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Bakke E, Nilsen Terland M, Strand DH, Øiestad EL, Høiseth G. Enantiomer-specific analysis of amphetamine in urine, oral fluid and blood. J Anal Toxicol 2024; 48:254-262. [PMID: 38706158 PMCID: PMC11165648 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkae038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Illegal amphetamine is usually composed of a racemic mixture of the two enantiomers (S)- and (R)-amphetamine. However, when amphetamine is used in medical treatment, the more potent (S)-amphetamine enantiomer is used. Enantiomer-specific analysis of (S)- and (R)-amphetamine is therefore used to separate legal medical use from illegal recreational use. The aim of the present study was to describe our experience with enantiomer-specific analysis of amphetamine in urine and oral fluid, as well as blood, and examine whether the distribution of the two enantiomers seems to be the same in different matrices. We investigated 1,722 urine samples and 1,977 oral fluid samples from prison inmates, and 652 blood samples from suspected drugged drivers, where prescription of amphetamine was reported. Analyses were performed using ultra high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS-MS). The enantiomer separation was achieved by using a chiral column, and results from the method validation are reported. Samples containing <60% (S)-amphetamine were interpreted as representing illegal use of amphetamine. The distribution of the two enantiomers was compared between different matrices. In urine and oral fluid, the mean amount of (S)-amphetamine was 45.2 and 43.7%, respectively, while in blood, the mean amount of (S)-amphetamine was 45.8%. There was no statistically significant difference in the amount of (S)-amphetamine between urine and oral fluid samples and between urine and blood samples, but the difference was significant in blood compared to oral fluid samples (P < 0.001). Comparison of urine and oral fluid between similar populations indicated that enantiomers of amphetamine can be interpreted in the same way, although marginally higher amounts of (R)-amphetamine may occur in oral fluid. Oral fluid, having several advantages, especially during collection, could be a preferred matrix in testing for illegal amphetamine intake in users of medical amphetamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eirin Bakke
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, Oslo 0424, Norway
| | - Mariann Nilsen Terland
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, Oslo 0424, Norway
| | - Dag Helge Strand
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, Oslo 0424, Norway
| | - Elisabeth Leere Øiestad
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, Oslo 0424, Norway
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, PO Box 1068 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
| | - Gudrun Høiseth
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4950 Nydalen, Oslo 0424, Norway
- Centre for psychopharmacology, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Forskningsveien 13, Oslo 0373, Norway
- Norwegian Centre for Addiction Research, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, PO Box 1171 Blindern, Oslo 0318, Norway
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2
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Nielsen MKK, Andersen NZ, Rasmussen BS, Johansen SS. Driving under the Influence of Amphetamine: Analytical Evaluation of Illegal or Prescription Drug Intake Using Chiral UHPLC-MS-MS. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:280-286. [PMID: 36525524 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkac103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Differentiation between consumption of illegal and prescription drugs remains an important aspect in forensic toxicology. While illicit amphetamine is most often racemic, the medicinal drugs marketed in Denmark for the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder contain the pure (S)-enantiomer or a prodrug thereof. In this study, we present a simple and efficient analytical workflow to provide information about the origin of amphetamine consumed in forensic cases concerning driving under the influence of drugs (DUID). Following quantification of amphetamine and methamphetamine using our conventional multi-target ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method, determination of (R)- and (S)-amphetamine was performed by reinjecting the sample extract on a Phenomenex LUX® AMP chiral column using the same analytical instrument and mobile phases. Chiral separation was performed isocratic within a run time of 6 min. The analytical workflow was applied to blood samples from 5,248 suspected DUID cases within a 2-year period. Amphetamine was detected in 18.7% of the samples, of which both enantiomers were detected in 89.5% of the cases, indicating the consumption of illegal racemic amphetamine. In 6.1% of the positive cases, both amphetamine and methamphetamine were detected, indicating either co-consumption of both amphetamines or consumption of methamphetamine. In the remaining 4.4%, only (S)-amphetamine was detected indicating the consumption of prescription drugs containing (S)-amphetamine or a prodrug thereof. Implementation of a simple and rapid chiral method in the conventional analytical workflow for routine forensic casework proved to be an efficient way to elucidate whether a positive amphetamine result originates from illegal or prescription drug consumption, without increasing turnaround time nor costs to any significant extent, as no additional sample preparation was required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Katrine Klose Nielsen
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Section of Forensic Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V's vej 11, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
| | - Nina Zacho Andersen
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Section of Forensic Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V's vej 11, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
| | - Brian Schou Rasmussen
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Section of Forensic Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V's vej 11, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
| | - Sys Stybe Johansen
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Section of Forensic Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V's vej 11, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
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3
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Neumann J, Azatsian K, Höhm C, Hofmann B, Gergs U. Cardiac effects of ephedrine, norephedrine, mescaline, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in mouse and human atrial preparations. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2023; 396:275-287. [PMID: 36319858 PMCID: PMC9831963 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-022-02315-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The use of recreational drugs like ephedrine, norephedrine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and mescaline can lead to intoxication and, at worst, to death. One reason for a fatal course of intoxication with these drugs might lie in cardiac arrhythmias. To the best of our knowledge, their inotropic effects have not yet been studied in isolated human cardiac preparations. Therefore, we measured inotropic effects of the hallucinogenic drugs ephedrine, norephedrine, mescaline, and MDMA in isolated mouse left atrial (mLA) and right atrial (mRA) preparations as well as in human right atrial (hRA) preparations obtained during cardiac surgery. Under these experimental conditions, ephedrine, norephedrine, and MDMA increased force of contraction (mLA, hRA) and beating rate (mRA) in a time- and concentration-dependent way, starting at 1-3 µM but these drugs were less effective than isoprenaline. Mescaline alone or in the presence of phosphodiesterase inhibitors did not increase force in mLA or hRA. The positive inotropic effects of ephedrine, norephedrine, or MDMA were accompanied by increases in the rate of tension and relaxation and by shortening of time of relaxation and, moreover, by an augmented phosphorylation state of the inhibitory subunit of troponin in hRA. All effects were greatly attenuated by cocaine (10 µM) or propranolol (10 µM) treatment. In summary, the hallucinogenic drugs ephedrine, norephedrine, and MDMA, but not mescaline, increased force of contraction and increased protein phosphorylation presumably, in part, by a release of noradrenaline in isolated human atrial preparations and thus can be regarded as indirect sympathomimetic drugs in the human atrium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Neumann
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Str. 4, D-06097, Halle, Germany
| | - Karyna Azatsian
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Str. 4, D-06097, Halle, Germany
| | - Christian Höhm
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Str. 4, D-06097, Halle, Germany
| | - Britt Hofmann
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Mid-German Heart Center, University Hospital Halle, D-06097, Halle, Germany
| | - Ulrich Gergs
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Str. 4, D-06097, Halle, Germany.
