrack Monyela
- Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, University of South Africa, Science Campus, Florida, Johannesburg 1710, South Africa
| | - Prudence Ngalula Kayoka
- Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, University of South Africa, Science Campus, Florida, Johannesburg 1710, South Africa
| | - Wonder Ngezimana
- Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Plant and Animal Sciences and Technology, Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Marondera P.O. Box 35, Zimbabwe
| | - Lufuno Ethel Nemadodzi
- Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, University of South Africa, Science Campus, Florida, Johannesburg 1710, South Africa
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6
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Jordan EN, Schmidt C, Kayser O. Foldseek reveals a CBGA prenylating enzyme GlyMa_02G168000 from Glycine max. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2024; 696:149471. [PMID: 38219483 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.149471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
The present research provides an application for an aromatic prenyltransferase from Glycine max for use in heterologous microorganism expression to generate cannabinoids. The known cannabinoid prenyltransferase CsPT04 was queried in FoldSeek. An enzyme derived from Glycine max known as GLYMA_02G168000, which is a predicted homogentisate solanyltransferase, was identified and found to have affinity for the prenylation of geranyldiphosphate (GPP) and olivetolic acid (OA) to produce cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) and cannabigerol (CBG). The in vitro production of CBGA was accomplished through the heterologous expression of this prenyltransferase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. After growing the yeast cells, a purified microsomal fraction was harvested, which was rich in the membrane-bound prenyltransferase GlyMa_02G168000. Addition of purified microsomal fraction to a reaction matrix facilitated the successful prenylation of externally supplied OA with GPP, culminating in the production of CBGA. Structural comparisons revealed a notably closer similarity between GLYMA_02G168000 and CsPT04, compared to the similarity of other cannabinoid prenyltransferases with CsPT04. Herein, a novel application for a homogentisate solanyltransferase has been established towards the production of cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Noel Jordan
- Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Straße 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Christina Schmidt
- Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Straße 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Oliver Kayser
- Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Straße 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany.
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7
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Bartončíková M, Lapčíková B, Lapčík L, Valenta T. Hemp-Derived CBD Used in Food and Food Supplements. Molecules 2023; 28:8047. [PMID: 38138537 PMCID: PMC10745805 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28248047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L., a plant historically utilized for textile fibers, oil, and animal feed, is progressively being recognized as a potential food source. This review elucidates the nutritional and functional attributes of hemp and cannabidiol (CBD) within the context of food science. Hemp is characterized by the presence of approximately 545 secondary metabolites, among which around 144 are bioactive cannabinoids of primary importance. The study looks in detail at the nutritional components of cannabis and the potential health benefits of CBD, encompassing anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, and antipsychotic effects. The review deals with the legislation and potential applications of hemp in the food industry and with the future directions of cannabis applications as well. The paper emphasizes the need for more scientific investigation to validate the safety and efficacy of hemp components in food products, as current research suggests that CBD may have great benefits for a wide range of consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Bartončíková
- Department of Foodstuff Technology, Faculty of Technology, Tomas Bata University in Zlin, Nám. T.G. Masaryka 5555, CZ-760 01 Zlin, Czech Republic; (M.B.); (T.V.)
| | - Barbora Lapčíková
- Department of Foodstuff Technology, Faculty of Technology, Tomas Bata University in Zlin, Nám. T.G. Masaryka 5555, CZ-760 01 Zlin, Czech Republic; (M.B.); (T.V.)
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacky University Olomouc, 17. Listopadu 12, CZ-771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Lubomír Lapčík
- Department of Foodstuff Technology, Faculty of Technology, Tomas Bata University in Zlin, Nám. T.G. Masaryka 5555, CZ-760 01 Zlin, Czech Republic; (M.B.); (T.V.)
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacky University Olomouc, 17. Listopadu 12, CZ-771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Valenta
- Department of Foodstuff Technology, Faculty of Technology, Tomas Bata University in Zlin, Nám. T.G. Masaryka 5555, CZ-760 01 Zlin, Czech Republic; (M.B.); (T.V.)
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Xie Z, Mi Y, Kong L, Gao M, Chen S, Chen W, Meng X, Sun W, Chen S, Xu Z. Cannabis sativa: origin and history, glandular trichome development, and cannabinoid biosynthesis. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2023; 10:uhad150. [PMID: 37691962 PMCID: PMC10485653 DOI: 10.1093/hr/uhad150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Is Cannabis a boon or bane? Cannabis sativa has long been a versatile crop for fiber extraction (industrial hemp), traditional Chinese medicine (hemp seeds), and recreational drugs (marijuana). Cannabis faced global prohibition in the twentieth century because of the psychoactive properties of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol; however, recently, the perspective has changed with the recognition of additional therapeutic values, particularly the pharmacological potential of cannabidiol. A comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanism of cannabinoid biosynthesis is necessary to cultivate and promote globally the medicinal application of Cannabis resources. Here, we comprehensively review the historical usage of Cannabis, biosynthesis of trichome-specific cannabinoids, regulatory network of trichome development, and synthetic biology of cannabinoids. This review provides valuable insights into the efficient biosynthesis and green production of cannabinoids, and the development and utilization of novel Cannabis varieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyan Xie
- Key Laboratory of Saline-alkali Vegetation Ecology Restoration (Northeast Forestry University), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Yaolei Mi
- Key Laboratory of Saline-alkali Vegetation Ecology Restoration (Northeast Forestry University), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
- Key Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Lingzhe Kong
- Key Laboratory of Saline-alkali Vegetation Ecology Restoration (Northeast Forestry University), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Maolun Gao
- Key Laboratory of Saline-alkali Vegetation Ecology Restoration (Northeast Forestry University), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Shanshan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Weiqiang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Xiangxiao Meng
- Key Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Wei Sun
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
- Key Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Shilin Chen
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
- Institute of Herbgenomics, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| | - Zhichao Xu
- Key Laboratory of Saline-alkali Vegetation Ecology Restoration (Northeast Forestry University), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
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9
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Kwiecień E, Kowalczuk D. Therapeutic Potential of Minor Cannabinoids in Dermatological Diseases-A Synthetic Review. Molecules 2023; 28:6149. [PMID: 37630401 PMCID: PMC10459035 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28166149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermatological diseases pose a significant burden on the quality of life of individuals and can be challenging to treat effectively. In this aspect, cannabinoids are gaining increasing importance due to their therapeutic potential in various disease entities including skin diseases. In this synthetic review, we comprehensively analyzed the existing literature in the field of potential dermatological applications of a lesser-known subgroup of cannabinoids, the so-called minor cannabinoids, such as cannabidivarin (CBDV), cannabidiforol (CBDP), cannabichromene (CBC), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabielsoin (CBE), cannabimovone (CBM) or cannabinol (CBN), while drawing attention to their unique pharmacological properties. We systematically searched the available databases for relevant studies and analyzed the data to provide an overview of current thematic knowledge. We looked through the full-text, bibliographic and factographic databases, especially Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, Polish Scientific Journals Database, and selected the most relevant papers. Our review highlights that minor cannabinoids exhibit diverse pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, and anti-itch properties. Several studies have reported their efficacy in mitigating symptoms associated with dermatological diseases such as psoriasis, eczema, acne, and pruritus. Furthermore, minor cannabinoids have shown potential in regulating sebum production, a crucial factor in acne pathogenesis. The findings of this review suggest that minor cannabinoids hold therapeutic promise in the management of dermatological diseases. Further preclinical and clinical investigations are warranted to elucidate their mechanisms of action, determine optimal dosage regimens, and assess long-term safety profiles. Incorporating minor cannabinoids into dermatological therapies could potentially offer novel treatment options of patients and improve their overall well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Kwiecień
- Chair and Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090 Lublin, Poland;
- A-Sense Sp. z o.o., ul. Moscickiego 1, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Dorota Kowalczuk
- Chair and Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090 Lublin, Poland;
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Vasilev N. Medicinal Plants: Guests and Hosts in the Heterologous Expression of High-Value Products. PLANTA MEDICA 2022; 88:1175-1189. [PMID: 34521134 DOI: 10.1055/a-1576-4148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Medicinal plants play an important dual role in the context of the heterologous expression of high-value pharmaceutical products. On the one hand, the classical biochemical and modern omics approaches allowed for the discovery of various genes encoding biosynthetic pathways in medicinal plants. Recombinant DNA technology enabled introducing these genes and regulatory elements into host organisms and enhancing the heterologous production of the corresponding secondary metabolites. On the other hand, the transient expression of foreign DNA in plants facilitated the production of numerous proteins of pharmaceutical importance. This review summarizes several success stories of the engineering of plant metabolic pathways in heterologous hosts. Likewise, a few examples of recombinant protein expression in plants for therapeutic purposes are also highlighted. Therefore, the importance of medicinal plants has grown immensely as sources for valuable products of low and high molecular weight. The next step ahead for bioengineering is to achieve more success stories of industrial-scale production of secondary plant metabolites in microbial systems and to fully exploit plant cell factories' commercial potential for recombinant proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay Vasilev
- TU Dortmund University, Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Technical Biochemistry, Dortmund, Germany
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11
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De Prato L, Timmins M, Ansari O, Ruthrof KX, Hardy GESJ, Howieson J, O’Hara G. Semi-quantitative analysis of cannabinoids in hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. J Cannabis Res 2022; 4:51. [PMID: 36138416 PMCID: PMC9503267 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-022-00161-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a producer of cannabinoids. These organic compounds are of increasing interest due to their potential applications in the medicinal field. Advances in analytical methods of identifying and quantifying these molecules are needed.
