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Hino M, Nakanishi M, Nomoto H. The expression system affects the binding affinity between p75NTR and proNGF. Biochem Biophys Rep 2024; 38:101702. [PMID: 38596407 PMCID: PMC11001769 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2024.101702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
ProNGF (nerve growth factor) is a precursor of NGF and a signaling peptide exerting opposite effects on neuronal cells, i.e., apoptotic or neuritogenic. The conflicting biological activity of proNGF depends on the relative levels of two membrane receptors, TrkA and p75NTR. The effect of proNGF depends on the expression levels of these receptor proteins and their affinity to proNGF. Since the affinity of proteins has been studied with various recombinant proteins, it is worth comparing the affinity of these proteins within one experiment with the same method. This study examined the affinity between a recombinant proNGF and p75NTR expressed in common systems: bacterial, insect, and mammalian cells. The extracellular domain of p75NTR expressed in the insect or mammalian systems bound to native mature NGF, with a higher affinity for the insect receptor. The uncleavable proNGF was expressed in the three systems and they showed neuritogenic activity in PC12 cells. These recombinant proteins were used to compare their binding affinity to p75NTR. The insect p75NTR showed a higher binding affinity to proNGF than the mammalian p75NTR. The insect p75NTR bound proNGF from the insect system with the highest affinity, then from the mammalian system, and the lowest from the bacterial system. Conversely, the mammalian p75NTR showed no such preference for proNGF. Because the recombinant proNGF and p75NTR from different expression systems are supposed to have the same amino acid sequences, these differences in the affinity depend likely on their post-translational modifications, most probably on their glycans. Each recombinant proNGF and p75NTR in various expression systems exhibited different mobilities on SDS-PAGE and reactivities with glycosidases and lectins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mami Hino
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Matsuyama University, Matsuyama, Ehime, 790-8578, Japan
| | - Masayuki Nakanishi
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Matsuyama University, Matsuyama, Ehime, 790-8578, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Nomoto
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Matsuyama University, Matsuyama, Ehime, 790-8578, Japan
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2
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He M, Liu Z, Lian T, Guo P, Zhang W, Huang Y, Zhang Y, Liu G, Zhang W, Li J, Guan H, Zhang W, Luo D, Qi J, Yue H, Wang X, Zhang W. Role of nerve growth factor on cognitive impairment in patients with Alzheimer's disease carrying apolipoprotein E ε4. CNS Neurosci Ther 2024; 30:e14560. [PMID: 38112032 PMCID: PMC11163191 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the roles of neurotrophic factors on cognition in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) carrying Apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4. METHODS Totals of 173 patients with AD were divided into APOE ε4 carrier and non-carrier groups, and their demographics, cognition, and neurotrophic factors in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were compared. Multiple linear regression analyses were performed to assess correlations among APOE ε4, neurotrophic factors and cognition. Mediation analyses were conducted to assess the sequential associations among APOE ε4, nerve growth factor (NGF), and cognition. RESULTS Global cognition and multiple domains were impaired in the APOE ε4 carrier group (all p < 0.05). NGF level in the APOE ε4 carrier group was lower than that in the non-carrier group (p = 0.016). NGF level showed significant correlations with both global and multiple domains cognitions. Specifically, NGF mediated the association between APOE ε4 and Animal Fluency Test score (β, -0.45; 95% CI [-0.96, -0.07]; p < 0.001) and Trail Making Test-A (time) (β, 0.15; 95% CI [0.01, 0.33]; p < 0.001). CONCLUSION APOE ε4 is associated with cognitive impairment, and those carrying APOE ε4 have decreased NGF level in CSF. Declined NGF level is correlated with compromised cognition. NGF mediates APOE ε4-associated cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyue He
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Zhan Liu
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Tenghong Lian
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Peng Guo
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Wenjing Zhang
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Yue Huang
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological DiseasesBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine & HealthUNSW SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Yanan Zhang
- Department of Blood TransfusionBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Gaifen Liu
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological DiseasesBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Weijiao Zhang
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Jinghui Li
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Huiying Guan
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Weijia Zhang
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Dongmei Luo
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Jing Qi
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Hao Yue
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Xiaomin Wang
- Department of PhysiologyCapital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological DiseasesBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- Center of Parkinson's DiseaseBeijing Institute for Brain DisordersBeijingChina
- Beijing Key Laboratory on Parkinson DiseaseBeijingChina
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Nilsson B, Bylund J, Halldin MM, Rother M, Rein-Hedin E, Önnestam K, Segerdahl M. ACD856, a novel positive allosteric modulator of Trk receptors, single ascending doses in healthy subjects: Safety and pharmacokinetics. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2024; 80:717-727. [PMID: 38353689 PMCID: PMC11001683 DOI: 10.1007/s00228-024-03645-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE AlzeCure Pharma AB is developing novel positive allosteric modulators of Trk-receptors for treatment of Alzheimer's disease, depression, other psychiatric conditions and other disorders where cognition is impaired. The preceding candidate drug ACD855 was shown to have a too long half-life in humans to allow further development. To de-risk the development of the follow-up compound ACD856, the oral single ascending dose study of ACD856 in humans was preceded by an intravenous microdose study, assessing the elimination half-life in plasma. METHODS A phase 0 study with a microdose of ACD856 (0.100 mg), was conducted in six healthy male subjects all receiving ACD856. Sequentially, a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind Phase I single ascending oral dose study (1 - 150 mg) was conducted, including 56 healthy subjects. Both studies assessed the safety and tolerability, as well as the PK properties of ACD856 after single dose intravenous and oral administration. RESULTS ACD856 was well tolerated with no treatment emergent, or dose related adverse events or other safety assessments. In the microdose study, ACD856 exhibited a bi-exponential plasma decline, low distribution volume, low plasma clearance with a half-life of approximately 20 hours. Orally, ACD856 exhibited rapid absorption, an almost complete bioavailability and a dose proportional increase in exposure. While the Cmax was lowered and delayed by food intake, the effect on plasma half-life and the overall bioavailability was low. No renal elimination of ACD856 was detected. CONCLUSION The prediction proved accurate demonstrating the value of conducting a microdose study prior to ascending dose studies. TRIAL REGISTRATION NCT05783830 March 24, 2023 (microdose study, retrospectively registered) and NCT05077631 October 14, 2021 (single ascending dose study).
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Affiliation(s)
- Boel Nilsson
- AlzeCure Pharma AB, Hälsovägen 7, SE-141 57, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Johan Bylund
- CTC Clinical Trial Consultants AB, Dag Hammarskjölds väg 10B, SE-752 37, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Matthias Rother
- AlzeCure Pharma AB, Hälsovägen 7, SE-141 57, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Erik Rein-Hedin
- CTC Clinical Trial Consultants AB, Dag Hammarskjölds väg 10B, SE-752 37, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Plastic Surgery, Uppsala University, SE-751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Märta Segerdahl
- AlzeCure Pharma AB, Hälsovägen 7, SE-141 57, Huddinge, Sweden.
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institute, Alfred Nobels allé 23, SE-141 52, Huddinge, Sweden.
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Makoudjou MA, Fico E, Rosso P, Triaca V, De Simone L, Rossetti D, Cattani F, Allegretti M, Tirassa P. ProNGF processing in adult rat tissues and bioactivity of NGF prodomain peptides. FEBS Open Bio 2024; 14:643-654. [PMID: 38429912 PMCID: PMC10988682 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.13768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024] Open
Abstract
The neurotrophin nerve growth factor (NGF) and its precursor proNGF are both bioactive and exert similar or opposite actions depending on the cell target and its milieu. The balance between NGF and proNGF is crucial for cell and tissue homeostasis and it is considered an indicator of pathological conditions. Proteolytical cleavage of proNGF to the mature form results in different fragments, whose function and/or bioactivity is still unclear. The present study was conducted to investigate the distribution of proNGF fragments derived from endogenous cleavage in brain and peripheral tissues of adult rats in the healthy condition and following inflammatory lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. Different anti-proNGF antibodies were tested and the presence of short peptides corresponding to the prodomain sequence (pdNGFpep) was identified. Processing of proNGF was found to be tissue-specific and accumulation of pdNGFpeps was found in inflamed tissues, mainly in testis, intestine and heart, suggesting a possible correlation between organ functions and a response to insults and/or injury. The bioactivity of pdNGFpep was also demonstrated in vitro by using primary hippocampal neurons. Our study supports a biological function for the NGF precursor prodomain and indicates that short peptides from residues 1-60, differing from the 70-110 sequence, induce apoptosis, thereby opening the way for identification of new molecular targets to study pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Anne Makoudjou
- Cellular and Molecular Biology, Department of BiologyUniversity of Rome “Tor Vergata”RomeItaly
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC)National Research Council (CNR)RomeItaly
| | - Elena Fico
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC)National Research Council (CNR)RomeItaly
| | - Pamela Rosso
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC)National Research Council (CNR)RomeItaly
| | - Viviana Triaca
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC)National Research Council (CNR)Campus A. Buzzati‐Traverso, MonterotondoRomeItaly
| | | | | | | | | | - Paola Tirassa
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC)National Research Council (CNR)RomeItaly
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Asadi MR, Gharesouran J, Sabaie H, Zaboli Mahdiabadi M, Mazhari SA, Sharifi-Bonab M, Shirvani-Farsani Z, Taheri M, Sayad A, Rezazadeh M. Neurotrophin growth factors and their receptors as promising blood biomarkers for Alzheimer's Disease: a gene expression analysis study. Mol Biol Rep 2024; 51:49. [PMID: 38165481 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-023-08959-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifaceted neurological ailment affecting more than 50 million individuals globally, distinguished by a deterioration in memory and cognitive abilities. Investigating neurotrophin growth factors could offer significant contributions to understanding AD progression and prospective therapeutic interventions. METHODS AND RESULTS The present investigation collected blood samples from 50 patients diagnosed with AD and 50 healthy individuals serving as controls. The mRNA expression levels of neurotrophin growth factors and their receptors were measured using quantitative PCR. A Bayesian regression model was used in the research to assess the relationship between gene expression levels and demographic characteristics such as age and gender. The correlations between variables were analyzed using Spearman correlation coefficients, and the diagnostic potential was assessed using a Receiver Operating Characteristic curve. NTRK2, TrkA, TrkC, and BDNF expression levels were found to be considerably lower (p-value < 0.05) in the blood samples of AD patients compared to the control group. The expression of BDNF exhibited the most substantial decrease in comparison to other neurotrophin growth factors. Correlation analysis indicates a statistically significant positive association between the genes. The ROC analysis showed that BDNF exhibited the greatest Area Under the Curve (AUC) value of 0.76, accompanied by a sensitivity of 70% and specificity of 66%. TrkC, TrkA, and NTRK2 demonstrated considerable diagnostic potential in distinguishing between cases and controls. CONCLUSION The observed decrease in the expression levels of NTRK2, TrkA, TrkC, and BDNF in AD patients, along with the identified associations between specific genes and their diagnostic capacity, indicate that these expressions have the potential to function as biomarkers for the diagnosis and treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Reza Asadi
- Clinical Research Development Unit of Tabriz Valiasr Hospital, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Jalal Gharesouran
- Clinical Research Development Unit of Tabriz Valiasr Hospital, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hani Sabaie
- Clinical Research Development Unit of Tabriz Valiasr Hospital, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | | | | | - Mirmohsen Sharifi-Bonab
- Clinical Research Development Unit of Tabriz Valiasr Hospital, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Zeinab Shirvani-Farsani
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Technology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Taheri
- Institute of Human Genetics, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.