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4
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Losacker M, Kraemer M, Philipsen A, Duecker K, Dreimueller N, Engelmann J, Roehrich J, Hess C. Enantioselective Quantification of Amphetamine and Metabolites in Serum Samples: Forensic Evaluation and Estimation of Consumption Time. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11080521. [PMID: 34436462 PMCID: PMC8400571 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11080521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In forensic toxicology, amphetamine intoxications represent one of the most common case groups and present difficult questions for toxicologists. Estimating the time of consumption and the current influence of the stimulant is particularly difficult when only total amphetamine concentrations are considered. Stereoselective analysis and the consideration of metabolites can provide valuable information to facilitate interpretation. An enantioselective liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for detection of amphetamine, norephedrine and 4-hydroxyamphetamine was developed. Validation showed satisfactory selectivity, sensitivity, linearity (0.5-250 ng/mL), precision and accuracy for all enantiomers. The method was applied to a collective of 425 forensic serum samples and 30 serum samples from psychiatric inpatients stating their last time of amphetamine consumption. Norephedrine and 4-hydroxyamphetamine were detected more frequently at higher amphetamine concentrations and at lower amphetamine (R)/(S) concentration ratios, possibly indicating recent consumption. Mean (R)/(S) ratio of amphetamine was 1.14, whereas higher ratios (mean 1.36) were found for amphetamine concentrations below 100 ng/mL. The (R)/(S) ratios of psychiatric inpatients significantly correlated with the reported time intervals to last consumption. The use of amphetamine (R)/(S) ratios and the simultaneous detection of metabolites are promising factors that can facilitate estimation of consumption time and current impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Losacker
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Legal Medicine, University Medical Center Mainz, Am Pulverturm 3, D-55131 Mainz, Germany; (J.R.); (C.H.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Michael Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Stiftsplatz 12, D-53111 Bonn, Germany;
| | - Alexandra Philipsen
- Clinic and Polyclinic for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Bonn, Venusberg Campus 1, D-53127 Bonn, Germany; (A.P.); (K.D.)
| | - Kristina Duecker
- Clinic and Polyclinic for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Bonn, Venusberg Campus 1, D-53127 Bonn, Germany; (A.P.); (K.D.)
| | - Nadine Dreimueller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Mainz, Untere Zahlbacher Str. 8, D-55131 Mainz, Germany; (N.D.); (J.E.)
| | - Jan Engelmann
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Mainz, Untere Zahlbacher Str. 8, D-55131 Mainz, Germany; (N.D.); (J.E.)
| | - Joerg Roehrich
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Legal Medicine, University Medical Center Mainz, Am Pulverturm 3, D-55131 Mainz, Germany; (J.R.); (C.H.)
| | - Cornelius Hess
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Legal Medicine, University Medical Center Mainz, Am Pulverturm 3, D-55131 Mainz, Germany; (J.R.); (C.H.)
- Reference Institute for Bioanalytics, Friesdorfer Str. 153, D-53175 Bonn, Germany
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5
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Gelmi TJ, Verrijken M, Weinmann W. Determination of the stereoisomeric distribution of R-(−)- and S-(+)-methamphetamine in Thai pills in the legal context of “not inconsiderable quantities". Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 116:104747. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2020.104747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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6
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Interspecies In Vitro Evaluation of Stereoselective Protein Binding for 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine. J CHEM-NY 2017. [DOI: 10.1155/2017/8103726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Abuse of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is becoming more common worldwide. To date, there is no information available on stereoselectivity of MDMA protein binding in humans, rats, and mice. Since stereoselectivity plays an important role in MDMA’s pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, in this study we investigated its stereoselectivity in protein binding. The stereoselective protein binding ofrac-MDMA was investigated using two different concentrations (20 and 200 ng/mL) in human plasma and mouse and rat sera using an ultrafiltration technique. No significant stereoselectivity in protein binding was observed in both human plasma and rat serum; however, a significant stereoselective binding (p<0.05) was observed in mouse serum. Since the protein binding of MDMA in mouse serum is considerably lower than in humans and rats, caution should be exercised when using mice for in vitro studies involving MDMA.
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7
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Steuer AE, Schmidhauser C, Tingelhoff EH, Schmid Y, Rickli A, Kraemer T, Liechti ME. Impact of Cytochrome P450 2D6 Function on the Chiral Blood Plasma Pharmacokinetics of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and Its Phase I and II Metabolites in Humans. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0150955. [PMID: 26967321 PMCID: PMC4788153 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy) metabolism is known to be stereoselective, with preference for S-stereoisomers. Its major metabolic step involves CYP2D6-catalyzed demethylenation to 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (DHMA), followed by methylation and conjugation. Alterations in CYP2D6 genotype and/or phenotype have been associated with higher toxicity. Therefore, the impact of CYP2D6 function on the plasma pharmacokinetics of MDMA and its phase I and II metabolites was tested by comparing extensive metabolizers (EMs), intermediate metabolizers (IMs), and EMs that were pretreated with bupropion as a metabolic inhibitor in a controlled MDMA administration study. Blood plasma samples were collected from 16 healthy participants (13 EMs and three IMs) up to 24 h after MDMA administration in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, four-period, cross-over design, with subjects receiving 1 week placebo or bupropion pretreatment followed by a single placebo or MDMA (125 mg) dose. Bupropion pretreatment increased the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) and area under the plasma concentration-time curve from 0 to 24 h (AUC24) of R-MDMA (9% and 25%, respectively) and S-MDMA (16% and 38%, respectively). Bupropion reduced the Cmax and AUC24 of the CYP2D6-dependently formed metabolite stereoisomers of DHMA 3-sulfate, DHMA 4-sulfate, and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA sulfate and HMMA glucuronide) by approximately 40%. The changes that were observed in IMs were generally comparable to bupropion-pretreated EMs. Although changes in stereoselectivity based on CYP2D6 activity were observed, these likely have low clinical relevance. Bupropion and hydroxybupropion stereoisomer pharmacokinetics were unaltered by MDMA co-administration. The present data might aid further interpretations of toxicity based on CYP2D6-dependent MDMA metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Steuer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Corina Schmidhauser
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Eva H. Tingelhoff
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Yasmin Schmid
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anna Rickli
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E. Liechti
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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8
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Inhibition potential of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its metabolites on the in vitro monoamine oxidase (MAO)-catalyzed deamination of the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine. Toxicol Lett 2016; 243:48-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2015.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Revised: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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9
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Madry MM, Steuer AE, Hysek CM, Liechti ME, Baumgartner MR, Kraemer T. Evaluation of drug incorporation into hair segments and nails by enantiomeric analysis following controlled single MDMA intakes. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 408:545-56. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-9130-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Revised: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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10
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Conduite automobile et amphétamines dans le sang – bases bibliographiques pour un consensus de la Société française de toxicologie analytique. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2015.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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11
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Wang T, Shen B, Shi Y, Xiang P, Yu Z. Chiral separation and determination of R/S-methamphetamine and its metabolite R/S-amphetamine in urine using LC-MS/MS. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 246:72-8. [PMID: 25460108 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Revised: 11/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (MA) and amphetamine (AM) are widely abused drugs. Differentiation of MA and/or AM abuse from therapeutic ingestion of MA and/or AM or one of their precursor drugs is therefore of relevance in clinical and forensic toxicology. The aim of the study was to develop a simple, rapid, and accurate method for the chiral separation and determination of R/S-MA and R/S-AM in urine using liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry operating in the positive ion multiple-reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. 20 μL of urine was diluted 500 times and 20 μL was injected. The chromatographic system consisted of a Chirobiotic™ V2 column (2.1 mm × 250 mm, 5 μm), and the mobile phase was methanol containing 0.1% (v/v) glacial acetic acid and 0.02% (v/v) ammonium hydroxide. The method was fully validated through assessments of its linearity (0.05-50.00 mg/L, r(2)>0.994 for all analytes), and LOQ (0.05 mg/L for all analytes). No matrix effect was observed. The method was successfully applied to 86 urine samples from suspected MA abusers. Only the S-isomers of MA and AM were detected in 72 samples. The concentrations of R-MA ranged from below the LOQ to 13.76 mg/L in 14 urine samples with both enantiomers of MA and/or AM. Pure S-MA is the most common found analyte in urine and principally used by abusers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Baohua Shen
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Guangfu Xi Road 1347, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Yan Shi
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Guangfu Xi Road 1347, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Guangfu Xi Road 1347, Shanghai 200063, China.
| | - Zhiguo Yu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, China.