Method
This study describes a new method of cannabinoid separation from plant material using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) as the analytical tool to detect low abundance cannabinoids that will likely have implications for future therapeutical treatments. A novel approach was adopted to separate trichomes from plant material to analyse cannabinoids of low abundance not observed in raw plant extract. Required plant sample used for analysis was greatly reduced compared to other methods. Derivatisation method was simplified and deconvolution software was utilised to recognise unknown cannabinoid compounds of low abundance.
Results
The method produces well-separated spectra and allows the detection of major and minor cannabinoids. Ten cannabinoids that had available standards could be identified and quantified and numerous unidentified cannabinoids or pathway intermediates based on GC-MS spectra similarities could be extracted and analysed simultaneously with this method.
Conclusions
This is a rapid novel extraction and analytical method from plant material that can identify major and minor cannabinoids using a simple technique. The method will be of use to future researchers seeking to study the multitude of cannabinoids whose values are currently not understood.
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12
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Shaw WM, Zhang Y, Lu X, Khalil AS, Ladds G, Luo X, Ellis T. Screening microbially produced Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol using a yeast biosensor workflow. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5509. [PMID: 36127350 PMCID: PMC9489785 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33207-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial production of cannabinoids promises to provide a consistent, cheaper, and more sustainable supply of these important therapeutic molecules. However, scaling production to compete with traditional plant-based sources is challenging. Our ability to make strain variants greatly exceeds our capacity to screen and identify high producers, creating a bottleneck in metabolic engineering efforts. Here, we present a yeast-based biosensor for detecting microbially produced Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) to increase throughput and lower the cost of screening. We port five human cannabinoid G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) into yeast, showing the cannabinoid type 2 receptor, CB2R, can couple to the yeast pheromone response pathway and report on the concentration of a variety of cannabinoids over a wide dynamic and operational range. We demonstrate that our cannabinoid biosensor can detect THC from microbial cell culture and use this as a tool for measuring relative production yields from a library of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol acid synthase (THCAS) mutants. Microbial production of cannabinoids promises a cheaper and more sustainable route to these important therapeutic molecules, but strain improvement and screening is challenging. Here, the authors develop a yeast-based Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) biosensor for screening microbial mutant libraries.
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Affiliation(s)
- William M Shaw
- Biological Design Center, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.,Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.,Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Yunfeng Zhang
- Center for Synthetic Biochemistry, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Xinyu Lu
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.,Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Ahmad S Khalil
- Biological Design Center, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.,Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Graham Ladds
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1PD, UK
| | - Xiaozhou Luo
- Center for Synthetic Biochemistry, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Tom Ellis
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK. .,Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
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13
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Kufs JE, Reimer C, Stallforth P, Hillmann F, Regestein L. The potential of amoeba-based processes for natural product syntheses. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2022; 77:102766. [PMID: 35944344 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The identification of novel platform organisms for the production and discovery of small molecules is of high interest for the pharmaceutical industry. In particular, the structural complexity of most natural products with therapeutic potential restricts an industrial production since chemical syntheses often require complex multistep routes. The amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum can be easily cultivated in bioreactors due to its planktonic growth behavior and contains numerous polyketide and terpene synthase genes with only a few compounds being already elucidated. Hence, the amoeba both bears a wealth of hidden natural products and allows for the development of new bioprocesses for existing pharmaceuticals. In this mini review, we present D. discoideum as a novel platform for the production of complex secondary metabolites and discuss its suitability for industrial processes. We also provide initial insights into future bioprocesses, both involving bacterial coculture setups and for the production of plant-based pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann E Kufs
- Bio Pilot Plant, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany
| | - Christin Reimer
- Evolution of Microbial Interactions, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany; Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Pierre Stallforth
- Paleobiotechnology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany; Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Institute for Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry, Jena, Germany
| | - Falk Hillmann
- Evolution of Microbial Interactions, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany
| | - Lars Regestein
- Bio Pilot Plant, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany.
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14
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Muratovska N, Silva P, Pozdniakova T, Pereira H, Grey C, Johansson B, Carlquist M. Towards engineered yeast as production platform for capsaicinoids. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 59:107989. [PMID: 35623491 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.107989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Capsaicinoids are bioactive alkaloids produced by the chili pepper fruit and are known to be the most potent agonists of the human pain receptor TRPV1 (Transient Receptor Potential Cation Channel Subfamily V Member 1). They are currently produced by extraction from chili pepper fruit or by chemical synthesis. Transfer of the biosynthetic route to a microbial host could enable more efficient capsaicinoid production by fermentation and may also enable the use of synthetic biology to create a diversity of new compounds with potentially improved properties. This review summarises the current state of the art on the biosynthesis of capsaicinoid precursors in baker's yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and discusses bioengineering strategies for achieving total synthesis from sugar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Muratovska
- Division of Applied Microbiology, Lund University, Box 124, 221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Paulo Silva
- CBMA - Center of Molecular and Environmental Biology Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga 4710-057, Portugal
| | - Tatiana Pozdniakova
- CBMA - Center of Molecular and Environmental Biology Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga 4710-057, Portugal
| | - Humberto Pereira
- CBMA - Center of Molecular and Environmental Biology Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga 4710-057, Portugal
| | - Carl Grey
- Division of Biotechnology, Lund University, Box 118, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Björn Johansson
- CBMA - Center of Molecular and Environmental Biology Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga 4710-057, Portugal.
| | - Magnus Carlquist
- Division of Applied Microbiology, Lund University, Box 124, 221 00 Lund, Sweden.
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15
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Purdy TN, Moore BS, Lukowski AL. Harnessing ortho-Quinone Methides in Natural Product Biosynthesis and Biocatalysis. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2022; 85:688-701. [PMID: 35108487 PMCID: PMC9006567 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.1c01026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The implementation of ortho-quinone methide (o-QM) intermediates in complex molecule assembly represents a remarkably efficient strategy designed by Nature and utilized by synthetic chemists. o-QMs have been taken advantage of in biomimetic syntheses for decades, yet relatively few examples of o-QM-generating enzymes in natural product biosynthetic pathways have been reported. The biosynthetic enzymes that have been discovered thus far exhibit tremendous potential for biocatalytic applications, enabling the selective production of desirable compounds that are otherwise intractable or inherently difficult to achieve by traditional synthetic methods. Characterization of this biosynthetic machinery has the potential to shine a light on new enzymes capable of similar chemistry on diverse substrates, thus expanding our knowledge of Nature's catalytic repertoire. The presently known o-QM-generating enzymes include flavin-dependent oxidases, hetero-Diels-Alderases, S-adenosyl-l-methionine-dependent pericyclases, and α-ketoglutarate-dependent nonheme iron enzymes. In this review, we discuss their diverse enzymatic mechanisms and potential as biocatalysts in constructing natural product molecules such as cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor N Purdy
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Bradley S Moore
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - April L Lukowski
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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16
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Converting Sugars into Cannabinoids—The State-of-the-Art of Heterologous Production in Microorganisms. FERMENTATION 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/fermentation8020084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The legal cannabis market worldwide is facing new challenges regarding innovation in the production of cannabinoid-based drugs. The usual cannabinoid production involves growing Cannabis sativa L. outdoor or in dedicated indoor growing facilities, followed by isolation and purification steps. This process is limited by the growth cycles of the plant, where the cannabinoid content can deeply vary from each harvest. A game change approach that does not involve growing a single plant has gained the attention of the industry: cannabinoids fermentation. From recombinant yeasts and bacteria, researchers are able to reproduce the biosynthetic pathway to generate cannabinoids, such as (-)-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and (-)-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (Δ9-THCV). This approach avoids pesticides, and natural resources such as water, land, and energy are reduced. Compared to growing cannabis, fermentation is a much faster process, although its limitation regarding the phytochemical broad range of molecules naturally present in cannabis. So far, there is not a consolidated process for this brand-new approach, being an emerging and promising concept for countries in which cultivation of Cannabis sativa L. is illegal. This survey discusses the techniques and microorganisms already established to accomplish the task and those yet in seeing for the future, exploring upsides and limitations about metabolic pathways, toxicity, and downstream recovery of cannabinoids throughout heterologous production. Therapeutic potential applications of cannabinoids and in silico methodology toward optimization of metabolic pathways are also explored. Moreover, conceptual downstream analysis is proposed to illustrate the recovery and purification of cannabinoids through the fermentation process, and a patent landscape is presented to provide the state-of-the-art of the transfer of knowledge from the scientific sphere to the industrial application.