- Urology and Nephrology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Arezou Sayad
- Department of Medical Genetics, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Maryam Rezazadeh
- Clinical Research Development Unit of Tabriz Valiasr Hospital, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
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Schindowski K. Differential Regulation of Neurotrophic Factors During Pathogenic Tau-Aggregation in a Tau Transgenic Mouse Model for Alzheimer's Disease: A Protocol for Double-Labeling mRNA by In Situ Hybridization and Protein Epitopes by Immunohistochemistry. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2754:361-385. [PMID: 38512677 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3629-9_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), most tauopathies, and other neurodegenerative diseases are highly associated to impaired neurotrophin regulation and imbalanced neurotrophin transport and distribution. Neurotrophins are crucial for the survival and maintenance of distinct neuronal population therefore their supply is essential for a healthy brain. Tau phosphorylation occurs at different sites of the tau protein and some phospho-epitopes are highly associated to AD (e.g., abnormally phosphorylated tau at Thr212/Ser214). Though the importance of neurotrophins is well known, their analysis in tissue is not trivial and needs careful consideration. Here a detailed protocol is presented, which combines in situ hybridization (ISH) with immunohistochemistry (IHC) to analyze neurotrophin mRNA expression during tau neuropathology and the results were confirmed by immunological methods.With this protocol, it was demonstrated that Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and its receptor Tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) were significantly decreased in tau-transgenic mice compared to their age-matched littermates. Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and its receptor TrkC were not altered with statistical significance, but a tendency for decreased NT-3 and slightly increased TrkC expression was observed in tau transgenic mice. The loss of BDNF-ISH signal was predominantly observed in hippocampus (CA1 and CA3) and cortex (layer II-VI) and verified by BDNF-immunoreactivity. Decreased BDNF and TrkB mRNA was negatively correlated with abnormal tau phosphorylation at Thr212/Ser214 in cortical neurons in transgenic mice. Strikingly, no correlation was observed with age-related phospho-epitopes such as Ser202/Thr205. Interestingly, both, the mRNA and protein levels of Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) were significantly increased in hippocampal neurons in the tau models as demonstrated by ISH, immunofluorescence, and Western Blotting. Here, some co-localization of NGF mRNA and phospho-tau (Thr212/Ser214) was observed but was a rare event. Since there is growing evidence for the relevance of neurotrophic factor distribution in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration, this technique is a useful tool to investigate the underlying mechanisms and potential therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Schindowski
- Institute of Applied Biotechnology, University of Applied Science Biberach, Biberach, Germany.
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Kropf E, Shekari A, Jaberi S, Puri A, Wu C, Fahnestock M. Age-induced nitrative stress decreases retrograde transport of proNGF via TrkA and increases proNGF retrograde transport and neurodegeneration via p75 NTR. Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 16:1241420. [PMID: 38025269 PMCID: PMC10679388 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2023.1241420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Axonal transport of pro nerve growth factor (proNGF) is impaired in aged basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs), which is associated with their degeneration. ProNGF is neurotrophic in the presence of its receptor tropomyosin-related kinase A (TrkA) but induces apoptosis via the pan-neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) when TrkA is absent. It is well established that TrkA is lost while p75NTR is maintained in aged BFCNs, but whether aging differentially affects transport of proNGF via each receptor is unknown. Nitrative stress increases during aging, but whether age-induced nitrative stress differentially affects proNGF transport via TrkA versus p75NTR has not yet been studied. Answering these questions is essential for developing an accurate understanding of the mechanisms contributing to age-induced loss of proNGF transport and BFCN degeneration. Methods In this study, fluorescence microscopy was used to analyze axonal transport of quantum dot labeled proNGF in rat BFCNs in vitro. Receptor specific effects were studied with proNGF mutants that selectively bind to either TrkA (proNGF-KKE) or p75NTR (proNGF-Δ9-13). Signaling factor activity was quantified via immunostaining. Results Young BFCNs transported proNGF-KKE but not proNGF-Δ9-13, and proNGF transport was not different in p75NTR knockout BFCNs compared to wildtype BFCNs. These results indicate that young BFCNs transport proNGF via TrkA. In vitro aging increased transport of proNGF-Δ9-13 but decreased transport of proNGF-KKE. Treatment with the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME reduced retrograde transport of proNGF-Δ9-13 in aged BFCNs while increasing retrograde transport of proNGF-KKE but did not affect TrkA or p75NTR levels. ProNGF-Δ9-13 induced greater pro-apoptotic signaling and neurodegeneration and less pro-survival signaling relative to proNGF-KKE. Discussion Together, these results indicate that age-induced nitrative stress decreases proNGF transport via TrkA while increasing proNGF transport via p75NTR. These transport deficits are associated with decreased survival signaling, increased apoptotic signaling, and neurodegeneration. Our findings elucidate the receptor specificity of age-and nitrative stress-induced proNGF transport deficits. These results may help to rescue the neurotrophic signaling of proNGF in aging to reduce age-induced loss of BFCN function and cognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Kropf
- Neuroscience Program, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Arman Shekari
- Neuroscience Program, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Sama Jaberi
- Neuroscience Program, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Anish Puri
- Neuroscience Program, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Chengbiao Wu
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Margaret Fahnestock
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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Palasz E, Wilkaniec A, Stanaszek L, Andrzejewska A, Adamczyk A. Glia-Neurotrophic Factor Relationships: Possible Role in Pathobiology of Neuroinflammation-Related Brain Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076321. [PMID: 37047292 PMCID: PMC10094105 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) play an important role in maintaining homeostasis of the central nervous system (CNS) by regulating the survival, differentiation, maturation, and development of neurons and by participating in the regeneration of damaged tissues. Disturbances in the level and functioning of NTFs can lead to many diseases of the nervous system, including degenerative diseases, mental diseases, and neurodevelopmental disorders. Each CNS disease is characterized by a unique pathomechanism, however, the involvement of certain processes in its etiology is common, such as neuroinflammation, dysregulation of NTFs levels, or mitochondrial dysfunction. It has been shown that NTFs can control the activation of glial cells by directing them toward a neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory phenotype and activating signaling pathways responsible for neuronal survival. In this review, our goal is to outline the current state of knowledge about the processes affected by NTFs, the crosstalk between NTFs, mitochondria, and the nervous and immune systems, leading to the inhibition of neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, and thus the inhibition of the development and progression of CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewelina Palasz
- Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
- Correspondence: (E.P.); (A.A.)
| | - Anna Wilkaniec
- Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Luiza Stanaszek
- Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Andrzejewska
- Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
- Center for Advanced Imaging Research, Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Agata Adamczyk
- Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
- Correspondence: (E.P.); (A.A.)