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12
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Steuer AE, Schmidhauser C, Liechti ME, Kraemer T. Development and validation of an LC-MS/MS method after chiral derivatization for the simultaneous stereoselective determination of methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) and its phase I and II metabolites in human blood plasma. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:592-602. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Revised: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Steuer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Zurich; Switzerland
| | - Corina Schmidhauser
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Zurich; Switzerland
| | - Matthias E. Liechti
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research; University Hospital Basel; Basel Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Zurich; Switzerland
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13
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Newmeyer MN, Concheiro M, Huestis MA. Rapid quantitative chiral amphetamines liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry: method in plasma and oral fluid with a cost-effective chiral derivatizing reagent. J Chromatogr A 2014; 1358:68-74. [PMID: 25065924 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2014.06.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Revised: 06/04/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine is a widely abused psychostimulant containing a chiral center. Consumption of over-the-counter and prescription medications may yield positive amphetamines results, but chiral separation of l- and d-methamphetamine and its metabolite amphetamine can help determine whether the source was licit or illicit. We present the first LC-MS/MS method with precolumn derivatization for methamphetamine and amphetamine chiral resolution in plasma and oral fluid collected with the Oral-Eze(®) and Quantisal™ devices. To 0.5mL plasma, 0.75mL Oral-Eze, or 1mL Quantisal specimen racemic d11-methamphetamine and amphetamine internal standards were added, followed by protein precipitation. Samples were centrifuged and supernatants loaded onto pre-conditioned Phenomenex(®) Strata™-XC Polymeric Strong Cation solid phase extraction columns. After washing, analytes were eluted with 5% ammonium hydroxide in methanol. The eluate was evaporated to dryness and reconstituted in water. Derivatization was performed with 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrophenyl-5-l-alanineamide (Marfey's reagent) and heating at 45°C for 1h. Derivatized enantiomer separations were performed under isocratic conditions (methanol:water, 60:40) with a Phenomenex(®) Kinetex(®) 2.6μm C18 column. Analytes were identified and quantified by two MRM transitions and their ratio on a 3200 QTrap (AB Sciex) mass spectrometer in ESI negative mode. In all three matrices, the method was linear for all enantiomers from 1 to 500μg/L, with imprecision and accuracy of ≤11.3% and 85.3-108%, respectively. Extraction efficiencies ranged from 67.4 to 117% and matrix effects from -17.0 to 468%, with variation always ≤19.1%. Authentic plasma and OF specimens were collected from an IRB-approved study that included controlled Vicks(®) VapoInhaler™ administration. The present method is sensitive, selective, economic and rapid (separations accomplished in <10min), and improves methamphetamine result interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew N Newmeyer
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Program in Toxicology, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marta Concheiro
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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14
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Single oral doses of (±) 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ('Ecstasy') produce lasting serotonergic deficits in non-human primates: relationship to plasma drug and metabolite concentrations. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2013; 16:791-801. [PMID: 22824226 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145712000582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeated doses of the popular recreational drug methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'Ecstasy') are known to produce neurotoxic effects on brain serotonin (5-HT) neurons but it is widely believed that typical single oral doses of MDMA are free of neurotoxic risk. Experimental and therapeutic trials with MDMA in humans are underway. The mechanisms by which MDMA produces neurotoxic effects are not understood but drug metabolites have been implicated. The aim of the present study was to assess the neurotoxic potential of a range of clinically relevant single oral doses of MDMA in a non-human primate species that metabolizes MDMA in a manner similar to humans, the squirrel monkey. A secondary objective was to explore the relationship between plasma MDMA and metabolite concentrations and lasting serotonergic deficits. Single oral doses of MDMA produced lasting dose-related serotonergic neurochemical deficits in the brains of squirrel monkeys. Notably, even the lowest dose of MDMA tested (5.7 mg/kg, estimated to be equivalent to 1.6 mg/kg in humans) produced significant effects in some brain regions. Plasma levels of MDMA engendered by neurotoxic doses of MDMA were on the order of those found in humans. Serotonergic neurochemical markers were inversely correlated with plasma concentrations of MDMA, but not with those of its major metabolites, 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine. These results suggest that single oral doses of MDMA in the range of those used by humans pose a neurotoxic risk and implicate the parent compound (MDMA), rather than one of its metabolites, in MDMA-induced 5-HT neural injury.
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15
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Is the treatment with psychostimulants in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder harmful for the dopaminergic system? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 5:71-81. [PMID: 23605387 DOI: 10.1007/s12402-013-0105-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2013] [Accepted: 03/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A major concern regarding psychostimulant medication (amphetamine and methylphenidate) in the treatment of children and adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are the potential adverse effects to the developing brain, particularly in regard to dopaminergic brain function. The present review focuses on the pharmacology of these psychostimulants, their mode of action in the human brain and their potential neurotoxic effects to the developing brain in animals, particularly concerning DA brain function. The potential clinical significance of these findings for the treatment of ADHD in children and adolescents is discussed. Studies on sensitization to psychostimulants' rewarding effects, which is a process expected to increase the risk of substance abuse in humans, are not included. The available findings in non-human primates support the notion that the administration of amphetamine and methylphenidate with procedures simulating clinical treatment conditions does not lead to long-term adverse effects in regard to development, neurobiology or behaviour as related to the central dopaminergic system.