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17
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In Vitro and Clinical Evaluation of Cannabigerol (CBG) Produced via Yeast Biosynthesis: A Cannabinoid with a Broad Range of Anti-Inflammatory and Skin Health-Boosting Properties. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27020491. [PMID: 35056807 PMCID: PMC8778347 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27020491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cannabigerol (CBG) is a minor non-psychoactive cannabinoid present in Cannabis sativa L. (C. sativa) at low levels (<1% per dry weight) that serves as the direct precursor to both cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Consequently, efforts to extract and purify CBG from C. sativa is both challenging and expensive. However, utilizing a novel yeast fermentation technology platform, minor cannabinoids such as CBG can be produced in a more sustainable, cost-effective, and timely process as compared to plant-based production. While CBD has been studied extensively, demonstrating several beneficial skin properties, there are a paucity of studies characterizing the activity of CBG in human skin. Therefore, our aim was to characterize and compare the in vitro activity profile of non-psychoactive CBG and CBD in skin and be the first group to test CBG clinically on human skin. Gene microarray analysis conducted using 3D human skin equivalents demonstrates that CBG regulates more genes than CBD, including several key skin targets. Human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) and normal human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEKs) were exposed in culture to pro-inflammatory inducers to trigger cytokine production and oxidative stress. Results demonstrate that CBG and CBD reduce reactive oxygen species levels in HDFs better than vitamin C. Moreover, CBG inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokine (Interleukin-1β, -6, -8, tumor necrosis factor α) release from several inflammatory inducers, such as ultraviolet A (UVA), ultraviolet B (UVB), chemical, C. acnes, and in several instances does so more potently than CBD. A 20-subject vehicle-controlled clinical study was performed with 0.1% CBG serum and placebo applied topically for 2 weeks after sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS)-induced irritation. CBG serum showed statistically significant improvement above placebo for transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and reduction in the appearance of redness. Altogether, CBG’s broad range of in vitro and clinical skin health-promoting activities demonstrates its strong potential as a safe, effective ingredient for topical use and suggests there are areas where it may be more effective than CBD.
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18
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Reimer C, Kufs JE, Rautschek J, Regestein L, Valiante V, Hillmann F. Engineering the amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum for biosynthesis of a cannabinoid precursor and other polyketides. Nat Biotechnol 2022; 40:751-758. [PMID: 34992245 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-021-01143-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Aromatic polyketides are natural polyphenolic compounds with a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities. Production of those metabolites in the model organisms Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been limited by the extensive cellular engineering needed for the coordinated biosynthesis of polyketides and their precursors. In contrast, the amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum is a native producer of secondary metabolites and harbors a wide, but largely unexplored, repertoire of genes for the biosynthesis of polyketides and terpenoids. Here we present D. discoideum as an advantageous chassis for the production of aromatic polyketides. By expressing its native and cognate plant polyketide synthase genes in D. discoideum, we demonstrate production of phlorocaprophenone, methyl-olivetol, resveratrol and olivetolic acid (OA), which is the central intermediate in the biosynthesis of cannabinoids. To facilitate OA synthesis, we further engineered an amoeba/plant inter-kingdom hybrid enzyme that produced OA from primary metabolites in two enzymatic steps, providing a shortcut in a synthetic cannabinoid pathway using the D. discoideum host system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christin Reimer
- Evolution of Microbial Interactions, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany.,Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Johann E Kufs
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany.,Biobricks of Microbial Natural Product Syntheses, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany.,Bio Pilot Plant, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany
| | - Julia Rautschek
- Biobricks of Microbial Natural Product Syntheses, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany
| | - Lars Regestein
- Bio Pilot Plant, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany
| | - Vito Valiante
- Biobricks of Microbial Natural Product Syntheses, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany.
| | - Falk Hillmann
- Evolution of Microbial Interactions, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz-HKI), Jena, Germany.
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19
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Mudziwapasi R, Mufandaedza J, Jomane FN, Songwe F, Ndudzo A, Nyamusamba RP, Takombwa AR, Mahla MG, Pullen J, Mlambo SS, Mahuni C, Mufandaedza E, Shoko R. Unlocking the potential of synthetic biology for improving livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa. ALL LIFE 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/26895293.2021.2014986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Reagan Mudziwapasi
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Lupane State University, Lupane, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Fortune N. Jomane
- Department of Animal Science and Rangeland Management, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Lupane State University, Lupane, Zimbabwe
| | - Fanuel Songwe
- Department of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe
| | - Abigarl Ndudzo
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Lupane State University, Lupane, Zimbabwe
| | - Rutendo P. Nyamusamba
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Lupane State University, Lupane, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Melinda G. Mahla
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Lupane State University, Lupane, Zimbabwe
| | - Jessica Pullen
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Lupane State University, Lupane, Zimbabwe
| | - Sibonani S. Mlambo
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Edward Mufandaedza
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Lupane State University, Lupane, Zimbabwe
| | - Ryman Shoko
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Agriculture, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
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20
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Hussain T, Jeena G, Pitakbut T, Vasilev N, Kayser O. Cannabis sativa research trends, challenges, and new-age perspectives. iScience 2021; 24:103391. [PMID: 34841230 PMCID: PMC8605354 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.103391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. has been one of the oldest medicinal plants cultivated for 10,000 years for several agricultural and industrial applications. However, the plant became controversial owing to some psychoactive components that have adverse effects on human health. In this review, we analyzed the trends in cannabis research for the past two centuries. We discussed the historical transitions of cannabis from the category of herbal medicine to an illicit drug and back to a medicinal product post-legalization. In addition, we address the new-age application of immuno-suppressive and anti-inflammatory extracts for the treatment of COVID-19 inflammation. We further address the influence of the legal aspects of cannabis cultivation for medicinal, pharmaceutical, and biotechnological research. We reviewed the up-to-date cannabis genomic resources and advanced technologies for their potential application in genomic-based cannabis improvement. Overall, this review discusses the diverse aspects of cannabis research developments ranging from traditional use as herbal medicine to the latest potential in COVID-19, legal practices with updated patent status, and current state of art genetic and genomic tools reshaping cannabis biotechnology in modern age agriculture and pharmaceutical industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tajammul Hussain
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Strasse. 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Ganga Jeena
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Strasse. 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Thanet Pitakbut
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Strasse. 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Nikolay Vasilev
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Strasse. 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Oliver Kayser
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Strasse. 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
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21
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Kanabus J, Bryła M, Roszko M, Modrzewska M, Pierzgalski A. Cannabinoids-Characteristics and Potential for Use in Food Production. Molecules 2021; 26:6723. [PMID: 34771132 PMCID: PMC8588477 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26216723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Scientific demonstrations of the beneficial effects of non-psychoactive cannabinoids on the human body have increased the interest in foods containing hemp components. This review systematizes the latest discoveries relating to the characteristics of cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. var. sativa, it also presents a characterization of the mentioned plant. In this review, we present data on the opportunities and limitations of cannabinoids in food production. This article systematizes the data on the legal aspects, mainly the limits of Δ9-THC in food, the most popular analytical techniques (LC-MS and GC-MS) applied to assay cannabinoids in finished products, and the available data on the stability of cannabinoids during heating, storage, and access to light and oxygen. This may constitute a major challenge to their common use in food processing, as well as the potential formation of undesirable degradation products. Hemp-containing foods have great potential to become commercially popular among functional foods, provided that our understanding of cannabinoid stability in different food matrices and cannabinoid interactions with particular food ingredients are expanded. There remains a need for more data on the effects of technological processes and storage on cannabinoid degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Kanabus
- Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland; (M.B.); (M.R.); (M.M.); (A.P.)