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Liu X, Zeng Q, Luo X, Li K, Xu X, Hong L, Li J, Guan X, Xu X, Huang P, Zhang M. Effects of APOE ε2 allele on basal forebrain functional connectivity in mild cognitive impairment. CNS Neurosci Ther 2022; 29:597-608. [PMID: 36468416 PMCID: PMC9873529 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Basal forebrain cholinergic system (BFCS) dysfunction is associated with cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε2 is a protective genetic factor in AD and MCI, and cholinergic sprouting depends on APOE. OBJECTIVE We investigated the effect of the APOE ε2 allele on BFCS functional connectivity (FC) in cognitively normal (CN) subjects and MCI patients. METHOD We included 60 MCI patients with APOE ε3/ε3, 18 MCI patients with APOE ε2/ε3, 73 CN subjects with APOE ε3/ε3, and 36 CN subjects with APOE ε2/ε3 genotypes who had resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data from the Alzheimer's disease Neuroimaging Initiative. We used BFCS subregions (Ch1-3 and Ch4) as seeds and calculated the FC with other brain areas. Using a mixed-effect analysis, we explored the interaction effects of APOE ε2 allele × cognitive status on BFCS-FC. Furthermore, we examined the relationships between imaging metrics, cognitive abilities, and AD pathology markers, controlling for sex, age, and education as covariates. RESULTS An interaction effect on functional connectivity was found between the right Ch4 (RCh4) and left insula (p < 0.05, corrected), and between the RCh4 and left Rolandic operculum (p < 0.05, corrected). Among all subjects and APOE ε2 carriers, RCh4-left Insula FC was associated with early tau deposition. Furthermore, no correlation was found between imaging metrics and amyloid burden. Among all subjects and APOE ε2 carriers, FC metrics were associated with cognitive performance. CONCLUSION The APOE ε2 genotype may play a protective role during BFCS degeneration in MCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaocao Liu
- Department of RadiologyThe 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhouChina
| | - Qingze Zeng
- Department of RadiologyThe 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhouChina
| | - Xiao Luo
- Department of RadiologyThe 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhouChina
| | - Kaicheng Li
- Department of RadiologyThe 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhouChina
| | - Xiaopei Xu
- Department of RadiologyThe 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhouChina
| | - Luwei Hong
- Department of RadiologyThe 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhouChina
| | - Jixuan Li
- Department of RadiologyThe 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhouChina
| | - Xiaojun Guan
- Department of RadiologyThe 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhouChina
| | - Xiaojun Xu
- Department of RadiologyThe 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhouChina
| | - Peiyu Huang
- Department of RadiologyThe 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhouChina
| | - Min‐Ming Zhang
- Department of RadiologyThe 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhouChina
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Salasova A, Monti G, Andersen OM, Nykjaer A. Finding memo: versatile interactions of the VPS10p-Domain receptors in Alzheimer’s disease. Mol Neurodegener 2022; 17:74. [PMID: 36397124 PMCID: PMC9673319 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-022-00576-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The family of VPS10p-Domain (D) receptors comprises five members named SorLA, Sortilin, SorCS1, SorCS2 and SorCS3. While their physiological roles remain incompletely resolved, they have been recognized for their signaling engagements and trafficking abilities, navigating a number of molecules between endosome, Golgi compartments, and the cell surface. Strikingly, recent studies connected all the VPS10p-D receptors to Alzheimer’s disease (AD) development. In addition, they have been also associated with diseases comorbid with AD such as diabetes mellitus and major depressive disorder. This systematic review elaborates on genetic, functional, and mechanistic insights into how dysfunction in VPS10p-D receptors may contribute to AD etiology, AD onset diversity, and AD comorbidities. Starting with their functions in controlling cellular trafficking of amyloid precursor protein and the metabolism of the amyloid beta peptide, we present and exemplify how these receptors, despite being structurally similar, regulate various and distinct cellular events involved in AD. This includes a plethora of signaling crosstalks that impact on neuronal survival, neuronal wiring, neuronal polarity, and synaptic plasticity. Signaling activities of the VPS10p-D receptors are especially linked, but not limited to, the regulation of neuronal fitness and apoptosis via their physical interaction with pro- and mature neurotrophins and their receptors. By compiling the functional versatility of VPS10p-D receptors and their interactions with AD-related pathways, we aim to further propel the AD research towards VPS10p-D receptor family, knowledge that may lead to new diagnostic markers and therapeutic strategies for AD patients.
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11
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Guo Z, Shafik AM, Jin P, Wu H. Differential RNA methylation analysis for MeRIP-seq data under general experimental design. Bioinformatics 2022; 38:4705-4712. [PMID: 36063045 PMCID: PMC9563684 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btac601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
MOTIVATION RNA epigenetics is an emerging field to study the post-transcriptional gene regulation. The dynamics of RNA epigenetic modification have been reported to associate with many human diseases. Recently developed high-throughput technology named Methylated RNA Immunoprecipitation Sequencing (MeRIP-seq) enables the transcriptome-wide profiling of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification and comparison of RNA epigenetic modifications. There are a few computational methods for the comparison of mRNA modifications under different conditions but they all suffer from serious limitations. RESULTS In this work, we develop a novel statistical method to detect differentially methylated mRNA regions from MeRIP-seq data. We model the sequence count data by a hierarchical negative binomial model that accounts for various sources of variations and derive parameter estimation and statistical testing procedures for flexible statistical inferences under general experimental designs. Extensive benchmark evaluations in simulation and real data analyses demonstrate that our method is more accurate, robust and flexible compared to existing methods. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION Our method TRESS is implemented as an R/Bioconductor package and is available at https://bioconductor.org/packages/devel/TRESS. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenxing Guo
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Andrew M Shafik
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Peng Jin
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Hao Wu
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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12
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Nordvall G, Forsell P, Sandin J. Neurotrophin-targeted therapeutics: A gateway to cognition and more? Drug Discov Today 2022; 27:103318. [PMID: 35850433 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2022.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Neurotrophins, such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and nerve growth factor (NGF), are small proteins expressed in the brain and peripheral tissues, which regulate several key aspects of neuronal function, including neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity and neuroprotection, but also programmed cell death. This broad range of effects is a result of a complex downstream signaling pathway, with differential spatial and temporal activation patterns further diversifying their physiological effects. Alterations in neurotrophin levels, or known polymorphisms in neurotrophin genes, have been linked to a variety of disorders, including depression and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Historically, their therapeutic potential in these disorders has been hampered by the lack of suitable tool molecules for clinical studies. However, recent advancements have led to the development of new therapeutic candidates, which are now in clinical testing.
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13
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Zhang Y, Gao X, Bai X, Yao S, Chang YZ, Gao G. The emerging role of furin in neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases. Transl Neurodegener 2022; 11:39. [PMID: 35996194 PMCID: PMC9395820 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-022-00313-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Furin is an important mammalian proprotein convertase that catalyzes the proteolytic maturation of a variety of prohormones and proproteins in the secretory pathway. In the brain, the substrates of furin include the proproteins of growth factors, receptors and enzymes. Emerging evidence, such as reduced FURIN mRNA expression in the brains of Alzheimer's disease patients or schizophrenia patients, has implicated a crucial role of furin in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases. Currently, compared to cancer and infectious diseases, the aberrant expression of furin and its pharmaceutical potentials in neurological diseases remain poorly understood. In this article, we provide an overview on the physiological roles of furin and its substrates in the brain, summarize the deregulation of furin expression and its effects in neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders, and discuss the implications and current approaches that target furin for therapeutic interventions. This review may expedite future studies to clarify the molecular mechanisms of furin deregulation and involvement in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases, and to develop new diagnosis and treatment strategies for these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Laboratory of Molecular Iron Metabolism, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, China
| | - Xiaoqin Gao
- Shijiazhuang People's Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050027, China
| | - Xue Bai
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Laboratory of Molecular Iron Metabolism, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, China
| | - Shanshan Yao
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Laboratory of Molecular Iron Metabolism, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, China
| | - Yan-Zhong Chang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Laboratory of Molecular Iron Metabolism, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, China.
| | - Guofen Gao
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Laboratory of Molecular Iron Metabolism, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, China.