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Schwaninger AE, Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Chiral drug analysis using mass spectrometric detection relevant to research and practice in clinical and forensic toxicology. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1269:122-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.07.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2012] [Revised: 07/14/2012] [Accepted: 07/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Schwaninger AE, Meyer MR, Zapp J, Maurer HH. Investigations on the stereoselectivity of the phase II metabolism of the 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) metabolites 3,4-dihydroxyethylamphetamine (DHEA) and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyethylamphetamine (HMEA). Toxicol Lett 2012; 212:38-47. [PMID: 22564759 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2012.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2012] [Revised: 04/26/2012] [Accepted: 04/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Different elimination was reported for the two enantiomers of the designer drug 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) in vivo. In the present work, the enantioselectivity of glucuronidation and sulfation of the MDEA phase I metabolites 3,4-dihydroxyethylamphetamine (DHEA) and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyethylamphetamine (HMEA) was investigated. First, glucuronide standards were synthesized using rat liver microsomes. Incubations were performed with recombinant human UDP-glucuronyltransferases (UGT) and pooled human liver microsomes (pHLM) for glucuronidation and using recombinant human sulfotransferases (SULT) and pooled human liver cytosol (pHLC) for sulfation. Product formation experiments were performed by quantification of the phase II metabolites using liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Additionally, substrate depletion experiments were conducted by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after chiral derivatization for sulfation. UGT2B7, 2B15, and 2B17 were involved in glucuronidation of HMEA and SULT1A1 and SULT1A3 and SULT1A3 and SULT1E1 in the sulfation of DHEA and HMEA, respectively. SULTs provided much higher affinity, whereas UGTs showed higher capacities. Marked stereoselectivity could be observed for UGT2B15, UGT2B17, and pHLM toward S-HMEA, for SULT1A3 and pHLC toward S-DHEA and for SULT1A3 and pHLC toward R-HMEA. In conclusion, the phase II metabolism might also contribute to the observed different pharmacokinetic properties of MDEA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E Schwaninger
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg-Saar, Germany
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Stereoselective urinary MDMA (ecstasy) and metabolites excretion kinetics following controlled MDMA administration to humans. Biochem Pharmacol 2011; 83:131-8. [PMID: 21983032 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2011.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2011] [Revised: 09/22/2011] [Accepted: 09/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The R- and S-enantiomers of racemic 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) exhibit different dose-concentration curves. In plasma, S-MDMA was eliminated at a higher rate, most likely due to stereoselective metabolism. Similar data were shown in various in vitro experiments. The aim of the present study was the in vivo investigation of stereoselective elimination of MDMA's phase I and phase II metabolites in human urine following controlled oral MDMA administration. Urine samples from 10 participants receiving 1.0 and 1.6 mg/kg MDMA separated by at least one week were analyzed blind by liquid chromatography-high resolution-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after chiral derivatization with S-heptafluorobutyrylprolyl chloride. R/S ratios at C(max) were comparable after low and high doses with ratios >1 for MDMA, free DHMA, and HMMA sulfate, and with ratios <1 for MDA, free HMMA, DHMA sulfate and HMMA glucuronide. In the five days after the high MDMA dose, a median of 21% of all evaluated compounds were excreted as R-stereoisomers and 17% as S-stereoisomers. Significantly greater MDMA, DHMA, and HMMA sulfate R-enantiomers and HMMA and HMMA glucuronide S-stereoisomers were excreted. No significant differences were observed for MDA and DHMA sulfate stereoisomers. Changes in R/S ratios could be observed over time for all analytes, with steady increases in the first 48 h. R/S ratios could help to roughly estimate time of MDMA ingestion and therefore, improve interpretation of MDMA and metabolite urinary concentrations in clinical and forensic toxicology.
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Schwaninger AE, Meyer MR, Huestis MA, Maurer HH. Development and validation of LC-HRMS and GC-NICI-MS methods for stereoselective determination of MDMA and its phase I and II metabolites in human urine. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2011; 46:603-14. [PMID: 21656610 PMCID: PMC3874414 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a racemic drug of abuse and its R- and S-enantiomers are known to differ in their dose-response curve. The S-enantiomer was shown to be eliminated at a higher rate than the R-enantiomer most likely explained by stereoselective metabolism that was observed in various in vitro experiments. The aim of this work was the development and validation of methods for evaluating the stereoselective elimination of phase I and particularly phase II metabolites of MDMA in human urine. Urine samples were divided into three different methods. Method A allowed stereoselective determination of the 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) glucuronides and only achiral determination of the intact sulfate conjugates of HMMA and 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (DHMA) after C18 solid-phase extraction by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization. Method B allowed the determination of the enantiomer ratios of DHMA and HMMA sulfate conjugates after selective enzymatic cleavage and chiral analysis of the corresponding deconjugated metabolites after chiral derivatization with S-heptafluorobutyrylprolyl chloride using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with negative-ion chemical ionization. Method C allowed the chiral determination of MDMA and its unconjugated metabolites using method B without sulfate cleavage. The validation process including specificity, recovery, matrix effects, process efficiency, accuracy and precision, stabilities and limits of quantification and detection showed that all methods were selective, sensitive, accurate and precise for all tested analytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Schwaninger
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
| | - Markus R. Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Hans H. Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Stereoselective method development and validation for determination of concentrations of amphetamine-type stimulants and metabolites in human urine using a simultaneous extraction–chiral derivatization approach. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2011; 879:8-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2010.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2010] [Revised: 10/27/2010] [Accepted: 10/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Review: Pharmacogenetic aspects of the effect of cytochrome P450 polymorphisms on serotonergic drug metabolism, response, interactions, and adverse effects. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2010; 7:162-84. [PMID: 21052868 DOI: 10.1007/s12024-010-9188-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/05/2010] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The field of pharmacogenetics contains a wealth of potential for the enhancement of clinical practice by providing a more effective match between patient and drug, consequently reducing the probability of an adverse drug reaction. Although a relatively novel concept in the forensic context, pharmacogenetics has the capability to assist in the interpretation of drug related deaths, particularly in unintentional drug poisonings where the cause of death remains unclear. However, the complex pharmacology of the drugs when subjected to genetic variations in metabolism makes interpretation of the expected response and adverse events difficult. Many possess multiple metabolic pathways, narrow therapeutic indices and active metabolites or enantiomers which may be eliminated via different pathways to the parent drug. A number of these drugs, which are metabolised primarily by the CYP450 system, are also associated with serotonin syndrome, or serotonin toxicity, especially when used concomitantly with other serotonin active drugs which rely on the same metabolic pathways for drug elimination. A comprehensive understanding of polymorphic drug metabolism and its expected outcomes is therefore essential when interpreting the involvement of drugs in adverse reactions. This review examines the genetically variable CYP450-mediated metabolism of a number of serotonin-active drugs that are often implicated in cases of serotonin toxicity, to assess the impact of pharmacogenetics on drug metabolism, response, interactions and adverse effects.