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22
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Gibbons WJ, McKinney MG, O'Dell PJ, Bollinger BA, Jones JA. Homebrewed psilocybin: can new routes for pharmaceutical psilocybin production enable recreational use? Bioengineered 2021; 12:8863-8871. [PMID: 34607532 PMCID: PMC8806991 DOI: 10.1080/21655979.2021.1987090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Psilocybin, a drug most commonly recognized as a recreational psychedelic, is quickly gaining attention as a promising therapy for an expanding range of neurological conditions, including depression, anxiety, and addiction. This growing interest has led to many recent advancements in psilocybin synthesis strategies, including multiple in vivo fermentation-based approaches catalyzed by recombinant microorganisms. In this work, we show that psilocybin can be produced in biologically relevant quantities using a recombinant E. coli strain in a homebrew style environment. In less than 2 days, we successfully produced approximately 300 mg/L of psilocybin under simple conditions with easily sourced equipment and supplies. This finding raises the question of how this new technology should be regulated as to not facilitate clandestine biosynthesis efforts, while still enabling advancements in psilocybin synthesis technology for pharmaceutical applications. Here, we present our homebrew results, and suggestions on how to address the regulatory concerns accompanying this new technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Gibbons
- Department of Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA
| | - Madeline G McKinney
- Department of Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA
| | - Philip J O'Dell
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA
| | - Brooke A Bollinger
- Department of Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA
| | - J Andrew Jones
- Department of Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA
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23
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Xu B, Li Z, Alsup TA, Ehrenberger MA, Rudolf JD. Bacterial diterpene synthases prenylate small molecules. ACS Catal 2021; 11:5906-5915. [PMID: 34796043 PMCID: PMC8594881 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.1c01113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The biosynthesis of terpenoid natural products begins with a carbocation-based cyclization or prenylation reaction. While these reactions are mechanistically similar, there are several families of enzymes, namely terpene synthases and prenyltransferases, that have evolved to specifically catalyze terpene cyclization or prenylation reactions. Here, we report that bacterial diterpene synthases, enzymes that are traditionally considered to be specific for cyclization, are capable of efficiently catalyzing both diterpene cyclization and the prenylation of small molecules. We investigated this unique dual reactivity of terpene synthases through a series of kinetic, biocatalytic, structural, and bioinformatics studies. Overall, this study unveils the ability of terpene synthases to catalyze C-, N-, O-, and S-prenylation on small molecules, proposes a substrate decoy mechanism for prenylation by terpene synthases, supports the physiological relevance of terpene synthase-catalyzed prenylation in vivo, and addresses questions regarding the evolution of prenylation function and its potential role in natural products biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baofu Xu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Zining Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Tyler A. Alsup
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | | | - Jeffrey D. Rudolf
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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24
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Han J, Jiang L, Zhang L, Quinn RJ, Liu X, Feng Y. Peculiarities of meroterpenoids and their bioproduction. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:3987-4003. [PMID: 33937926 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11312-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Meroterpenoids are a class of terpenoid-containing hybrid natural products with impressive structural architectures and remarkable pharmacological activities. Remarkable advances in enzymology and synthetic biology have greatly contributed to the elucidation of the molecular basis for their biosynthesis. Here, we review structurally unique meroterpenoids catalyzed by novel enzymes and unusual enzymatic reactions over the period of last 5 years. We also discuss recent progress on the biomimetic synthesis of chrome meroterpenoids and synthetic biology-driven biomanufacturing of tropolone sesquiterpenoids, merochlorins, and plant-derived meroterpenoid cannabinoids. In particular, we focus on the novel enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of polyketide-terpenoids, nonribosomal peptide-terpenoids, terpenoid alkaloids, and meroterpenoid with unique structures. The biological activities of these meroterpenoids are also discussed. The information reviewed here might provide useful clues and lay the foundation for developing new meroterpenoid-derived drugs. KEY POINTS: • Meroterpenoids possess intriguing structural features and relevant biological activities. • Novel enzymes are involved in the biosynthesis of meroterpenoids with unique structures. • Biomimetic synthesis and synthetic biology enable the construction and manufacturing of complex meroterpenoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianying Han
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, QLD, Brisbane, 4111, Australia
| | - Lan Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Lixin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Ronald J Quinn
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, QLD, Brisbane, 4111, Australia
| | - Xueting Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China.
| | - Yunjiang Feng
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, QLD, Brisbane, 4111, Australia.
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Cancer Initiation, Progression and Resistance: Are Phytocannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. Promising Compounds? Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26092668. [PMID: 34063214 PMCID: PMC8124362 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is a source of over 150 active compounds known as phytocannabinoids that are receiving renewed interest due to their diverse pharmacologic activities. Indeed, phytocannabinoids mimic the endogenous bioactive endocannabinoids effects through activation of CB1 and CB2 receptors widely described in the central nervous system and peripheral tissues. All phytocannabinoids have been studied for their protective actions towards different biological mechanisms, including inflammation, immune response, oxidative stress that, altogether, result in an inhibitory activity against the carcinogenesis. The role of the endocannabinoid system is not yet completely clear in cancer, but several studies indicate that cannabinoid receptors and endogenous ligands are overexpressed in different tumor tissues. Recently, in vitro and in vivo evidence support the effectiveness of phytocannabinoids against various cancer types, in terms of proliferation, metastasis, and angiogenesis, actions partially due to their ability to regulate signaling pathways critical for cell growth and survival. The aim of this review was to report the current knowledge about the action of phytocannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. against cancer initiation and progression with a specific regard to brain, breast, colorectal, and lung cancer as well as their possible use in the therapies. We will also report the known molecular mechanisms responsible for such positive effects. Finally, we will describe the actual therapeutic options for Cannabis sativa L. and the ongoing clinical trials.
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Carsanba E, Pintado M, Oliveira C. Fermentation Strategies for Production of Pharmaceutical Terpenoids in Engineered Yeast. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:295. [PMID: 33810302 PMCID: PMC8066412 DOI: 10.3390/ph14040295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Terpenoids, also known as isoprenoids, are a broad and diverse class of plant natural products with significant industrial and pharmaceutical importance. Many of these natural products have antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, and antimalarial effects, support transdermal absorption, prevent and treat cardiovascular diseases, and have hypoglycemic activities. Production of these compounds are generally carried out through extraction from their natural sources or chemical synthesis. However, these processes are generally unsustainable, produce low yield, and result in wasting of substantial resources, most of them limited. Microbial production of terpenoids provides a sustainable and environment-friendly alternative. In recent years, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has become a suitable cell factory for industrial terpenoid biosynthesis due to developments in omics studies (genomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, proteomics), and mathematical modeling. Besides that, fermentation development has a significant importance on achieving high titer, yield, and productivity (TYP) of these compounds. Up to now, there have been many studies and reviews reporting metabolic strategies for terpene biosynthesis. However, fermentation strategies have not been yet comprehensively discussed in the literature. This review summarizes recent studies of recombinant production of pharmaceutically important terpenoids by engineered yeast, S. cerevisiae, with special focus on fermentation strategies to increase TYP in order to meet industrial demands to feed the pharmaceutical market. Factors affecting recombinant terpenoids production are reviewed (strain design and fermentation parameters) and types of fermentation process (batch, fed-batch, and continuous) are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erdem Carsanba
- Amyris BioProducts Portugal, Unipessoal, Lda. Rua Diogo Botelho 1327, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal;
- CBQF—Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina—Laboratório Associado, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Rua Diogo Botelho 1327, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Manuela Pintado
- CBQF—Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina—Laboratório Associado, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Rua Diogo Botelho 1327, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Carla Oliveira
- CBQF—Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina—Laboratório Associado, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Rua Diogo Botelho 1327, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal;
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27
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Westmoreland FM, Kusuma P, Bugbee B. Cannabis lighting: Decreasing blue photon fraction increases yield but efficacy is more important for cost effective production of cannabinoids. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0248988. [PMID: 33755709 PMCID: PMC7987162 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
LED technology facilitates a range of spectral quality, which can be used to optimize photosynthesis, plant shape and secondary metabolism. We conducted three studies to investigate the effect of blue photon fraction on yield and quality of medical hemp. Conditions were varied among studies to evaluate potential interactions with environment, but all environmental conditions other than the blue photon fraction were maintained constant among the five-chambers in each study. The photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD, 400 to 700 nm) was rigorously maintained at the set point among treatments in each study by raising the fixtures. The lowest fraction of blue photons was 4% from HPS, and increased to 9.8, 10.4, 16, and 20% from LEDs. There was a consistent, linear, 12% decrease in yield in each study as the fraction of blue photons increased from 4 to 20%. Dry flower yield ranged from 500 to 750 g m-2. This resulted in a photon conversion efficacy of 0.22 to 0.36 grams dry flower mass yield per mole of photons. Yield was higher at a PPFD of 900 than at 750 μmol m-2 s-1. There was no effect of spectral quality on CBD or THC concentration. CBD and THC were 8% and 0.3% at harvest in trials one and two, and 12% and 0.5% in trial three. The CBD/THC ratio was about 25 to 1 in all treatments and studies. The efficacy of the fixtures ranged from 1.7 (HPS) to 2.5 μmol per joule (white+red LED). Yield under the white+red LED fixture (10.4% blue) was 4.6% lower than the HPS on a per unit area basis, but was 27% higher on a per dollar of electricity basis. These findings suggest that fixture efficacy and initial cost of the fixture are more important for return on investment than spectral distribution at high photon flux.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paul Kusuma
- Crop Physiology Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Bruce Bugbee
- Crop Physiology Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
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28
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Oultram JMJ, Pegler JL, Bowser TA, Ney LJ, Eamens AL, Grof CPL. Cannabis sativa: Interdisciplinary Strategies and Avenues for Medical and Commercial Progression Outside of CBD and THC. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9030234. [PMID: 33652704 PMCID: PMC7996784 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9030234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis sativa (Cannabis) is one of the world’s most well-known, yet maligned plant species. However, significant recent research is starting to unveil the potential of Cannabis to produce secondary compounds that may offer a suite of medical benefits, elevating this unique plant species from its illicit narcotic status into a genuine biopharmaceutical. This review summarises the lengthy history of Cannabis and details the molecular pathways that underpin the production of key secondary metabolites that may confer medical efficacy. We also provide an up-to-date summary of the molecular targets and potential of the relatively unknown minor compounds offered by the Cannabis plant. Furthermore, we detail the recent advances in plant science, as well as synthetic biology, and the pharmacology surrounding Cannabis. Given the relative infancy of Cannabis research, we go on to highlight the parallels to previous research conducted in another medically relevant and versatile plant, Papaver somniferum (opium poppy), as an indicator of the possible future direction of Cannabis plant biology. Overall, this review highlights the future directions of cannabis research outside of the medical biology aspects of its well-characterised constituents and explores additional avenues for the potential improvement of the medical potential of the Cannabis plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackson M. J. Oultram
- Centre for Plant Science, University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia; (J.M.J.O.); (J.L.P.); (A.L.E.)