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14
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Nyström S, Kendall A, Adepu S, Lindahl A, Skiöldebrand E. The expression of nerve growth factor in healthy and inflamed equine chondrocytes analysed by capillary western immunoassay. Res Vet Sci 2022; 151:156-163. [PMID: 36029605 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) is a signalling molecule for pain and inflammation. NGF is increased in synovial fluid from osteoarthritic humans and animals, compared to healthy controls. Monoclonal antibody therapy directed against NGF has been approved to treat pain in osteoarthritic dogs but despite many years of trialling, therapy has not been approved for human use. One reason for this is that adverse reactions with rapidly progressing osteoarthritis has occurred in some individuals. More detailed knowledge of NGF expression in joints is needed. In this study, capillary-based Simple Western was used to analyse NGF in cultured equine chondrocytes. Chondrocytes were collected post mortem from three macroscopically healthy intercarpal joints and three intercarpal joints with mild osteoarthritic changes. The chondrocytes were expanded to passage one and seeded in chondrogenic medium to maintain the phenotype. On day four, cells were either stimulated with LPS or kept untreated in medium. All cells were harvested on day five. Wes analysis of lysates did not show mature NGF but two proforms, 40 and 45 kDa, were identified. Results were confirmed with western blot. The same proforms were expressed in chondrocytes from healthy and osteoarthritic joints. Acute inflammation induced by LPS stimulation did not change the forms of expressed NGF. Capillary Simple Western offers a sensitive and sample-sparing alternative to traditional western blot. However, confirmation of peaks is imperative in order to avoid misinterpretation of findings. In addition, in this case the method did not offer the possibility of quantification advertised by the manufacturers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Nyström
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Bruna Stråket 16, 413 45 Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Anna Kendall
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7028, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Saritha Adepu
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7028, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Anders Lindahl
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Bruna Stråket 16, 413 45 Gothenburg, Sweden; Department of Laboratory Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Eva Skiöldebrand
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7028, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
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15
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Orciani C, Hall H, Pentz R, Foret MK, Do Carmo S, Cuello AC. Long-term nucleus basalis cholinergic depletion induces attentional deficits and impacts cortical neurons and BDNF levels without affecting the NGF synthesis. J Neurochem 2022; 163:149-167. [PMID: 35921478 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) represent the main source of cholinergic innervation to the cortex and hippocampus and degenerate early in Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression. Phenotypic maintenance of BFCNs depends on levels of mature nerve growth factor (mNGF) and mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor (mBDNF), produced by target neurons and retrogradely transported to the cell body. Whether a reciprocal interaction where BFCN inputs impact neurotrophin availability and affect cortical neuronal markers is unknown. To address our hypothesis, we immunolesioned the nucleus basalis (nb), a basal forebrain cholinergic nuclei projecting mainly to the cortex, by bilateral stereotaxic injection of 192-IgG-Saporin (the cytotoxin Saporin binds p75ntr receptors expressed exclusively by BFCNs) in 2.5-month-old Wistar rats. At six months post-lesion, Saporin-injected rats (SAP) showed an impairment in a modified version of the 5-Choice Serial Reaction Time Task (5-choice task). Post-mortem analyses of the brain revealed a reduction of Choline Acetyltransferase-immunoreactive neurons compared to wild-type controls. A diminished number of cortical vesicular acetylcholine transporter-immunoreactive boutons was accompanied by a reduction in BDNF mRNA, mBDNF protein levels, markers of glutamatergic (vGluT1) and GABAergic (GAD65) neurons in the SAP-group compared to the controls. NGF mRNA, NGF precursor and mNGF protein levels were not affected. Additionally, cholinergic markers correlated with the attentional deficit and BDNF levels. Our findings demonstrate that while cholinergic nb loss impairs cognition and reduces cortical neuron markers, it produces differential effects on neurotrophin availability, affecting BDNF but not NGF levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Orciani
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Helene Hall
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Rowan Pentz
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Morgan K Foret
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Sonia Do Carmo
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - A Claudio Cuello
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Pharmacology, Oxford University, US (Visiting Professor)
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16
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Suppression of HIV-associated Macrophage Activation by a p75 Neurotrophin Receptor Ligand. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2022; 17:242-260. [PMID: 34296391 PMCID: PMC9386897 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-021-10002-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies indicated that nerve growth factor (NGF) and proNGF differentially regulate the phenotype of macrophages and microglia via actions at tropomyosin receptor kinase A (TrkA) and p75 neurotrophin receptors (p75NTR), respectively. The ability of HIV gp120 and virions to induce the secretion of factors toxic to neurons was suppressed by NGF and enhanced by proNGF, suggesting the potential for neurotrophin based "anti-inflammatory" interventions. To investigate the "anti-inflammatory" potential of the p75NTR ligand, LM11A-31, we treated cultured macrophages and microglia with HIV gp120 in the presence or absence of the ligand and evaluated the morphological phenotype, intrinsic calcium signaling, neurotoxic activity and proteins in the secretome. LM11A-31 at 10 nM was able to suppress the release of neurotoxic factors from both monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) and microglia. The protective effects correlated with a shift in morphology and a unique secretory phenotype rich in growth factors that overrode the actions of HIV gp120. The protein pattern was generally consistent with anti-inflammatory, phagocytic and tissue remodeling functions. Although the toxic factor(s) and the source of the neuroprotection were not identified, the data indicated that an increased degradation of NGF induced by HIV gp120 was likely to contribute to neuronal vulnerability. Although substantial work is still needed to reveal the functions of many proteins in the mononuclear phagocyte secretome, such as growth and differentiation factors, the data clearly indicate that the ligand LM11A-31 has excellent therapeutic potential due to its ability to induce a more protective phenotype that restricts activation by HIV.
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17
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Gorick CM, Saucerman JJ, Price RJ. Computational model of brain endothelial cell signaling pathways predicts therapeutic targets for cerebral pathologies. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2022; 164:17-28. [PMID: 34798125 PMCID: PMC8958390 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2021.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Brain endothelial cells serve many critical homeostatic functions. In addition to sensing and regulating blood flow, they maintain blood-brain barrier function, including precise control of nutrient exchange and efflux of xenobiotics. Many signaling pathways in brain endothelial cells have been implicated in both health and disease; however, our understanding of how these signaling pathways functionally integrate is limited. A model capable of integrating these signaling pathways could both advance our understanding of brain endothelial cell signaling networks and potentially identify promising molecular targets for endothelial cell-based drug or gene therapies. To this end, we developed a large-scale computational model, wherein brain endothelial cell signaling pathways were reconstructed from the literature and converted into a network of logic-based differential equations. The model integrates 63 nodes (including proteins, mRNA, small molecules, and cell phenotypes) and 82 reactions connecting these nodes. Specifically, our model combines signaling pathways relating to VEGF-A, BDNF, NGF, and Wnt signaling, in addition to incorporating pathways relating to focused ultrasound as a therapeutic delivery tool. To validate the model, independently established relationships between selected inputs and outputs were simulated, with the model yielding correct predictions 73% of the time. We identified influential and sensitive nodes under different physiological or pathological contexts, including altered brain endothelial cell conditions during glioma, Alzheimer's disease, and ischemic stroke. Nodes with the greatest influence over combinations of desired model outputs were identified as potential druggable targets for these disease conditions. For example, the model predicts therapeutic benefits from inhibiting AKT, Hif-1α, or cathepsin D in the context of glioma - each of which are currently being studied in clinical or pre-clinical trials. Notably, the model also permits testing multiple combinations of node alterations for their effects on the network and the desired outputs (such as inhibiting AKT and overexpressing the P75 neurotrophin receptor simultaneously in the context of glioma), allowing for the prediction of optimal combination therapies. In all, our approach integrates results from over 100 past studies into a coherent and powerful model, capable of both revealing network interactions unapparent from studying any one pathway in isolation and predicting therapeutic targets for treating devastating brain pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine M. Gorick
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Jeffrey J. Saucerman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA,Corresponding authors at: Department of Biomedical Engineering, Box 800759, Health System, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA. (J.J. Saucerman), (R.J. Price)
| | - Richard J. Price
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA,Department of Radiology & Medical Imaging, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA,Corresponding authors at: Department of Biomedical Engineering, Box 800759, Health System, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA. (J.J. Saucerman), (R.J. Price)
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18
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OUP accepted manuscript. Brain 2022; 145:2250-2275. [DOI: 10.1093/brain/awac096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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19
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Do Carmo S, Kannel B, Cuello AC. The Nerve Growth Factor Metabolic Pathway Dysregulation as Cause of Alzheimer's Cholinergic Atrophy. Cells 2021; 11:16. [PMID: 35011577 PMCID: PMC8750266 DOI: 10.3390/cells11010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The cause of the loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) and their terminal synapses in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus in Alzheimer's disease (AD) has provoked a decades-long controversy. The cholinergic phenotype of this neuronal system, involved in numerous cognitive mechanisms, is tightly dependent on the target-derived nerve growth factor (NGF). Consequently, the loss of BFCNs cholinergic phenotype in AD was initially suspected to be due to an NGF trophic failure. However, in AD there is a normal NGF synthesis and abundance of the NGF precursor (proNGF), therefore the NGF trophic failure hypothesis for the atrophy of BCNs was abandoned. In this review, we discuss the history of NGF-dependency of BFCNs and the atrophy of these neurons in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Further to it, we propose that trophic factor failure explains the BFCNs atrophy in AD. We discuss evidence of the occurrence of a brain NGF metabolic pathway, the dysregulation of which, in AD explains the severe deficiency of NGF trophic support for the maintenance of BFCNs cholinergic phenotype. Finally, we revise recent evidence that the NGF metabolic dysregulation in AD pathology starts at preclinical stages. We also propose that the alteration of NGF metabolism-related markers in body fluids might assist in the AD preclinical diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Do Carmo
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 1Y6, Canada;
| | - Benjamin Kannel
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada;
| | - A. Claudio Cuello
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 1Y6, Canada;
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada;
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0C7, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology, Oxford University, Oxford OX1 3QT, UK
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20
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Amyloid-Beta Peptides and Activated Astroglia Impairs Proliferation of Nerve Growth Factor Releasing Cells In Vitro: Implication for Encapsulated Cell Biodelivery-Mediated AD Therapy. Cells 2021; 10:cells10112834. [PMID: 34831056 PMCID: PMC8616486 DOI: 10.3390/cells10112834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) treatment is constrained due to the inability of peripherally administered therapeutic molecules to cross the blood–brain barrier. Encapsulated cell biodelivery (ECB) devices, a tissue-targeted approach for local drug release, was previously optimized for human mature nerve growth factor (hmNGF) delivery in AD patients but was found to have reduced hmNGF release over time. To understand the reason behind reduced ECB efficacy, we exposed hmNGF-releasing cells (NGC0211) in vitro to human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) obtained from Subjective Cognitive Impairment (SCI), Lewy Body Dementia (LBD), and AD patients. Subsequently, we exposed NGC0211 cells directly to AD-related factors like amyloid-β peptides (Aβ40/42) or activated astrocyte-conditioned medium (Aβ40/42/IL-1β/TNFα-treated) and evaluated biochemical stress markers, cell death indicators, cell proliferation marker (Ki67), and hmNGF release. We found that all patients’ CSF significantly reduced hmNGF release from NGC0211 cells in vitro. Aβ40/42, inflammatory molecules, and activated astrocytes significantly affected NGC0211 cell proliferation without altering hmNGF release or other parameters important for essential functions of the NGC0211 cells. Long-term constant cell proliferation within the ECB device is critically important to maintain a steady cell population needed for stable mNGF release. These data show hampered proliferation of NGC0211 cells, which may lead to a decline of the NGC0211 cell population in ECBs, thereby reducing hmNGF release. Our study highlights the need for future studies to strengthen ECB-mediated long-term drug delivery approaches.