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Tipton D, Legan Z, Dabbous M. Methamphetamine cytotoxicity and effect on LPS-stimulated IL-1β production by human monocytes. Toxicol In Vitro 2010; 24:921-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2009.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2009] [Revised: 11/20/2009] [Accepted: 11/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Meyer MR, Peters FT, Maurer HH. Investigations on the human hepatic cytochrome P450 isozymes involved in the metabolism of 3,4-methylenedioxy-amphetamine (MDA) and benzodioxolyl-butanamine (BDB) enantiomers. Toxicol Lett 2009; 190:54-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.06.866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2009] [Revised: 06/23/2009] [Accepted: 06/25/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Hondebrink L, Meulenbelt J, Timmerman JG, van den Berg M, Westerink RHS. Amphetamine reduces vesicular dopamine content in dexamethasone-differentiated PC12 cells only following l-DOPA exposure. J Neurochem 2009; 111:624-33. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06357.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Schwaninger AE, Meyer MR, Zapp J, Maurer HH. The Role of Human UDP-Glucuronyltransferases on the Formation of the Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy) Phase II MetabolitesR- andS-3-Methoxymethamphetamine 4-O-Glucuronides. Drug Metab Dispos 2009; 37:2212-20. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.109.029215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
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Stereoselective differences in the cytochrome P450-dependent dealkylation and demethylenation of N-methyl-benzodioxolyl-butanamine (MBDB, Eden) enantiomers. Biochem Pharmacol 2009; 77:1725-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2009.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2009] [Revised: 02/25/2009] [Accepted: 03/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Enantioselectivity in the Methylation of the Catecholic Phase I Metabolites of Methylenedioxy Designer Drugs and Their Capability To Inhibit Catechol-O-methyltransferase-Catalyzed Dopamine 3-Methylation. Chem Res Toxicol 2009; 22:1205-11. [DOI: 10.1021/tx900134e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Markus R. Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
| | - Hans H. Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Sotnikova TD, Caron MG, Gainetdinov RR. Trace amine-associated receptors as emerging therapeutic targets. Mol Pharmacol 2009; 76:229-35. [PMID: 19389919 DOI: 10.1124/mol.109.055970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Endogenous trace amines (TAs) of unknown biological function are structurally related to classic monoaminergic neurotransmitters and found at low concentrations in the mammalian brain. Their recently discovered group of G protein-coupled receptors, trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs), may represent putative targets not only for trace and other amines but also for a variety of monoaminergic compounds, including amphetamines and monoamine metabolites. The trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), which is in part associated with the monoaminergic neuronal circuitry controlling various functions, including movement, is the best characterized of the class, although little is known about its regulation and function. Here we review the pharmacology and biochemical properties of the TAAR1 and its physiological functions as revealed in studies involving knockout mice lacking this receptor. Potential therapeutic applications of future selective TAAR1 agonists and antagonists are also discussed. Although understanding of biology and functions mediated by other TAARs is still in its infancy, it is expected that further characterization of the functional roles and biochemical properties of TAARs and identification of endogenous and exogenous ligands will eventually promote these receptors as an attractive class of targets to correct monoaminergic processes that could be dysfunctional in a host of disorders of brain and periphery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatyana D Sotnikova
- Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Italian Institute of Technology, Genova, Italy
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Meyer MR, Peters FT, Maurer HH. The Role of Human Hepatic Cytochrome P450 Isozymes in the Metabolism of Racemic 3,4-Methylenedioxyethylamphetamine and Its Single Enantiomers. Drug Metab Dispos 2009; 37:1152-6. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.108.026203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
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A validated gas chromatographic-electron impact ionization mass spectrometric method for methamphetamine, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and metabolites in mouse plasma and brain. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2008; 876:266-76. [PMID: 19026602 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2008] [Revised: 10/27/2008] [Accepted: 11/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A method was developed and fully validated for simultaneous quantification of methamphetamine (MAMP), amphetamine, hydroxy-methamphetamine, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy), methylenedioxyamphetamine, 3-hydroxy-4-methoxy-methamphetamine, and 3-hydroxy-4-methoxy-amphetamine in 100 microL mouse plasma and 7.5mg brain. Solid phase extraction and gas chromatography-electron impact ionization mass spectrometry in selected-ion monitoring mode achieved plasma linear ranges of 10-20 to 20,000 ng/mL and 0.1-0.2 to 200 ng/mg in brain. Recoveries were greater than 91%, bias 92.3-110.4%, and imprecision less than 5.3% coefficient of variation. This method was used for measuring MAMP and MDMA and metabolites in plasma and brain during mouse neurotoxicity studies.
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Dostalek M, Jurica J, Pistovcakova J, Hanesova M, Tomandl J, Linhart I, Sulcova A. Effect of methamphetamine on cytochrome P450 activity. Xenobiotica 2008; 37:1355-66. [DOI: 10.1080/00498250701652877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Meyer MR, Peters FT, Maurer HH. The role of human hepatic cytochrome P450 isozymes in the metabolism of racemic 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine and its enantiomers. Drug Metab Dispos 2008; 36:2345-54. [PMID: 18725511 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.108.021543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The entactogen, 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA), is a chiral drug that is mainly metabolized by N-demethylation and demethylenation. The involvement of cytochrome P450 (P450) isozymes in these metabolic steps has been studied by inhibition assays with human liver microsomes and, in part, with heterologously expressed human P450 isozymes. However, a comprehensive study on the involvement of all relevant human P450s has not been published yet. In addition, the chirality of this drug was not considered in these in vitro studies. The aim of the present work was to study the contribution of human P450 isozymes in the N-demethylation and demethylenation of racemic MDMA and its single enantiomers. MDMA and its enantiomers were incubated using heterologously expressed human P450s, and the metabolites were quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after derivatization with S-heptafluorobutyrylprolyl chloride. The highest contribution for the N-demethylation as calculated from the enzyme kinetic data, were obtained for CYP2B6 (R,S-MDMA), CYP1A2 (R-MDMA), and CYP2B6 (S-MDMA). In the case of the demethylenation, the isozyme with the highest contribution to net clearance for R,S-MDMA, R-MDMA, and S-MDMA was CYP2D6. For the first time, marked enantioselectivity was observed for N-demethylation and demethylenation by CYP2C19 with a preference for the S-enantiomers. In addition, CYP2D6 showed preference for S-MDMA in the case of demethylenation. None of the other isozymes showed major preferences for certain enantiomers. In conclusion, therefore, the different pharmacokinetic properties of the MDMA enantiomers may be caused by enantioselective metabolism by CYP2C19 and CYP2D6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Building 46, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Abstract
In the last few years, significant developments have occurred on the key issues involved in oral fluid drug testing. New pharmacokinetic studies have been conducted, optimal cutoffs have been proposed, and new studies have examined the correlation between oral fluid drug concentrations and impairment. Recent studies (eg, the discovery of the presence of THC-COOH in oral fluid) can contribute to solve the issue of false-positive results caused by passive exposure to marijuana. Reliable point-of-care drug testing is still problematic, especially for cannabinoids and benzodiazepines. To date, there is no device that allows both reliable and practical point-of-care testing. The importance of liquid chromatography- tandem mass spectrometry in confirmation analysis has increased over the last several years. It can be expected that this trend will continue because the low sample volumes make simultaneous detection of different drug classes with limited sample preparation necessary. Literature on proficiency testing to ensure reliability and comparability of results is limited. Oral fluid has become an important sample type in driving under the influence research, and the first legal random drug testing program in oral fluid since 2004 has been organized in Victoria. It can be expected that the role of oral fluid as an alternative matrix will keep increasing in the future.