| | - Joseph L. Pegler
- Centre for Plant Science, University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia; (J.M.J.O.); (J.L.P.); (A.L.E.)
| | - Timothy A. Bowser
- CannaPacific Pty Ltd., 109 Ocean Street, Dudley, NSW 2290, Australia;
| | - Luke J. Ney
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7005, Australia;
| | - Andrew L. Eamens
- Centre for Plant Science, University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia; (J.M.J.O.); (J.L.P.); (A.L.E.)
| | - Christopher P. L. Grof
- Centre for Plant Science, University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia; (J.M.J.O.); (J.L.P.); (A.L.E.)
- CannaPacific Pty Ltd., 109 Ocean Street, Dudley, NSW 2290, Australia;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +612-4921-5858
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29
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Riboulet-Zemouli K. ‘Cannabis’ ontologies I: Conceptual issues with Cannabis and cannabinoids terminology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/2050324520945797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Objective Identify a coherent nomenclature for Cannabis sativa L. derived products and their analogues. Design Research undertaken in parallel to the three-year assessment of Cannabis derivatives by the World Health Organisation. The scope is limited to Cannabis products intended for human incorporation (internal and topical consumption). Primarily embedded in pharmacognosy, the study incorporates a wide range of scholarly and grey literature, folk knowledge, archives, pharmacopœias, international law, field pharmacy, clinical and herbal medicine data, under a philosophical scrutiny. Generic and Cannabis-specific nomenclatural frames are compared to determine the extent to which they coincide or conflict. Results All lexica reviewed use weak, ambiguous, or inconsistent terms. There is insufficient scientific basis for terms and concepts related to Cannabis at all levels. No sound classification exists: current models conflict by adopting idiosyncratic, partial, outdated, or utilitarian schemes to arrange the extraordinarily numerous and diverse derivatives of the C. sativa plant. In law and policy, no clear or unequivocal boundary between herbal and non-herbal drugs, nor natural and synthetic cannabinoids was found; current nomenclatures need updates. In science, the botanical Cannabis lexicon overlooks parthenocarpy, and wide disagreement remains as to the taxonomy and systematics of the plant; chemical research should address differences in kinds between synthetic cannabinoids; pharmacopœias include little information related to Cannabis, and disagree on broader classes of herbal medicines, virtually failing to embrace many known Cannabis medicines. Since existing products and compounds fail to be categorised in an evidence-based manner, confusions will likely increase as novel cannabinoid compounds, genetic and biotechnological modifications surge. Conclusions The lack of clarity is comprehensive: for patients, physicians, and regulators. This study proposes an update of terms at several levels. It points at gaps in morphological descriptions in botany and pharmacognosy and a need for a metaphysical address of cannabinoids. Methods of obtention are identified as a common criterion to distinguish products; the way forward suggests a mutually exclusive nomenclatural pattern based on the smallest common denominator of obtention methods. In the context of a swelling number of Cannabis products being consumed (be it via medical prescription, adult-use, ‘hemp’ foodstuff and cosmetics, or other purposes), this study can assist research, contribute to transparent labelling of products, consumer safety and awareness, pharmacovigilance, medical standards of care, and an update of prevention and harm reduction approaches. It can also better inform regulatory policies surrounding C. sativa, its derivatives, and other cannabinoid-containing products.
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30
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Valliere MA, Korman TP, Arbing MA, Bowie JU. A bio-inspired cell-free system for cannabinoid production from inexpensive inputs. Nat Chem Biol 2020; 16:1427-1433. [PMID: 32839605 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-020-0631-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Moving cannabinoid production away from the vagaries of plant extraction and into engineered microbes could provide a consistent, purer, cheaper and environmentally benign source of these important therapeutic molecules, but microbial production faces notable challenges. An alternative to microbes and plants is to remove the complexity of cellular systems by employing enzymatic biosynthesis. Here we design and implement a new cell-free system for cannabinoid production with the following features: (1) only low-cost inputs are needed; (2) only 12 enzymes are employed; (3) the system does not require oxygen and (4) we use a nonnatural enzyme system to reduce ATP requirements that is generally applicable to malonyl-CoA-dependent pathways such as polyketide biosynthesis. The system produces ~0.5 g l-1 cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) or cannabigerovarinic acid (CBGVA) from low-cost inputs, nearly two orders of magnitude higher than yeast-based production. Cell-free systems such as this may provide a new route to reliable cannabinoid production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meaghan A Valliere
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Molecular Biology Institute, UCLA-DOE Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Conagen, Inc., Bedford, MA, USA
| | - Tyler P Korman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Molecular Biology Institute, UCLA-DOE Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Invizyne Technologies, Inc., Monrovia, CA, USA
| | - Mark A Arbing
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Molecular Biology Institute, UCLA-DOE Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - James U Bowie
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Molecular Biology Institute, UCLA-DOE Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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31
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Thomas F, Schmidt C, Kayser O. Bioengineering studies and pathway modeling of the heterologous biosynthesis of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid in yeast. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:9551-9563. [PMID: 33043390 PMCID: PMC7595985 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10798-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Heterologous biosynthesis of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) in yeast is a biotechnological process in Natural Product Biotechnology that was recently introduced. Based on heterologous genes from Cannabis sativa and Streptomyces spp. cloned into Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the heterologous biosynthesis was fully embedded as a proof of concept. Low titer and insufficient biocatalytic rate of most enzymes require systematic optimization of recombinant catalyst by protein engineering and consequent C-flux improvement of the yeast chassis for sufficient precursor (acetyl-CoA), energy (ATP), and NADH delivery. In this review basic principles of in silico analysis of anabolic pathways towards olivetolic acid (OA) and cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) are elucidated and discussed to identify metabolic bottlenecks. Based on own experimental results, yeasts are discussed as potential platform organisms to be introduced as potential cannabinoid biofactories. Especially feeding strategies and limitations in the committed mevalonate and olivetolic acid pathways are in focus of in silico and experimental studies to validate the scientific and commercial potential as a realistic alternative to the plant Cannabis sativa.Key points• First time critical review of the heterologous process for recombinant THCA/CBDA production and critical review of bottlenecks and limitations for a bioengineered technical process• Integrative approach of protein engineering, systems biotechnology, and biochemistry of yeast physiology and biosynthetic cannabinoid enzymes• Comparison of NphB and CsPT aromatic prenyltransferases as rate-limiting catalytic steps towards cannabinoids in yeast as platform organisms Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Thomas
- TU Dortmund University, Technical Biochemistry, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Christina Schmidt
- TU Dortmund University, Technical Biochemistry, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Oliver Kayser
- TU Dortmund University, Technical Biochemistry, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany.