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21
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Begenisic T, Pavese C, Aiachini B, Nardone A, Rossi D. Dynamics of biomarkers across the stages of traumatic spinal cord injury - implications for neural plasticity and repair. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2021; 39:339-366. [PMID: 34657853 DOI: 10.3233/rnn-211169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a complex medical condition causing significant physical disability and psychological distress. While the adult spinal cord is characterized by poor regenerative potential, some recovery of neurological function is still possible through activation of neural plasticity mechanisms. We still have limited knowledge about the activation of these mechanisms in the different stages after human SCI. OBJECTIVE In this review, we discuss the potential role of biomarkers of SCI as indicators of the plasticity mechanisms at work during the different phases of SCI. METHODS An extensive review of literature related to SCI pathophysiology, neural plasticity and humoral biomarkers was conducted by consulting the PubMed database. Research and review articles from SCI animal models and SCI clinical trials published in English until January 2021 were reviewed. The selection of candidates for humoral biomarkers of plasticity after SCI was based on the following criteria: 1) strong evidence supporting involvement in neural plasticity (mandatory); 2) evidence supporting altered expression after SCI (optional). RESULTS Based on selected findings, we identified two main groups of potential humoral biomarkers of neural plasticity after SCI: 1) neurotrophic factors including: Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), Nerve growth factor (NGF), Neurotrofin-3 (NT-3), and Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1); 2) other factors including: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs), and MicroRNAs (miRNAs). Plasticity changes associated with these biomarkers often can be both adaptive (promoting functional improvement) and maladaptive. This dual role seems to be influenced by their concentrations and time-window during SCI. CONCLUSIONS Further studies of dynamics of biomarkers across the stages of SCI are necessary to elucidate the way in which they reflect the remodeling of neural pathways. A better knowledge about the mechanisms underlying plasticity could guide the selection of more appropriate therapeutic strategies to enhance positive spinal network reorganization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Begenisic
- Department of Clinical-Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Chiara Pavese
- Department of Clinical-Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy.,Neurorehabilitation and Spinal Units, ICS Maugeri SPA SB, Institute of Pavia, IRCCS, Pavia, Italy
| | - Beatrice Aiachini
- Neurorehabilitation and Spinal Units, ICS Maugeri SPA SB, Institute of Pavia, IRCCS, Pavia, Italy
| | - Antonio Nardone
- Department of Clinical-Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy.,Neurorehabilitation and Spinal Units, ICS Maugeri SPA SB, Institute of Pavia, IRCCS, Pavia, Italy
| | - Daniela Rossi
- Laboratory for Research on Neurodegenerative Disorders, ICS Maugeri SPA SB, Institute of Pavia, IRCCS, Pavia, Italy
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22
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Cantero JL, Atienza M, Lage C, Zaborszky L, Vilaplana E, Lopez-Garcia S, Pozueta A, Rodriguez-Rodriguez E, Blesa R, Alcolea D, Lleo A, Sanchez-Juan P, Fortea J. Atrophy of Basal Forebrain Initiates with Tau Pathology in Individuals at Risk for Alzheimer's Disease. Cereb Cortex 2021; 30:2083-2098. [PMID: 31799623 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhz224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence suggests that the basal forebrain (BF) cholinergic system degenerates early in the course of Alzheimer's disease (AD), likely due to the vulnerability of BF cholinergic neurons to tau pathology. However, it remains unclear whether the presence of tauopathy is the only requirement for initiating the BF degeneration in asymptomatic subjects at risk for AD (AR-AD), and how BF structural deficits evolve from normal aging to preclinical and prodromal AD. Here, we provide human in vivo magnetic resonance imaging evidence supporting that abnormal cerebrospinal fluid levels of phosphorylated tau (T+) are selectively associated with bilateral volume loss of the nucleus basalis of Meynert (nbM, Ch4) in AR-AD individuals. Spreading of atrophy to medial septum and vertical limb of diagonal band Broca (Ch1-Ch2) occurred in both preclinical and prodromal AD. With the exception of A+, all groups revealed significant correlations between volume reduction of BF cholinergic compartments and atrophy of their innervated regions. Overall, these results support the central role played by tauopathy in instigating the nbM degeneration in AR-AD individuals and the necessary coexistence of both AD proteinopathies for spreading damage to larger BF territories, thus affecting the core of the BF cholinergic projection system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose L Cantero
- Laboratory of Functional Neuroscience, Pablo de Olavide University, 41013 Seville, Spain
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
| | - Mercedes Atienza
- Laboratory of Functional Neuroscience, Pablo de Olavide University, 41013 Seville, Spain
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Lage
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Service of Neurology, IDIVAL, University Hospital Marques de Valdecilla, University of Cantabria, 39008 Santander, Spain
| | - Laszlo Zaborszky
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, 07102 NJ, USA
| | - Eduard Vilaplana
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Neurology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques Sant Pau-Hospital Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sara Lopez-Garcia
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Service of Neurology, IDIVAL, University Hospital Marques de Valdecilla, University of Cantabria, 39008 Santander, Spain
| | - Ana Pozueta
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Service of Neurology, IDIVAL, University Hospital Marques de Valdecilla, University of Cantabria, 39008 Santander, Spain
| | - Eloy Rodriguez-Rodriguez
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Service of Neurology, IDIVAL, University Hospital Marques de Valdecilla, University of Cantabria, 39008 Santander, Spain
| | - Rafael Blesa
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Neurology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques Sant Pau-Hospital Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Alcolea
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Neurology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques Sant Pau-Hospital Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alberto Lleo
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Neurology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques Sant Pau-Hospital Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pascual Sanchez-Juan
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Service of Neurology, IDIVAL, University Hospital Marques de Valdecilla, University of Cantabria, 39008 Santander, Spain
| | - Juan Fortea
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Neurology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques Sant Pau-Hospital Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
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23
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Do Carmo S, Kannel B, Cuello AC. Nerve Growth Factor Compromise in Down Syndrome. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:719507. [PMID: 34434101 PMCID: PMC8381049 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.719507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The basal forebrain cholinergic system relies on trophic support by nerve growth factor (NGF) to maintain its phenotype and function. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) undergo progressive atrophy, suggesting a deficit in NGF trophic support. Within the central nervous system, NGF maturation and degradation are tightly regulated by an activity-dependent metabolic cascade. Here, we present a brief overview of the characteristics of Alzheimer's pathology in Down syndrome (DS) with an emphasis on this NGF metabolic pathway's disruption during the evolving Alzheimer's pathology. Such NGF dysmetabolism is well-established in Alzheimer's brains with advanced pathology and has been observed in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and non-demented individuals with elevated brain amyloid levels. As individuals with DS inexorably develop AD, we then review findings that support the existence of a similar NGF dysmetabolism in DS coinciding with atrophy of the basal forebrain cholinergic system. Lastly, we discuss the potential of NGF-related biomarkers as indicators of an evolving Alzheimer's pathology in DS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Do Carmo
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Benjamin Kannel
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - A Claudio Cuello
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
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24
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Kropf E, Fahnestock M. Effects of Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species on TrkA Expression and Signalling: Implications for proNGF in Aging and Alzheimer's Disease. Cells 2021; 10:cells10081983. [PMID: 34440751 PMCID: PMC8392605 DOI: 10.3390/cells10081983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nerve growth factor (NGF) and its precursor form, proNGF, are critical for neuronal survival and cognitive function. In the brain, proNGF is the only detectable form of NGF. Dysregulation of proNGF in the brain is implicated in age-related memory loss and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). AD is characterized by early and progressive degeneration of the basal forebrain, an area critical for learning, memory, and attention. Learning and memory deficits in AD are associated with loss of proNGF survival signalling and impaired retrograde transport of proNGF to the basal forebrain. ProNGF transport and signalling may be impaired by the increased reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) observed in the aged and AD brain. The current literature suggests that ROS/RNS nitrate proNGF and reduce the expression of the proNGF receptor tropomyosin-related kinase A (TrkA), disrupting its downstream survival signalling. ROS/RNS-induced reductions in TrkA expression reduce cell viability, as proNGF loses its neurotrophic function in the absence of TrkA and instead generates apoptotic signalling via the pan-neurotrophin receptor p75NTR. ROS/RNS also interfere with kinesin and dynein motor functions, causing transport deficits. ROS/RNS-induced deficits in microtubule motor function and TrkA expression and signalling may contribute to the vulnerability of the basal forebrain in AD. Antioxidant treatments may be beneficial in restoring proNGF signalling and axonal transport and reducing basal forebrain neurodegeneration and related deficits in cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Kropf
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada;
| | - Margaret Fahnestock
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
- Correspondence:
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25