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Mueller M, Peters FT, Maurer HH, McCann UD, Ricaurte GA. Nonlinear Pharmacokinetics of (±)3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “Ecstasy”) and Its Major Metabolites in Squirrel Monkeys at Plasma Concentrations of MDMA That Develop After Typical Psychoactive Doses. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2008; 327:38-44. [DOI: 10.1124/jpet.108.141366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Shahdousti P, Aghamohammadi M, Alizadeh N. Spectrophotometric study of the charge-transfer and ion-pair complexation of methamphetamine with some acceptors. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2008; 69:1195-200. [PMID: 17905645 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2007.06.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2007] [Revised: 06/13/2007] [Accepted: 06/25/2007] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The charge-transfer (CT) complexes of methamphetamine (MPA) as a n-donor with several acceptors including bromocresolgreen (BCG), bromocresolpurple (BCP), chlorophenolred (CPR), picric acid (PIC), and 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ) have been studied spectrophotometrically in chloroform solutions in order to obtain some information about their stoichiometry and stability of complexation. The oscillator strengths, transition dipole moments and resonance energy of the complex in the ground state for all complexes have been calculated. Vertical ionization potential of MPA and electron affinity of acceptors were determined by ab initio calculation. The acceptors were also used to utilize a simple and sensitive extraction-spectrophotometric method for the determination of MPA. The method is based on the formation of 1:1 ion-pair association complexes of MPA with BCG, BCP and PIC in chloroform medium. Beer's plots were obeyed in a general concentration range of 0.24-22 microg ml(-1) for the investigated drug with different acceptors. The proposed methods were applied successfully for the determination of MAP in pure and abuse drug with good accuracy and precision.
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Grandy DK. Trace amine-associated receptor 1-Family archetype or iconoclast? Pharmacol Ther 2007; 116:355-90. [PMID: 17888514 PMCID: PMC2767338 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2007.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2007] [Accepted: 06/25/2007] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Interest has recently been rekindled in receptors that are activated by low molecular weight, noncatecholic, biogenic amines that are typically found as trace constituents of various vertebrate and invertebrate tissues and fluids. The timing of this resurgent focus on receptors activated by the "trace amines" (TA) beta-phenylethylamine (PEA), tyramine (TYR), octopamine (OCT), synephrine (SYN), and tryptamine (TRYP) is the direct result of 2 publications that appeared in 2001 describing the cloning of a novel G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) referred to by their discoverers Borowsky et al. as TA1 and Bunzow et al. as TA receptor 1 (TAR1). When heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and various eukaryotic cell lines, recombinant rodent and human TAR dose-dependently couple to the stimulation of adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) production. Structure-activity profiling based on this functional response has revealed that in addition to the TA, other biologically active compounds containing a 2-carbon aliphatic side chain linking an amino group to at least 1 benzene ring are potent and efficacious TA receptor agonists with amphetamine (AMPH), methamphetamine, 3-iodothyronamine, thyronamine, and dopamine (DA) among the most notable. Almost 100 years after the search for TAR began, numerous TA1/TAR1-related sequences, now called TA-associated receptors (TAAR), have been identified in the genome of every species of vertebrate examined to date. Consequently, even though heterologously expressed TAAR1 fits the pharmacological criteria established for a bona fide TAR, a major challenge for those working in the field is to discern the in vivo pharmacology and physiology of each purported member of this extended family of GPCR. Only then will it be possible to establish whether TAAR1 is the family archetype or an iconoclast.
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Affiliation(s)
- David K Grandy
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, L334, School of Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States.
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Time-resolved hair analysis of MDMA enantiomers by GC/MS-NCI. Forensic Sci Int 2007; 172:150-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2006] [Revised: 01/08/2007] [Accepted: 01/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Kraemer T, Paul LD. Bioanalytical procedures for determination of drugs of abuse in blood. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 388:1415-35. [PMID: 17468860 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1271-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Revised: 03/16/2007] [Accepted: 03/19/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Determination of drugs of abuse in blood is of great importance in clinical and forensic toxicology. This review describes procedures for detection of the following drugs of abuse and their metabolites in whole blood, plasma or serum: Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-hydroxy-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol glucuronide, heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine, morphine, morphine-6-glucuronide, morphine-3-glucuronide, codeine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, N-ethyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, cocaine, benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester, cocaethylene, other cocaine metabolites or pyrolysis products (norcocaine, norcocaethylene, norbenzoylecgonine, m-hydroxycocaine, p-hydroxycocaine, m-hydroxybenzoylecgonine, p-hydroxybenzoylecgonine, ethyl ecgonine, ecgonine, anhydroecgonine methyl ester, anhydroecgonine ethyl ester, anhydroecgonine, noranhydroecgonine, N-hydroxynorcocaine, cocaine N-oxide, anhydroecgonine methyl ester N-oxide). Metabolites and degradation products which are recommended to be monitored for assessment in clinical or forensic toxicology are mentioned. Papers written in English between 2002 and the beginning of 2007 are reviewed. Analytical methods are assessed for their suitability in forensic toxicology, where special requirements have to be met. For many of the analytes sensitive immunological methods for screening are available. Screening and confirmation is mostly done by gas chromatography (GC)-mass spectrometry (MS) or liquid chromatography (LC)-MS(/MS) procedures. Basic information about the biosample assayed, internal standard, workup, GC or LC column and mobile phase, detection mode, and validation data for each procedure is summarized in two tables to facilitate the selection of a method suitable for a specific analytic problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kraemer
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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Peters FT, Samyn N, Kraemer T, Riedel WJ, Maurer HH. Negative-Ion Chemical Ionization Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry Assay for Enantioselective Measurement of Amphetamines in Oral Fluid: Application to a Controlled Study with MDMA and Driving Under the Influence Cases. Clin Chem 2007; 53:702-10. [PMID: 17332148 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2006.081547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Background: Enantioselective analysis of amphetamine (AM), methamphetamine (MA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) helps interpret toxicological results. Methods have been described for various matrices, but so far not for oral fluid, a matrix of increasing importance in testing for drugs of abuse, especially in the context of driving under the influence of drugs (DUID).
Methods: After dilution with 200 μL carbonate buffer (pH 9), oral fluid samples (10–50 μL) were derivatized with S-heptafluorobutyrylprolyl chloride. The resulting diastereomers were extracted into 100 μL of cyclohexane, separated by gas chromatography (HP-5MS column), and detected by mass spectrometry in the negative-ion chemical ionization mode (GC-NICI-MS). The method was validated and applied to samples from a controlled study with MDMA and from authentic DUID cases.
Results: The derivatized AM, MA, MDA, MDMA, and MDEA enantiomers were well separated from each other. The method was linear from 5–250 μg/L per enantiomer of MDA and from 25–1250 μg/L per enantiomer of AM, MA, MDMA, and MDEA. With the exception of MDEA, analytical recoveries, repeatability, and intermediate precision were within required limits. The analyte concentrations and enantiomer ratios in the application samples correlated only weakly with corresponding published plasma data.