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32
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Gülck T, Booth JK, Carvalho Â, Khakimov B, Crocoll C, Motawia MS, Møller BL, Bohlmann J, Gallage NJ. Synthetic Biology of Cannabinoids and Cannabinoid Glucosides in Nicotiana benthamiana and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2020; 83:2877-2893. [PMID: 33000946 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c00241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Phytocannabinoids are a group of plant-derived metabolites that display a wide range of psychoactive as well as health-promoting effects. The production of pharmaceutically relevant cannabinoids relies on extraction and purification from cannabis (Cannabis sativa) plants yielding the major constituents, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol. Heterologous biosynthesis of cannabinoids in Nicotiana benthamiana or Saccharomyces cerevisiae may provide cost-efficient and rapid future production platforms to acquire pure and high quantities of both the major and the rare cannabinoids as well as novel derivatives. Here, we used a meta-transcriptomic analysis of cannabis to identify genes for aromatic prenyltransferases of the UbiA superfamily and chalcone isomerase-like (CHIL) proteins. Among the aromatic prenyltransferases, CsaPT4 showed CBGAS activity in both N. benthamiana and S. cerevisiae. Coexpression of selected CsaPT pairs and of CHIL proteins encoding genes with CsaPT4 did not affect CBGAS catalytic efficiency. In a screen of different plant UDP-glycosyltransferases, Stevia rebaudiana SrUGT71E1 and Oryza sativa OsUGT5 were found to glucosylate olivetolic acid, cannabigerolic acid, and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid. Metabolic engineering of N. benthamiana for production of cannabinoids revealed intrinsic glucosylation of olivetolic acid and cannabigerolic acid. S. cerevisiae was engineered to produce olivetolic acid glucoside and cannabigerolic acid glucoside.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thies Gülck
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - J K Booth
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Â Carvalho
- River Stone Biotech ApS, Fruebjergvej 3, 2100 København Ø, Denmark
| | - B Khakimov
- Chemometrics & Analytical Technology, Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 26, 1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - C Crocoll
- Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - M S Motawia
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - B L Møller
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
- Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - J Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - N J Gallage
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
- Octarine Bio, Fruebjergvej 3, 2100 København Ø, Denmark
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33
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New frontiers: harnessing pivotal advances in microbial engineering for the biosynthesis of plant-derived terpenoids. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2020; 65:88-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2020.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Alves VL, Gonçalves JL, Aguiar J, Teixeira HM, Câmara JS. The synthetic cannabinoids phenomenon: from structure to toxicological properties. A review. Crit Rev Toxicol 2020; 50:359-382. [PMID: 32530350 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2020.1762539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The word "cannabinoid" refers to every chemical substance, regardless of structure or origin, that joins the cannabinoid receptors of the body and brain and that have similar effects to those produced by the Cannabis plant and based on their source of production, cannabinoids can be classified into endocannabinoids, phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids. Synthetic cannabinoids represent the largest class of drugs detected through the EU Early Warning System with a total of 190 substances notified from 2008 to 2018 and about 280 have been reported worldwide to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Sprayed on natural herb mixtures with the aim to mimic the euphoria effect of cannabis and sold as "herbal smoking blends" or "herbal incense" under brand names like "Spice" or "K2", synthetic cannabinoids are available from websites for the combination with herbal materials or more recently, for the use in e-cigarettes. Currently labeled as "not for human consumption" to circumvent legislation, their legal status varies by country with many government institutions currently pushing for their control. However, due to the emergence of new substances, it requires a constant update of the list of controlled drugs. Little is known about how these substances work and their toxic effects in humans and the same product could vary not only in the amount and in the type of substance added. In the last years, synthetic cannabinoids have been associated with deaths and acute intoxications in Europe and, despite a range of new measures introduced in this area, continue to represent a challenge to current drug policy models. These synthetic substances are much more potent than natural cannabis, as well as displayed greater efficacy, acting as full agonists at the cannabinoid receptors. It is possible that, along with being highly potent, some may also have long half-lives, potentially leading to a prolonged psychoactive effect. The present work provides a review on existing literature about the development of synthetic cannabinoids as substances of abuse, current patterns of abuse and their legal status, chemical classification, and some pharmacological and toxicological properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera L Alves
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - João L Gonçalves
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Joselin Aguiar
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Helena M Teixeira
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra, Portugal.,Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - José S Câmara
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal.,Faculdade de Ciências Exactas e da Engenharia, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
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35
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Formato M, Crescente G, Scognamiglio M, Fiorentino A, Pecoraro MT, Piccolella S, Catauro M, Pacifico S. (‒)-Cannabidiolic Acid, a Still Overlooked Bioactive Compound: An Introductory Review and Preliminary Research. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25112638. [PMID: 32517131 PMCID: PMC7321064 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25112638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) is the main phytocannabinoid in fiber and seed-oil hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) plants, but its potential health-related capabilities have been masked for years by a greater scientific interest towards its neutral derivative cannabidiol (CBD). This review aims to collect from the literature and critically discuss all the information about this molecule, starting from its biosynthesis, and focusing on its bioactivity, as an anti-inflammatory, anti-emetic, anti-convulsant, and anti-cancerogenic drug. Furthermore, in the awareness that, despite its multiple bioactive effects, currently poor efforts have been made to achieve its reliable purification, herein, we propose a relatively simple, fast, and inexpensive procedure for its recovery from pollen of industrial hemp cultivars. Spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques allowed us to unequivocally identify pure isolated CBDA and to distinguish it from the constitutional isomer tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA-A).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marialuisa Formato
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Giuseppina Crescente
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Monica Scognamiglio
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Antonio Fiorentino
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Maria Tommasina Pecoraro
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Simona Piccolella
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Michelina Catauro
- Department of Engineering, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Roma 29, I-81031 Aversa, Italy;
| | - Severina Pacifico
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
- Correspondence:
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Aliferis KA, Bernard-Perron D. Cannabinomics: Application of Metabolomics in Cannabis ( Cannabis sativa L.) Research and Development. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:554. [PMID: 32457786 PMCID: PMC7225349 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) is a complex, polymorphic plant species, which produces a vast array of bioactive metabolites, the two major chemical groups being cannabinoids and terpenoids. Nonetheless, the psychoactive cannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9 -THC) and the non-psychoactive cannabidiol (CBD), are the two major cannabinoids that have monopolized the research interest. Currently, more than 600 Cannabis varieties are commercially available, providing access to a multitude of potent extracts with complex compositions, whose genetics are largely inconclusive. Recently introduced legislation on Cannabis cultivation in many countries represents a great opportunity, but at the same time, a great challenge for Cannabis research and development (R&D) toward applications in the pharmaceutical, food, cosmetics, and agrochemical industries. Based on its versatility and unique capabilities in the deconvolution of the metabolite composition of complex matrices, metabolomics represents an ideal bioanalytical tool that could greatly assist and accelerate Cannabis R&D. Among others, Cannabis metabolomics or cannabinomics can be applied in the taxonomy of Cannabis varieties in chemovars, the research on the discovery and assessment of new Cannabis-based sources of bioactivity in medicine, the development of new food products, and the optimization of its cultivation, aiming for improvements in yield and potency. Although Cannabis research is still in its infancy, it is highly foreseen that the employment of advanced metabolomics will provide insights that could assist the sector to face the aforementioned challenges. Within this context, here, the current state-of-the-art and conceptual aspects of cannabinomics are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos A. Aliferis
- Laboratory of Pesticide Science, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
- Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Kovalchuk I, Pellino M, Rigault P, van Velzen R, Ebersbach J, Ashnest JR, Mau M, Schranz ME, Alcorn J, Laprairie RB, McKay JK, Burbridge C, Schneider D, Vergara D, Kane NC, Sharbel TF. The Genomics of Cannabis and Its Close Relatives. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 71:713-739. [PMID: 32155342 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-081519-040203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is an important yet controversial plant with a long history of recreational, medicinal, industrial, and agricultural use, and together with its sister genus Humulus, it represents a group of plants with a myriad of academic, agricultural, pharmaceutical, industrial, and social interests. We have performed a meta-analysis of pooled published genomics data, andwe present a comprehensive literature review on the evolutionary history of Cannabis and Humulus, including medicinal and industrial applications. We demonstrate that current Cannabis genome assemblies are incomplete, with ∼10% missing, 10-25% unmapped, and 45S and 5S ribosomal DNA clusters as well as centromeres/satellite sequences not represented. These assemblies are also ordered at a low resolution, and their consensus quality clouds the accurate annotation of complete, partial, and pseudogenized gene copies. Considering the importance of genomics in the development of any crop, this analysis underlines the need for a coordinated effort to quantify the genetic and biochemical diversity of this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Kovalchuk