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Yuen SC, Liang X, Zhu H, Jia Y, Leung SW. Prediction of differentially expressed microRNAs in blood as potential biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease by meta-analysis and adaptive boosting ensemble learning. Alzheimers Res Ther 2021; 13:126. [PMID: 34243793 PMCID: PMC8272278 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-021-00862-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Blood circulating microRNAs that are specific for Alzheimer's disease (AD) can be identified from differentially expressed microRNAs (DEmiRNAs). However, non-reproducible and inconsistent reports of DEmiRNAs hinder biomarker development. The most reliable DEmiRNAs can be identified by meta-analysis. To enrich the pool of DEmiRNAs for potential AD biomarkers, we used a machine learning method called adaptive boosting for miRNA disease association (ABMDA) to identify eligible candidates that share similar characteristics with the DEmiRNAs identified from meta-analysis. This study aimed to identify blood circulating DEmiRNAs as potential AD biomarkers by augmenting meta-analysis with the ABMDA ensemble learning method. METHODS Studies on DEmiRNAs and their dysregulation states were corroborated with one another by meta-analysis based on a random-effects model. DEmiRNAs identified by meta-analysis were collected as positive examples of miRNA-AD pairs for ABMDA ensemble learning. ABMDA identified similar DEmiRNAs according to a set of predefined criteria. The biological significance of all resulting DEmiRNAs was determined by their target genes according to pathway enrichment analyses. The target genes common to both meta-analysis- and ABMDA-identified DEmiRNAs were collected to construct a network to investigate their biological functions. RESULTS A systematic database search found 7841 studies for an extensive meta-analysis, covering 54 independent comparisons of 47 differential miRNA expression studies, and identified 18 reliable DEmiRNAs. ABMDA ensemble learning was conducted based on the meta-analysis results and the Human MicroRNA Disease Database, which identified 10 additional AD-related DEmiRNAs. These 28 DEmiRNAs and their dysregulated pathways were related to neuroinflammation. The dysregulated pathway related to neuronal cell cycle re-entry (CCR) was the only statistically significant pathway of the ABMDA-identified DEmiRNAs. In the biological network constructed from 1865 common target genes of the identified DEmiRNAs, the multiple core ubiquitin-proteasome system, that is involved in neuroinflammation and CCR, was highly connected. CONCLUSION This study identified 28 DEmiRNAs as potential AD biomarkers in blood, by meta-analysis and ABMDA ensemble learning in tandem. The DEmiRNAs identified by meta-analysis and ABMDA were significantly related to neuroinflammation, and the ABMDA-identified DEmiRNAs were related to neuronal CCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sze Chung Yuen
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, 999078 Macao China
| | - Xiaonan Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, 999078 Macao China
| | - Hongmei Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, 999078 Macao China
| | - Yongliang Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, 999078 Macao China
- BGI College & Henan Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan China
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan China
| | - Siu-wai Leung
- Shenzhen Institute of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics for Society, Shenzhen, China
- Edinburgh Bayes Centre for AI Research in Shenzhen, College of Science and Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
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26
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Xia Y, Wang ZH, Liu P, Edgington-Mitchell L, Liu X, Wang XC, Ye K. TrkB receptor cleavage by delta-secretase abolishes its phosphorylation of APP, aggravating Alzheimer's disease pathologies. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:2943-2963. [PMID: 32782380 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-020-00863-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Neurotrophins promote neuronal survival and synaptic plasticity via activating the tropomyosin receptor kinases. BDNF and its high-affinity receptor TrkB are reduced in Alzheimer's disease (AD), contributing to progressive cognitive decline. However, how the signaling mediates AD pathologies remains incompletely understood. Here we show that the TrkB receptor binds and phosphorylates APP, reducing amyloid-β production, which are abrogated by δ-secretase cleavage of TrkB in AD. Remarkably, BDNF stimulates TrkB to phosphorylate APP Y687 residue that accumulates APP in the TGN (Trans-Golgi Network) and diminishes its amyloidogenic cleavage. Delta-secretase cleaves TrkB at N365 and N486/489 residues and abolishes its neurotrophic activity, decreasing p-APP Y687 and altering its subcellular trafficking. Notably, both TrkB and APP are robustly cleaved by δ-secretase in AD brains, accompanied by mitigated TrkB signaling and reduced p-Y687. Blockade of TrkB cleavage attenuates AD pathologies in 5xFAD mice, rescuing the learning and memory. Viral expression of TrkB 1-486 fragment in the hippocampus of APP/PS1 mice facilitates amyloid pathology and mitigates cognitive functions. Hence, δ-secretase cleaves TrkB and blunts its phosphorylation of APP, facilitating AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyuan Xia
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.,Department of Pathophysiology, Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education of Neurological Diseases, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhi-Hao Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Pai Liu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.,Neuroscience Program, Laney Graduate School, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Laura Edgington-Mitchell
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Xia Liu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Xiao-Chuan Wang
- Department of Pathophysiology, Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education of Neurological Diseases, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China. .,Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226001, China.
| | - Keqiang Ye
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
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27
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Gascon S, Jann J, Langlois-Blais C, Plourde M, Lavoie C, Faucheux N. Peptides Derived from Growth Factors to Treat Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22116071. [PMID: 34199883 PMCID: PMC8200100 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22116071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive neuron losses in memory-related brain structures. The classical features of AD are a dysregulation of the cholinergic system, the accumulation of amyloid plaques, and neurofibrillary tangles. Unfortunately, current treatments are unable to cure or even delay the progression of the disease. Therefore, new therapeutic strategies have emerged, such as the exogenous administration of neurotrophic factors (e.g., NGF and BDNF) that are deficient or dysregulated in AD. However, their low capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier and their exorbitant cost currently limit their use. To overcome these limitations, short peptides mimicking the binding receptor sites of these growth factors have been developed. Such peptides can target selective signaling pathways involved in neuron survival, differentiation, and/or maintenance. This review focuses on growth factors and their derived peptides as potential treatment for AD. It describes (1) the physiological functions of growth factors in the brain, their neuronal signaling pathways, and alteration in AD; (2) the strategies to develop peptides derived from growth factor and their capacity to mimic the role of native proteins; and (3) new advancements and potential in using these molecules as therapeutic treatments for AD, as well as their limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Gascon
- Laboratory of Cell-Biomaterial Biohybrid Systems, Department of Chemical and Biotechnological Engineering, 2500 Boulevard Université, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada; (S.G.); (J.J.)
| | - Jessica Jann
- Laboratory of Cell-Biomaterial Biohybrid Systems, Department of Chemical and Biotechnological Engineering, 2500 Boulevard Université, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada; (S.G.); (J.J.)
| | - Chloé Langlois-Blais
- Département de Pharmacologie-Physiologie, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada;
| | - Mélanie Plourde
- Centre de Recherche sur le Vieillissement, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et Services Sociaux de l’Estrie–Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1G 1B1, Canada;
- Département de Médecine, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Christine Lavoie
- Département de Pharmacologie-Physiologie, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada;
- Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, 3001 12th Avenue, N., Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
- Correspondence: (C.L.); (N.F.); Tel.: +1-819-821-8000 (ext. 72732) (C.L.); +1-819-821-8000 (ext. 61343) (N.F.)
| | - Nathalie Faucheux
- Laboratory of Cell-Biomaterial Biohybrid Systems, Department of Chemical and Biotechnological Engineering, 2500 Boulevard Université, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada; (S.G.); (J.J.)
- Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, 3001 12th Avenue, N., Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
- Correspondence: (C.L.); (N.F.); Tel.: +1-819-821-8000 (ext. 72732) (C.L.); +1-819-821-8000 (ext. 61343) (N.F.)
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28
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Zhou LT, Zhang J, Tan L, Huang HZ, Zhou Y, Liu ZQ, Lu Y, Zhu LQ, Yao C, Liu D. Elevated Levels of miR-144-3p Induce Cholinergic Degeneration by Impairing the Maturation of NGF in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:667412. [PMID: 33898468 PMCID: PMC8063700 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.667412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholinergic degeneration is one of the key pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), a condition that is characterized by synaptic disorders and memory impairments. Nerve growth factor (NGF) is secreted in brain regions that receive projections from the basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. The trophic effects of NGF rely on the appropriate maturation of NGF from its precursor, proNGF. The ratio of proNGF/NGF is known to be increased in patients with AD; however, the mechanisms that underlie this observation have yet to be elucidated. Here, we demonstrated that levels of miR-144-3p are increased in the hippocampi and the medial prefrontal cortex of an APP/PS1 mouse model of AD. These mice also exhibited cholinergic degeneration (including the loss of cholinergic fibers, the repression of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity, the reduction of cholinergic neurons, and an increased number of dystrophic neurites) and synaptic/memory deficits. The elevated expression of miR-144-3p specifically targets the mRNA of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and reduces the expression of tPA, thus resulting in the abnormal maturation of NGF. The administration of miR-144-3p fully replicated the cholinergic degeneration and synaptic/memory deficits observed in the APP/PS1 mice. The injection of an antagomir of miR-144-3p into the hippocampi partially rescued cholinergic degeneration and synaptic/memory impairments by restoring the levels of tPA protein and by correcting the ratio of proNGF/NGF. Collectively, our research revealed potential mechanisms for the disturbance of NGF maturation and cholinergic degeneration in AD and identified a potential therapeutic target for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan-Ting Zhou
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, The Institute of Brain Research, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Juan Zhang
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, The Institute of Brain Research, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Lu Tan
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, The Institute of Brain Research, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - He-Zhou Huang
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, The Institute of Brain Research, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yang Zhou
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, The Institute of Brain Research, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhi-Qiang Liu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, The Institute of Brain Research, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Youming Lu
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, The Institute of Brain Research, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Ling-Qiang Zhu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, The Institute of Brain Research, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Chengye Yao
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Dan Liu
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, The Institute of Brain Research, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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29