Conclusions: This sensitive, reliable, and fast GC-NICI-MS assay enantioselectively measures AM, MA, MDA, and MDMA in oral fluid samples. Prediction of plasma concentrations and enantiomer ratios from respective oral fluid data is not possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank T Peters
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Reese EA, Bunzow JR, Arttamangkul S, Sonders MS, Grandy DK. Trace amine-associated receptor 1 displays species-dependent stereoselectivity for isomers of methamphetamine, amphetamine, and para-hydroxyamphetamine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007; 321:178-86. [PMID: 17218486 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.106.115402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The synthetic amines methamphetamine (METH), amphetamine (AMPH), and their metabolite para-hydroxyamphetamine (POHA) are chemically and structurally related to the catecholamine neurotransmitters and a small group of endogenous biogenic amines collectively referred to as the trace amines (TAs). Recently, it was reported that METH, AMPH, POHA, and the TAs para-tyramine (TYR) and beta-phenylethylamine (PEA) stimulate cAMP production in human embryonic kidney (HEK)-293 cells expressing rat trace amine-associated receptor 1 (rTAAR1). The discovery that METH and AMPH activate the rTAAR1 motivated us to study the effect of these drugs on the mouse TAAR1 (mTAAR1) and a human-rat chimera (hrChTAAR1). Furthermore, because S-(+)-isomers of METH and AMPH are reported to be more potent and efficacious in vivo than R-(-), we determined the enantiomeric selectivity of all three species of TAAR1. In response to METH, AMPH, or POHA exposure, the accumulation of cAMP by HEK-293 cells stably expressing different species of TAAR1 was concentration- and isomer-dependent. EC50 values for S-(+)-METH were 0.89, 0.92, and 4.44 microM for rTAAR1, mTAAR1, and h-rChTAAR1, respectively. PEA was a potent and full agonist at each species of TAAR1, whereas TYR was a full agonist for the rodent TAAR1s but was a partial agonist at h-rChTAAR1. Interestingly, both isomers of METH were full agonists at mTAAR1 and h-rChTAAR1, whereas both were partial agonists at rTAAR1. Taken together, these in vitro results suggest that, in vivo, TAAR1 could be a novel mediator of the effects of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Reese
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR 97239, USA
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Schwilke EW, Sampaio dos Santos MI, Logan BK. Changing patterns of drug and alcohol use in fatally injured drivers in Washington State. J Forensic Sci 2006; 51:1191-8. [PMID: 17018108 DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00239.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We have previously reported on patterns of drug and alcohol use in fatally injured drivers in Washington State. Here we revisit that population to examine how drug use patterns have changed in the intervening 9 years. Blood and serum specimens from drivers who died within 4 h of a traffic accident between February 1, 2001, and January 31, 2002, were analyzed for illicit and therapeutic drugs and alcohol. Drugs when present were quantitated. Samples suitable for testing were obtained from 370 fatally injured drivers. Alcohol was detected above 0.01 g/100 mL in 41% of cases. The mean alcohol concentration for those cases was 0.17 g/100 mL (range 0.02-0.39 g/100 mL). Central nervous system (CNS) active drugs were detected in 144 (39%) cases. CNS depressants including carisoprodol, diazepam, hydrocodone, diphenhydramine, amitriptyline, and others were detected in 52 cases (14.1%), cannabinoids were detected in 47 cases (12.7%), CNS stimulants (cocaine and amphetamines) were detected in 36 cases (9.7%), and narcotic analgesics (excluding morphine which is often administered iatrogenically in trauma cases) were detected in 12 cases (3.2%). For those cases which tested positive for alcohol c. 40% had other drugs present which have the potential to cause or contribute to the driver's impairment. Our report also considers the blood drug concentrations in the context of their interpretability with respect to driving impairment. The data reveal that over the past decade, while alcohol use has declined, some drug use, notably methamphetamine, has increased significantly (from 1.89% to 4.86% of fatally injured drivers) between 1992 and 2002. Combined drug and alcohol use is a very significant pattern in this population and is probably overlooked in DUI enforcement programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene W Schwilke
- Washington State Toxicology Laboratory, Forensic Laboratory Services Bureau, Washington State Patrol, 2203 Airport Way S., Seattle, WA 98134
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Maurer HH. Hyphenated mass spectrometric techniques-indispensable tools in clinical and forensic toxicology and in doping control. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2006; 41:1399-413. [PMID: 17051522 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Hyphenated mass spectrometric techniques, particularly gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS), are indispensable tools in clinical and forensic toxicology and in doping control owing to their high sensitivity and specificity. They are used for screening, library-assisted identification and quantification of drugs, poisons and their metabolites, prerequisites for competent expertise in these fields. In addition, they allow the study of metabolism of new drugs or poisons as a basis for developing screening procedures in biological matrices, most notably in urine, or toxicological risk assessment. Concepts and procedures using GC/MS and LC/MS techniques in the areas of analytical toxicology and the role of mass spectral libraries are presented and discussed in this feature article. Finally, perspectives of their future position are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Saarland, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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Mechan A, Yuan J, Hatzidimitriou G, Irvine RJ, McCann UD, Ricaurte GA. Pharmacokinetic profile of single and repeated oral doses of MDMA in squirrel monkeys: relationship to lasting effects on brain serotonin neurons. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 31:339-50. [PMID: 15999148 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A large body of data indicates that (+/-)3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy') can damage brain serotonin neurons in animals. However, the relevance of these preclinical data to humans is uncertain, because doses and routes of administration used in animals have generally differed from those used by humans. Here, we examined the pharmacokinetic profile of MDMA in squirrel monkeys after different routes of administration, and explored the relationship between acute plasma MDMA concentrations after repeated oral dosing and subsequent brain serotonin deficits. Oral MDMA administration engendered a plasma profile of MDMA in squirrel monkeys resembling that seen in humans, although the half-life of MDMA in monkeys is shorter (3 vs 6-9 h). MDMA was biotransformed into MDA, and the plasma ratio of MDA to MDMA was 3-5 / 100, similar to that in humans. MDMA accumulation in squirrel monkeys was nonlinear, and plasma levels were highly correlated with regional brain serotonin deficits observed 2 weeks later. The present results indicate that plasma concentrations of MDMA shown here to produce lasting serotonergic deficits in squirrel monkeys overlap those reported by other laboratories in some recreational 'ecstasy' consumers, and are two to three times higher than those found in humans administered a single 100-150 mg dose of MDMA in a controlled setting. Additional studies are needed on the relative sensitivity of brain serotonin neurons to MDMA toxicity in humans and non-human primates, the pharmacokinetic parameter(s) of MDMA most closely linked to the neurotoxic process, and metabolites other than MDA that may play a role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annis Mechan
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Irvine RJ, Keane M, Felgate P, McCann UD, Callaghan PD, White JM. Plasma drug concentrations and physiological measures in 'dance party' participants. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 31:424-30. [PMID: 16192986 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The increasing use of (+/-) 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in the setting of large dance parties ('raves') and clubs has been the source of some concern, because of potential acute adverse events, and because animal studies suggest that MDMA has the potential to damage brain serotonin (5-HT) neurons. However, it is not yet known whether MDMA, as used in the setting of dance parties, leads to plasma levels of MDMA that are associated with toxicity to 5-HT neurons in animals. The present study sought to address this question. Plasma MDMA concentrations, vital signs, and a variety of blood and urine measures were obtained prior to, and hours after, individuals attended a dance party. After the dance party, subjects were without clinical complaints, had measurable amounts of residual MDMA in plasma, and nearly half of the subjects also tested positive for methamphetamine, another amphetamine analog that has been shown to have 5-HT neurotoxic potential in animals. Plasma concentrations of MDMA did not correlate with self-reported use of 'ecstasy' and, in some subjects, overlapped with those that have been associated with 5-HT neurotoxicity in non-human primates. Additional subjects were likely to have had similar concentrations while at the dance party, when one considers the reported time of drug ingestion and the plasma half-life of MDMA in humans. Hematological and biochemical analyses were generally unremarkable. Moderate increases in blood pressure, heart rate and body temperature were observed in the subjects with the highest MDMA plasma concentrations. These findings are consistent with epidemiological findings that most people who use MDMA at dance parties do not develop serious clinical complications, and suggest that some of these individuals may be at risk for developing MDMA-induced toxicity to brain serotonin neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney J Irvine
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology, University of Adelaide, SA, Australia.