- Department of Biology, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - M Pellino
- College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 4J8, Canada;
| | - P Rigault
- Gydle Inc., Québec, Québec G1S 1E7, Canada
- Center for Organismal Studies (COS), University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - R van Velzen
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University, 6703 BD Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Bedrocan International, 9640 CA Veendam, The Netherlands
| | - J Ebersbach
- Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0X2, Canada
| | - J R Ashnest
- College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 4J8, Canada;
| | - M Mau
- College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 4J8, Canada;
| | - M E Schranz
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University, 6703 BD Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - J Alcorn
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - R B Laprairie
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E5, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - J K McKay
- College of Agricultural Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
| | - C Burbridge
- School of Environment and Sustainability, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - D Schneider
- School of Environment and Sustainability, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - D Vergara
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - N C Kane
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - T F Sharbel
- College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 4J8, Canada;
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Spencer GWK, Chua SMH, Erpf PE, Wizrah MSI, Dyba TG, Condon ND, Fraser JA. Broadening the spectrum of fluorescent protein tools for use in the encapsulated human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. Fungal Genet Biol 2020; 138:103365. [PMID: 32145317 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2020.103365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Green fluorescent protein (GFP) and its counterparts are modern molecular biology research tools indispensable in many experimental systems. Within fungi, researchers studying Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other model ascomycetes have access to a wide variety of fluorescent proteins. Unfortunately, many of these tools have not crossed the phylum divide into the Basidiomycota, where only GFP S65T, Venus, Ds-Red, and mCherry are currently available. To address this, we searched the literature for potential candidates to be expressed in the human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans and identified a suite of eight more modern fluorescent proteins that span the visible spectrum. A single copy of each fluorophore was heterologously expressed in Safe Haven 1 and their fluorescence intensities compared in this encapsulated yeast. mTurquoise2, mTFP1, Clover, mNeonGreen, mRuby3, and Citrine were highly visible under the microscope, whereas Superfolder GFP and mMaroon1 were not. Expressed fluorophores did not impact growth or virulence as demonstrated by an in vitro spotting assay and murine inhalation model, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrick W K Spencer
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Chemistry & Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Sheena M H Chua
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Chemistry & Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Paige E Erpf
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Chemistry & Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Maha S I Wizrah
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Chemistry & Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Taylor G Dyba
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Chemistry & Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicholas D Condon
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - James A Fraser
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Chemistry & Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
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Kis B, Ifrim FC, Buda V, Avram S, Pavel IZ, Antal D, Paunescu V, Dehelean CA, Ardelean F, Diaconeasa Z, Soica C, Danciu C. Cannabidiol-from Plant to Human Body: A Promising Bioactive Molecule with Multi-Target Effects in Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E5905. [PMID: 31775230 PMCID: PMC6928757 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20235905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is a plant long used for its textile fibers, seed oil, and oleoresin with medicinal and psychoactive properties. It is the main source of phytocannabinoids, with over 100 compounds detected so far. In recent years, a lot of attention has been given to the main phytochemicals present in Cannabis sativa L., namely, cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Compared to THC, CBD has non-psychoactive effects, an advantage for clinical applications of anti-tumor benefits. The review is designed to provide an update regarding the multi-target effects of CBD in different types of cancer. The main focus is on the latest in vitro and in vivo studies that present data regarding the anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, cytotoxic, anti-invasive, anti-antiangiogenic, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties of CBD together with their mechanisms of action. The latest clinical evidence of the anticancer effects of CBD is also outlined. Moreover, the main aspects of the pharmacological and toxicological profiles are given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brigitta Kis
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Victor Babeş“, Eftimie Murgu Square, No. 2, 300041 Timişoara, Romania; (B.K.); (S.A.); (I.Z.P.); (C.D.)
- Centre for Gene and Cellular Therapies in the Treatment of Cancer- OncoGen, Clinical County Hospital of Timişoara, Liviu Rebreanu Blvd. 156, 300736 Timişoara, Romania;
| | - Feng Chen Ifrim
- Department of Marketing, medical technology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Valentina Buda
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, “Victor Babes” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square, No. 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Stefana Avram
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Victor Babeş“, Eftimie Murgu Square, No. 2, 300041 Timişoara, Romania; (B.K.); (S.A.); (I.Z.P.); (C.D.)
| | - Ioana Zinuca Pavel
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Victor Babeş“, Eftimie Murgu Square, No. 2, 300041 Timişoara, Romania; (B.K.); (S.A.); (I.Z.P.); (C.D.)
| | - Diana Antal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Victor Babeş“, Eftimie Murgu Square, No. 2, 300041 Timişoara, Romania; (D.A.); (F.A.)
| | - Virgil Paunescu
- Centre for Gene and Cellular Therapies in the Treatment of Cancer- OncoGen, Clinical County Hospital of Timişoara, Liviu Rebreanu Blvd. 156, 300736 Timişoara, Romania;
- Department of Functional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, “Victor Babes” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square, No. 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Cristina Adriana Dehelean
- Department of Toxicology, “Victor Babeş“University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square, No. 2, 300041 Timişoara, Romania;
| | - Florina Ardelean
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Victor Babeş“, Eftimie Murgu Square, No. 2, 300041 Timişoara, Romania; (D.A.); (F.A.)
| | - Zorita Diaconeasa
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine, Calea Manastur, 3-5, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | - Codruta Soica
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Victor Babeş“, Eftimie Murgu Square, No. 2, 300041 Timişoara, Romania;
| | - Corina Danciu
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Victor Babeş“, Eftimie Murgu Square, No. 2, 300041 Timişoara, Romania; (B.K.); (S.A.); (I.Z.P.); (C.D.)
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40
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Hille‐Rehfeld A. Cannabinoid‐Synthese durch Mikroorganismen. CHEM UNSERER ZEIT 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ciuz.201980055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Aryal N, Orellana DF, Bouie J. Distribution of cannabinoid synthase genes in non-Cannabis organisms. J Cannabis Res 2019; 1:8. [PMID: 33526102 PMCID: PMC7819296 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-019-0008-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of phytocannabinoid synthesizing enzymes, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase (THCAs) and cannabidiolic acid synthase (CBDAs) was a breakthrough in Cannabis research. However, their evolutionary aspects and distribution across organisms has not been adequately studied. We searched for THCAs and CBDAs genes in organisms other than Cannabis plants using the database available in NCBI. Both cannabinoid synthases seem to be widely distributed in the plant kingdom. Of several complete or partial sequences of cannabinoid synthases-likes, CBDAs-like from Morus notabilis matched closely to CsCBDAs and CsTHCAs. When amino acid sequences of CsTHCAs, CsCBDAs and MnCBDAs-like were compared to each other, and to the motif database stored in Expasy, all three proteins contained the FAD_PCMH (PCMH-type FAD-binding) domain indicating the conservation of this domain in cannabinoid synthases. Apart from FAD binding, Berberine Bridge Enzyme (BBE-likes), which catalyzes the synthesis of isoquinoline alkaloids in many plants such as mulberry, poplas and citrus, were the other most closely related enzymes to CsTHCAs and CsCBDAs. We also searched for THCAs and CBDAs in fungal and bacterial kingdom but could not find any notably similar sequence. However, partial mRNA from FAD binding enzyme from Trametes versicolor and 6-hydroxy D nicotine oxidase from Aspergillus saccharolyticus matched the CsTHCA sequence and a partial mRNA from a hypothetical protein in Pneumocystis carinii was the most closely matched fungal enzyme to the CsCBDA. Our database search showed that Morus notabilis from mulberry family could be the candidate plant for further studies. Comparative transcriptomic and metabolomic studies for mulberry and Cannabis plants could provide a much clear concepts on the co-evolution of these syanthases. Moreover, the understanding of cannabinoid synthesis pathway is still evolving, in-depth bioinformatics and functional analysis of the enzymes involved are required for pharmaceutical research and industrial advancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niranjan Aryal
- Socal Cannabis Science Research Group (ScCSRG), Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | | | - Jamal Bouie
- Socal Cannabis Science Research Group (ScCSRG), Los Angeles, CA, USA
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42
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Lin GM, Warden-Rothman R, Voigt CA. Retrosynthetic design of metabolic pathways to chemicals not found in nature. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coisb.2019.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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43