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Pentz R, Iulita MF, Ducatenzeiler A, Videla L, Benejam B, Carmona‐Iragui M, Blesa R, Lleó A, Fortea J, Cuello AC. Nerve growth factor (NGF) pathway biomarkers in Down syndrome prior to and after the onset of clinical Alzheimer's disease: A paired CSF and plasma study. Alzheimers Dement 2021; 17:605-617. [PMID: 33226181 PMCID: PMC8043977 DOI: 10.1002/alz.12229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The discovery that nerve growth factor (NGF) metabolism is altered in Down syndrome (DS) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains offered a framework for the identification of novel biomarkers signalling NGF deregulation in AD pathology. METHODS We examined levels of NGF pathway proteins (proNGF, neuroserpin, tissue plasminogen activator [tPA], and metalloproteases [MMP]) in matched cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)/plasma samples from AD-symptomatic (DSAD) and AD-asymptomatic (aDS) individuals with DS, as well as controls (HC). RESULTS ProNGF and MMP-3 were elevated while tPA was decreased in plasma from individuals with DS. CSF from individuals with DS showed elevated proNGF, neuroserpin, MMP-3, and MMP-9. ProNGF and MMP-9 in CSF differentiated DSAD from aDS (area under the curve = 0.86, 0.87). NGF pathway markers associated with CSF amyloid beta and tau and differed by sex. DISCUSSION Brain NGF metabolism changes can be monitored in plasma and CSF, supporting relevance in AD pathology. These markers could assist staging, subtyping, or precision medicine for AD in DS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowan Pentz
- Department of Neurology and NeurosurgeryMcGill UniversityMontrealCanada
| | - M. Florencia Iulita
- Department of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsMcGill UniversityMontrealCanada
- Sant Pau Memory UnitDepartment of NeurologyHospital de la Santa Creu i Sant PauBiomedical Research Institute Sant PauUniversitat Autònoma de BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
- Center of Biomedical Investigation Network for Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED)MadridSpain
| | | | - Laura Videla
- Sant Pau Memory UnitDepartment of NeurologyHospital de la Santa Creu i Sant PauBiomedical Research Institute Sant PauUniversitat Autònoma de BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
- Center of Biomedical Investigation Network for Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED)MadridSpain
- Barcelona Down Medical CenterFundación Catalana Síndrome de DownBarcelonaSpain
| | - Bessy Benejam
- Sant Pau Memory UnitDepartment of NeurologyHospital de la Santa Creu i Sant PauBiomedical Research Institute Sant PauUniversitat Autònoma de BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
- Center of Biomedical Investigation Network for Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED)MadridSpain
- Barcelona Down Medical CenterFundación Catalana Síndrome de DownBarcelonaSpain
| | - María Carmona‐Iragui
- Sant Pau Memory UnitDepartment of NeurologyHospital de la Santa Creu i Sant PauBiomedical Research Institute Sant PauUniversitat Autònoma de BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
- Center of Biomedical Investigation Network for Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED)MadridSpain
- Barcelona Down Medical CenterFundación Catalana Síndrome de DownBarcelonaSpain
| | - Rafael Blesa
- Sant Pau Memory UnitDepartment of NeurologyHospital de la Santa Creu i Sant PauBiomedical Research Institute Sant PauUniversitat Autònoma de BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
- Center of Biomedical Investigation Network for Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED)MadridSpain
| | - Alberto Lleó
- Sant Pau Memory UnitDepartment of NeurologyHospital de la Santa Creu i Sant PauBiomedical Research Institute Sant PauUniversitat Autònoma de BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
- Center of Biomedical Investigation Network for Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED)MadridSpain
| | - Juan Fortea
- Sant Pau Memory UnitDepartment of NeurologyHospital de la Santa Creu i Sant PauBiomedical Research Institute Sant PauUniversitat Autònoma de BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
- Center of Biomedical Investigation Network for Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED)MadridSpain
- Barcelona Down Medical CenterFundación Catalana Síndrome de DownBarcelonaSpain
| | - A. Claudio Cuello
- Department of Neurology and NeurosurgeryMcGill UniversityMontrealCanada
- Department of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsMcGill UniversityMontrealCanada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell BiologyMcGill UniversityMontrealCanada
- Department of PharmacologyOxford UniversityOxfordUK
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30
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Eriksdotter M, Mitra S. Gene and cell therapy for the nucleus basalis of Meynert with NGF in Alzheimer's disease. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2021; 179:219-229. [PMID: 34225964 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-819975-6.00012-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
There is currently no effective treatment for the most common of the dementia disorders, Alzheimer's disease (AD). It has been known for decades that the central cholinergic system is important for memory. The cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain with its cortical and hippocampal projections degenerate in AD and thus contribute to the cognitive decline characteristic of AD. This knowledge led to the development of the currently approved treatment for AD, with inhibitors of acetylcholine-esterase targeting the cholinergic system with beneficial but mild effects. In recent years, other approaches to influence the degenerating cholinergic system in AD focusing on nerve growth factor (NGF) have been undertaken. NGF is required for the survival and function of the basal forebrain cholinergic neurons, the most important being the nucleus basalis of Meynert (nbM). Since there is a lack of NGF and its receptors in the AD forebrain, the hypothesis is that local delivery of NGF to the nbM could revive the cholinergic circuitry and thereby restore cognitive functions. Since NGF does not pass through the blood-brain barrier, approaches involving cerebral injections of genetically modified cells or viral vectors or implantation of encapsulated cells in the nbM in AD patients have been used. These attempts have been partially successful but also have limitations, which are presented and discussed here. In conclusion, these trials point to the importance of further development of NGF-related therapies in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Eriksdotter
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society (NVS), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Theme Aging, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Sweden.
| | - Sumonto Mitra
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society (NVS), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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31
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Intervention of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Other Neurotrophins in Adult Neurogenesis. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1331:95-115. [PMID: 34453295 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-74046-7_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cell survival during adult neurogenesis and the modulation of each step, namely, proliferation, lineage differentiation, migration, maturation, and functional integration of the newborn cells into the existing circuitry, is regulated by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Transduction of extracellular niche signals triggers the activation of intracellular mechanisms that regulate adult neurogenesis by affecting gene expression. While the intrinsic factors include transcription factors and epigenetic regulators, the extrinsic factors are molecular signals that are present in the neurogenic niche microenvironment. These include morphogens, growth factors, neurotransmitters, and signaling molecules secreted as soluble factors or associated to the extracellular matrix. Among these molecular mechanisms are neurotrophins and neurotrophin receptors which have been implicated in the regulation of adult neurogenesis at different levels, with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) being the most studied neurotrophin. In this chapter, we review the current knowledge about the role of neurotrophins in the regulation of adult neurogenesis in both the subventricular zone (SVZ) and the hippocampal subgranular zone (SGZ).
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Xie Y, Seawell J, Boesch E, Allen L, Suchy A, Longo FM, Meeker RB. Small molecule modulation of the p75 neurotrophin receptor suppresses age- and genotype-associated neurodegeneration in HIV gp120 transgenic mice. Exp Neurol 2020; 335:113489. [PMID: 33007293 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The persistence of HIV in the central nervous system leads to cognitive deficits in up to 50% of people living with HIV even with systemic suppression by antiretroviral treatment. The interaction of chronic inflammation with age-associated degeneration places these individuals at increased risk of accelerated aging and other neurodegenerative diseases and no treatments are available that effectively halt these processes. The adverse effects of aging and inflammation may be mediated, in part, by an increase in the expression of the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) which shifts the balance of neurotrophin signaling toward less protective pathways. To determine if modulation of p75NTR could modify the disease process, we treated HIV gp120 transgenic mice with a small molecule ligand designed to engage p75NTR and downregulate degenerative signaling. Daily treatment with 50 mg/kg LM11A-31 for 4 months suppressed age- and genotype-dependent activation of microglia, increased microtubule associated protein-2 (MAP-2), reduced dendritic varicosities and slowed the loss of parvalbumin immunoreactive neurons in the hippocampus. An age related accumulation of microtubule associated protein Tau was identified in the hippocampus in extracellular clusters that co-expressed p75NTR suggesting a link between Tau and p75NTR. Although the significance of the relationship between p75NTR and Tau is unclear, a decrease in Tau-1 immunoreactivity as gp120 mice entered old age (>16 months) suggests that the Tau may transition to more pathological modifications; a process blocked by LM11A-31. Overall, the effects of LM11A-31 are consistent with strong neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory actions that have significant therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youmie Xie
- Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America
| | - Jaimie Seawell
- Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America; The Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Spartanburg, SC 29303, United States of America
| | - Emily Boesch
- School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America
| | - Lauren Allen
- Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America
| | - Ashley Suchy
- Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America
| | - Frank M Longo
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, United States of America
| | - Rick B Meeker
- Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America; Neurobiology Curriculum, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America.
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Pro-Nerve Growth Factor Induces Activation of RhoA Kinase and Neuronal Cell Death. Brain Sci 2019; 9:brainsci9080204. [PMID: 31430874 PMCID: PMC6721354 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci9080204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously shown that the expression of pro-nerve growth factor (proNGF) was significantly increased, nerve growth factor (NGF) level was decreased, and the expression of p75NTR was enhanced in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) hippocampal samples. NGF regulates cell survival and differentiation by binding TrkA and p75NTR receptors. ProNGF is the precursor form of NGF, binds to p75NTR, and induces cell apoptosis. The objective of this study is to determine whether the increased p75NTR expression in AD is due to the accumulation of proNGF and Rho kinase activation. PC12 cells were stimulated with either proNGF or NGF. Pull-down assay was carried out to determine the RhoA kinase activity. We found the expression of p75NTR was enhanced by proNGF compared to NGF. The proNGF stimulation also increased the RhoA kinase activity leading to apoptosis. The expression of active RhoA kinase was found to be increased in human AD hippocampus compared to control. The addition of RhoA kinase inhibitor Y27632 not only blocked the RhoA kinase activity but also reduced the expression of p75NTR receptor and inhibited the activation of JNK and MAPK induced by proNGF. This suggests that overexpression of proNGF in AD enhances p75NTR expression and activation of RhoA, leading to neuronal cell death.