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Yuan J, Hatzidimitriou G, Suthar P, Mueller M, McCann U, Ricaurte G. Relationship between temperature, dopaminergic neurotoxicity, and plasma drug concentrations in methamphetamine-treated squirrel monkeys. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2005; 316:1210-8. [PMID: 16293712 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.105.096503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To examine the relationship between temperature (ambient and core), dopaminergic neurotoxicity, and plasma drug [methamphetamine (METH)] and metabolite [amphetamine (AMPH)] concentrations, two separate groups of squirrel monkeys (n = 4-5 per group) were treated with METH (1.25 mg/kg, given twice, 4 h apart) or vehicle (same schedule) at two different ambient temperatures (26 and 33 degrees C). Core temperatures and plasma drug concentrations were measured during the period of drug exposure; striatal monoaminergic neuronal markers in the same monkeys were determined 1 week later. At the temperature range examined, the higher ambient temperature did not significantly enhance METH-induced hyperthermia or METH-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity, although there were trends toward increases. Acute METH-induced increases in core temperature correlated highly and directly with subsequent decreases in striatal dopaminergic markers. Squirrel monkeys with the greatest increases in core temperature (and largest dopaminergic deficits) had the highest plasma drug metabolite (AMPH) concentrations. There was substantial interanimal variability, both with regard to elevations in core temperature and plasma drug concentrations. Pharmacokinetic studies in six additional squirrel monkeys revealed comparable individual differences in METH metabolism. These results, which provide the first available data on the within-subject relationship between temperature (ambient and core), plasma concentrations of METH (and AMPH), and subsequent dopaminergic neurotoxic changes, suggest that, as in rodents, core temperature can influence METH neurotoxicity in primates. In addition, they suggest that interanimal differences presently observed in thermal and neurotoxic responses to METH may be related to individual differences in drug metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yuan
- Department of Neurology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Martins L, Yegles M, Chung H, Wennig R. Simultaneous enantioselective determination of amphetamine and congeners in hair specimens by negative chemical ionization gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2005; 825:57-62. [PMID: 16154523 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2004.12.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2004] [Revised: 12/20/2004] [Accepted: 12/24/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Enantioselective quantification of amphetamine (AM), methamphetamine (MA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) enantiomers in hair using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is described. Hair specimens were digested with 1M sodium hydroxide at 100 degrees C for 30 min and extracted by a solid phase procedure using Cleanscreen ZSDAU020. Extracted analytes were derivatised with (S)-heptafluorobutyrylprolyl chloride and the resulting diastereoisomers were quantified by GC-MS operating in the negative chemical ionization mode. Extraction yields were between 73.0 and 97.9%. Limits of detection varied in the range of 2.1-45.9 pg/mg hair, whereas the lowest limits of quantification varied between 4.3 and 91.8 pg/mg hair. Intra- and inter-assay precision and respective accuracy were acceptable. The enantiomeric ratios (R versus S) of AM, MA, MDA, MDMA and MDEA were determined in hair from suspected amphetamine abusers. Only MA and AM enantiomers were detectable in this collective and the quantification data showed in most cases higher concentrations of (R)-MA and (R)-AM than those of the corresponding (S)-enantiomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliane Martins
- National Laboratory of Health, Toxicology Division, University of Luxembourg, CRP-Santé, 162A, Avenue de la Faïencerie, Luxembourg L-1511, Luxembourg.
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Peters FT, Samyn N, Lamers CTJ, Riedel WJ, Kraemer T, de Boeck G, Maurer HH. Drug testing in blood: validated negative-ion chemical ionization gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric assay for enantioselective measurement of the designer drugs MDEA, MDMA, and MDA and its application to samples from a controlled study with MDMA. Clin Chem 2005; 51:1811-22. [PMID: 16099938 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2005.052746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The enantiomers of the designer drugs 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) differ in their pharmacologic and toxicologic potency. The aim of this study was to develop an assay for measuring these enantiomers in small plasma volumes and to analyze samples from a controlled study with MDMA. METHODS The analytes were extracted from < or = 0.2 mL of plasma by mixed-mode solid-phase extraction. After derivatization with S-(-)-heptafluorobutyrylprolyl chloride, the resulting diastereomers were separated by gas chromatography (HP-5MS) within 17 min and detected by mass spectrometry in the negative-ion chemical ionization mode. The method was fully validated and applied to samples from a controlled study in which a single dose of racemic MDMA (75 mg) was administered. RESULTS The derivatized enantiomers were well separated and detected with good sensitivity. The assay was linear (per enantiomer) at 1-50 microg/L for MDA and 5-250 microg/L for MDMA and MDEA. Analytical recovery, accuracy, repeatability, and intermediate precision data were within required limits. Extraction yields were 82.1%-95.3%. In the study samples, concentrations of R-(-)-MDMA significantly exceeded those of S-(+)-MDMA. Their ratios (R vs S) were always >1.0 and increased over time. Concentrations of S-(+)-MDA exceeded those of R-(-)-MDA, their ratios (R vs S) also increasing over time but remaining <1.0. CONCLUSIONS This assay enables sensitive, reliable, and fast enantioselective measurement of MDA, MDMA, and MDEA in small volumes of plasma. The controlled study data confirm previous findings of MDMA and MDA enantiomer ratios (R vs S) increasing over time after ingestion of racemic MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank T Peters
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Saarland, Homburg, Germany
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Ricaurte GA, Mechan AO, Yuan J, Hatzidimitriou G, Xie T, Mayne AH, McCann UD. Amphetamine treatment similar to that used in the treatment of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder damages dopaminergic nerve endings in the striatum of adult nonhuman primates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2005; 315:91-8. [PMID: 16014752 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.105.087916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Pharmacotherapy with amphetamine is effective in the management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), now recognized in adults as well as in children and adolescents. Here we demonstrate that amphetamine treatment, similar to that used clinically for adult ADHD, damages dopaminergic nerve endings in the striatum of adult nonhuman primates. Furthermore, plasma concentrations of amphetamine associated with dopaminergic neurotoxicity in nonhuman primates are on the order of those reported in young patients receiving amphetamine for the management of ADHD. These findings may have implications for the pathophysiology and treatment of ADHD. Further preclinical and clinical studies are needed to evaluate the dopaminergic neurotoxic potential of therapeutic doses of amphetamine in children as well as adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- George A Ricaurte
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, 5501 Hopkins Bayview Circle, Rm. 5B.71E, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Brettell
- Office of Forensic Sciences, New Jersey State Police, New Jersey Forensic Science and Technology Complex, 1200 Negron Road, Horizon Center, Hamilton, New Jersey 08691, USA
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