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Qian S, Clomburg JM, Gonzalez R. Engineering Escherichia coli as a platform for the in vivo synthesis of prenylated aromatics. Biotechnol Bioeng 2019; 116:1116-1127. [PMID: 30659582 DOI: 10.1002/bit.26932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Prenylated aromatics (PAs) are an important class of natural products with valuable pharmaceutical applications. To address current limitations of their sourcing from plants, here, we present a microbial platform for the in vivo synthesis of PAs based on the aromatic prenyltransferase NphB from Streptomyces sp. strain CL190. As proof of concept, we targeted the prenylation of phenolic/phenolcarboxylic acids, including orsellinic (OSA), divarinolic (DVA), and olivetolic (OLA) acids, whose prenylated products have important biopharmaceutical applications. Although the ability of wild-type NphB to catalyze the prenylation reaction with each acid was validated by in vitro characterization, improvement of product titers in vivo required protein modeling and rational design to engineer NphB variants with increased activity and product selectivity. When a designed NphB variant with eightfold improved catalytic efficiency toward OSA was expressed in an Escherichia coli host engineered to generate geranyl pyrophosphate at high flux through the mevalonate pathway, we observed up to 300 mg/L prenylated products by exogenously supplying OSA. The improved properties of engineered NphB were also utilized to demonstrate the diversification of this in vivo platform by using both different aromatic acceptors and different prenyl donors to generate various PA compounds, including medicinally important compounds such as cannabigerovarinic, cannabigerolic, and grifolic acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Qian
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas
| | - James M Clomburg
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas.,Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
| | - Ramon Gonzalez
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas.,Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
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Richins RD, Rodriguez-Uribe L, Lowe K, Ferral R, O’Connell MA. Accumulation of bioactive metabolites in cultivated medical Cannabis. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0201119. [PMID: 30036388 PMCID: PMC6056047 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
There has been an increased use of medical Cannabis in the United States of America as more states legalize its use. Complete chemical analyses of this material can vary considerably between producers and is often not fully provided to consumers. As phytochemists in a state with legal medical Cannabis we sought to characterize the accumulation of phytochemicals in material grown by licensed commercial producers. We report the development of a simple extraction and analysis method, amenable to use by commercial laboratories for the detection and quantification of both cannabinoids and terpenoids. Through analysis of developing flowers on plants, we can identify sources of variability of floral metabolites due to flower maturity and position on the plant. The terpenoid composition varied by accession and was used to cluster cannabis strains into specific types. Inclusion of terpenoids with cannabinoids in the analysis of medical cannabis should be encouraged, as both of these classes of compounds could play a role in the beneficial medical effects of different cannabis strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard D. Richins
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
- Rio Grande Analytics, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Laura Rodriguez-Uribe
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Kiah Lowe
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Rebekah Ferral
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Mary A. O’Connell
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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45
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Walker RSK, Pretorius IS. Applications of Yeast Synthetic Biology Geared towards the Production of Biopharmaceuticals. Genes (Basel) 2018; 9:E340. [PMID: 29986380 PMCID: PMC6070867 DOI: 10.3390/genes9070340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Engineered yeast are an important production platform for the biosynthesis of high-value compounds with medical applications. Recent years have witnessed several new developments in this area, largely spurred by advances in the field of synthetic biology and the elucidation of natural metabolic pathways. This minireview presents an overview of synthetic biology applications for the heterologous biosynthesis of biopharmaceuticals in yeast and demonstrates the power and potential of yeast cell factories by highlighting several recent examples. In addition, an outline of emerging trends in this rapidly-developing area is discussed, hinting upon the potential state-of-the-art in the years ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy S K Walker
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney 2109, Australia.
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Goold HD, Wright P, Hailstones D. Emerging Opportunities for Synthetic Biology in Agriculture. Genes (Basel) 2018; 9:E341. [PMID: 29986428 PMCID: PMC6071285 DOI: 10.3390/genes9070341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid expansion in the emerging field of synthetic biology has to date mainly focused on the microbial sciences and human health. However, the zeitgeist is that synthetic biology will also shortly deliver major outcomes for agriculture. The primary industries of agriculture, fisheries and forestry, face significant and global challenges; addressing them will be assisted by the sector’s strong history of early adoption of transformative innovation, such as the genetic technologies that underlie synthetic biology. The implementation of synthetic biology within agriculture may, however, be hampered given the industry is dominated by higher plants and mammals, where large and often polyploid genomes and the lack of adequate tools challenge the ability to deliver outcomes in the short term. However, synthetic biology is a rapidly growing field, new techniques in genome design and synthesis, and more efficient molecular tools such as CRISPR/Cas9 may harbor opportunities more broadly than the development of new cultivars and breeds. In particular, the ability to use synthetic biology to engineer biosensors, synthetic speciation, microbial metabolic engineering, mammalian multiplexed CRISPR, novel anti microbials, and projects such as Yeast 2.0 all have significant potential to deliver transformative changes to agriculture in the short, medium and longer term. Specifically, synthetic biology promises to deliver benefits that increase productivity and sustainability across primary industries, underpinning the industry’s prosperity in the face of global challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugh Douglas Goold
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia.
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Woodbridge Road, Menangle, NSW 2568, Australia.
| | - Philip Wright
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Locked Bag 21, 161 Kite St, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia.
| | - Deborah Hailstones
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Woodbridge Road, Menangle, NSW 2568, Australia.
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47
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Geissler M, Volk J, Stehle F, Kayser O, Warzecha H. Subcellular localization defines modification and production of Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase in transiently transformed Nicotiana benthamiana. Biotechnol Lett 2018; 40:981-987. [PMID: 29619743 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-018-2545-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Through heterologous expression of the tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase (THCAS) coding sequence from Cannabis sativa L. in Nicotiana benthamiana, we evaluated a transient plant-based expression system for the production of enzymes involved in cannabinoid biosynthesis. RESULTS Thcas was modularized according to the GoldenBraid grammar and its expression tested upon alternative subcellular localization of the encoded catalyst with and without fusion to a fluorescent protein. THCAS was detected only when ER targeting was used; cytosolic and plastidal localization resulted in no detectable protein. Moreover, THCAS seems to be glycosylated in N. benthamiana, suggesting that this modification might have an influence on the stability of the protein. Activity assays with cannabigerolic acid as a substrate showed that the recombinant enzyme produced not only THCA (123 ± 12 fkat g FW-1 activity towards THCA production) but also cannabichromenic acid (CBCA; 31 ± 2.6 fkat g FW-1 activity towards CBCA production). CONCLUSION Nicotiana benthamiana is a suitable host for the generation of cannabinoid producing enzymes. To attain whole pathway integration, careful analysis of subcellular localization is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Geissler
- Plant Biotechnology and Metabolic Engineering, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstraße 4, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Jascha Volk
- Plant Biotechnology and Metabolic Engineering, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstraße 4, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Felix Stehle
- Laboratory of Technical Biochemistry, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Str. 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Oliver Kayser
- Laboratory of Technical Biochemistry, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge-Str. 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Heribert Warzecha
- Plant Biotechnology and Metabolic Engineering, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstraße 4, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany.
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48
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Russo EB. The Case for the Entourage Effect and Conventional Breeding of Clinical Cannabis: No "Strain," No Gain. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:1969. [PMID: 30687364 PMCID: PMC6334252 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The topic of Cannabis curries controversy in every sphere of influence, whether politics, pharmacology, applied therapeutics or even botanical taxonomy. Debate as to the speciation of Cannabis, or a lack thereof, has swirled for more than 250 years. Because all Cannabis types are eminently capable of cross-breeding to produce fertile progeny, it is unlikely that any clear winner will emerge between the "lumpers" vs. "splitters" in this taxonomical debate. This is compounded by the profusion of Cannabis varieties available through the black market and even the developing legal market. While labeled "strains" in common parlance, this term is acceptable with respect to bacteria and viruses, but not among Plantae. Given that such factors as plant height and leaflet width do not distinguish one Cannabis plant from another and similar difficulties in defining terms in Cannabis, the only reasonable solution is to characterize them by their biochemical/pharmacological characteristics. Thus, it is best to refer to Cannabis types as chemical varieties, or "chemovars." The current wave of excitement in Cannabis commerce has translated into a flurry of research on alternative sources, particularly yeasts, and complex systems for laboratory production have emerged, but these presuppose that single compounds are a desirable goal. Rather, the case for Cannabis synergy via the "entourage effect" is currently sufficiently strong as to suggest that one molecule is unlikely to match the therapeutic and even industrial potential of Cannabis itself as a phytochemical factory. The astounding plasticity of the Cannabis genome additionally obviates the need for genetic modification techniques.
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