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Mufson EJ, Counts SE, Ginsberg SD, Mahady L, Perez SE, Massa SM, Longo FM, Ikonomovic MD. Nerve Growth Factor Pathobiology During the Progression of Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:533. [PMID: 31312116 PMCID: PMC6613497 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The current review summarizes the pathobiology of nerve growth factor (NGF) and its cognate receptors during the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Both transcript and protein data indicate that cholinotrophic neuronal dysfunction is related to an imbalance between TrkA-mediated survival signaling and the NGF precursor (proNGF)/p75NTR-mediated pro-apoptotic signaling, which may be related to alteration in the metabolism of NGF. Data indicate a spatiotemporal pattern of degeneration related to the evolution of tau pathology within cholinotrophic neuronal subgroups located within the nucleus basalis of Meynert (nbM). Despite these degenerative events the cholinotrophic system is capable of cellular resilience and/or plasticity during the prodromal and later stages of the disease. In addition to neurotrophin dysfunction, studies indicate alterations in epigenetically regulated proteins occur within cholinotrophic nbM neurons during the progression of AD, suggesting a mechanism that may underlie changes in transcript expression. Findings that increased cerebrospinal fluid levels of proNGF mark the onset of MCI and the transition to AD suggests that this proneurotrophin is a potential disease biomarker. Novel therapeutics to treat NGF dysfunction include NGF gene therapy and the development of small molecule agonists for the cognate prosurvival NGF receptor TrkA and antagonists against the pan-neurotrophin p75NTR death receptor for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliott J. Mufson
- Department of Neurobiology and Neurology, Department of Neurobiology, and Department of Neurological Sciences, Alzheimer’s Disease Laboratory, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph’s Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Scott E. Counts
- Translational Science and Molecular Medicine Michigan State University College of Human Medicine, Grand Rapids, MI, United States
| | - Stephen D. Ginsberg
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, and Physiology and NYU Neuroscience Institute, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Laura Mahady
- Department of Neurobiology and Neurology, Department of Neurobiology, and Department of Neurological Sciences, Alzheimer’s Disease Laboratory, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph’s Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Sylvia E. Perez
- Department of Neurobiology and Neurology, Department of Neurobiology, and Department of Neurological Sciences, Alzheimer’s Disease Laboratory, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph’s Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Stephen M. Massa
- Department of Neurology, San Francisco VA Health Care System, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Frank M. Longo
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Milos D. Ikonomovic
- Department of Neurology and Department of Psychiatry, Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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Corvaglia V, Cilli D, Scopa C, Brandi R, Arisi I, Malerba F, La Regina F, Scardigli R, Cattaneo A. ProNGF Is a Cell-Type-Specific Mitogen for Adult Hippocampal and for Induced Neural Stem Cells. Stem Cells 2019; 37:1223-1237. [PMID: 31132299 DOI: 10.1002/stem.3037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 02/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The role of proNGF, the precursor of nerve growth factor (NGF), in the biology of adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) is still unclear. Here, we analyzed adult hippocampal neurogenesis in AD11 transgenic mice, in which the constitutive expression of anti-NGF antibody leads to an imbalance of proNGF over mature NGF. We found increased proliferation of progenitors but a reduced neurogenesis in the AD11 dentate gyrus (DG)-hippocampus (HP). Also in vitro, AD11 hippocampal neural stem cells (NSCs) proliferated more, but were unable to differentiate into morphologically mature neurons. By treating wild-type hippocampal progenitors with the uncleavable form of proNGF (proNGF-KR), we demonstrated that proNGF acts as mitogen on aNSCs at low concentration. The mitogenic effect of proNGF was specifically addressed to the radial glia-like (RGL) stem cells through the induction of cyclin D1 expression. These cells express high levels of p75NTR , as demonstrated by immunofluorescence analyses performed ex vivo on RGL cells isolated from freshly dissociated HP-DG or selected in vitro from NSCs by leukemia inhibitory factor. Clonogenic assay performed in the absence of mitogens showed that RGLs respond to proNGF-KR by reactivating their proliferation and thus leading to neurospheres formation. The mitogenic effect of proNGF was further exploited in the expansion of mouse-induced neural stem cells (iNSCs). Chronic exposure of iNSCs to proNGF-KR increased their proliferation. Altogether, we demonstrated that proNGF acts as mitogen on hippocampal and iNSCs. Stem Cells 2019;37:1223-1237.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerio Corvaglia
- Scuola Normale Superiore, Italy.,European Brain Research Institute (EBRI), Italy
| | - Domenica Cilli
- European Brain Research Institute (EBRI), Italy.,Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Institute of Translational Pharmacology, Italy
| | - Chiara Scopa
- European Brain Research Institute (EBRI), Italy.,Department of Biology, University "Roma Tre", Italy
| | | | - Ivan Arisi
- European Brain Research Institute (EBRI), Italy
| | - Francesca Malerba
- Scuola Normale Superiore, Italy.,European Brain Research Institute (EBRI), Italy
| | | | - Raffaella Scardigli
- European Brain Research Institute (EBRI), Italy.,Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Institute of Translational Pharmacology, Italy
| | - Antonino Cattaneo
- Scuola Normale Superiore, Italy.,European Brain Research Institute (EBRI), Italy
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Fahnestock M, Shekari A. ProNGF and Neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:129. [PMID: 30853882 PMCID: PMC6395390 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Profound and early basal forebrain cholinergic neuron (BFCN) degeneration is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Loss of synapses between basal forebrain and hippocampal and cortical target tissue correlates highly with the degree of dementia and is thought to be a major contributor to memory loss. BFCNs depend for their survival, connectivity and function on the neurotrophin nerve growth factor (NGF) which is retrogradely transported from its sites of synthesis in the cortex and hippocampus. The form of NGF found in human brain is proNGF. ProNGF binds to the NGF receptors TrkA and p75NTR, but it binds more strongly to p75NTR and more weakly to TrkA than does mature NGF. This renders proNGF more sensitive to receptor balance than mature NGF. In the healthy brain, where BFCNs express both TrkA and p75NTR, proNGF is neurotrophic, activating TrkA-dependent signaling pathways such as MAPK and Akt-mTOR and eliciting cell survival and neurite outgrowth. However, if TrkA is lost or if p75NTR is increased, proNGF activates p75NTR-dependent apoptotic pathways such as JNK. This receptor sensitivity serves as a neurotrophic/apoptotic switch that eliminates BFCNs that cannot maintain TrkA/p75NTR balance and therefore synaptic connections with their targets. TrkA is increasingly lost in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and AD. In addition, proNGF accumulates at BFCN terminals in cortex and hippocampus, reducing the amount of trophic factor that reaches BFCN cell bodies. The loss of TrkA and accumulation of proNGF occur early in MCI and correlate with cognitive impairment. Increased levels of proNGF and reduced levels of TrkA lead to BFCN neurodegeneration and eventual p75NTR-dependent apoptosis. In addition, in AD BFCNs suffer from reduced TrkA-dependent retrograde transport which reduces neurotrophic support. Thus, BFCNs are particularly vulnerable to AD due to their dependence upon retrograde trophic support from proNGF signaling and transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Fahnestock
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Arman Shekari
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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Cuello AC, Pentz R, Hall H. The Brain NGF Metabolic Pathway in Health and in Alzheimer's Pathology. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:62. [PMID: 30809111 PMCID: PMC6379336 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging research has re-emphasized the role of the cortical cholinergic system in the symptomology and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Basal forebrain (BF) cholinergic nuclei depend on target-derived NGF for survival during development and for the maintenance of a classical cholinergic phenotype during adulthood. In AD, BF cholinergic neurons lose their cholinergic phenotype and function, suggesting an impairment in NGF-mediated trophic support. We propose that alterations to the enzymatic pathway that controls the maturation of proNGF to mature NGF and the latter's ulterior degradation underlie this pathological process. Indeed, the NGF metabolic pathway has been demonstrated to be impaired in AD and other amyloid pathologies, and pharmacological manipulation of NGF metabolism has consequences in vivo for both levels of proNGF/NGF and the phenotype of BF cholinergic neurons. The NGF pathway may also have potential as a biomarker of cognitive decline in AD, as its changes can predict future cognitive decline in patients with Down syndrome as they develop preclinical Alzheimer's pathology. New evidence suggests that the cholinergic system, and by extension NGF, may have a greater role in the progression of AD than previously realized, as changes to the BF precede and predict changes to the entorhinal cortex, as anticholinergic drugs increase odds of developing AD, and as the use of donepezil can reduce rates of hippocampal and cortical thinning. These findings suggest that new, more sophisticated cholinergic therapies should be capable of preserving the basal forebrain thus having profound positive effects as treatments for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Claudio Cuello
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Rowan Pentz
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Hélène Hall
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Mitra S, Behbahani H, Eriksdotter M. Innovative Therapy for Alzheimer's Disease-With Focus on Biodelivery of NGF. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:38. [PMID: 30804738 PMCID: PMC6370742 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with abnormal protein modification, inflammation and memory impairment. Aggregated amyloid beta (Aβ) and phosphorylated tau proteins are medical diagnostic features. Loss of memory in AD has been associated with central cholinergic dysfunction in basal forebrain, from where the cholinergic circuitry projects to cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Various reports link AD progression with declining activity of cholinergic neurons in basal forebrain. The neurotrophic molecule, nerve growth factor (NGF), plays a major role in the maintenance of cholinergic neurons integrity and function, both during development and adulthood. Numerous studies have also shown that NGF contributes to the survival and regeneration of neurons during aging and in age-related diseases such as AD. Changes in neurotrophic signaling pathways are involved in the aging process and contribute to cholinergic and cognitive decline as observed in AD. Further, gradual dysregulation of neurotrophic factors like NGF and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) have been reported during AD development thus intensifying further research in targeting these factors as disease modifying therapies against AD. Today, there is no cure available for AD and the effects of the symptomatic treatment like cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs) and memantine are transient and moderate. Although many AD treatment studies are being carried out, there has not been any breakthrough and new therapies are thus highly needed. Long-term effective therapy for alleviating cognitive impairment is a major unmet need. Discussion and summarizing the new advancements of using NGF as a potential therapeutic implication in AD are important. In summary, the intent of this review is describing available experimental and clinical data related to AD therapy, priming to gain additional facts associated with the importance of NGF for AD treatment, and encapsulated cell biodelivery (ECB) as an efficient tool for NGF delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumonto Mitra
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Homira Behbahani
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Maria Eriksdotter
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden.,Aging Theme, Karolinska University Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Mahady L, Nadeem M, Malek-Ahmadi M, Chen K, Perez SE, Mufson EJ. HDAC2 dysregulation in the nucleus basalis of Meynert during the progression of Alzheimer's disease. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2018; 45:380-397. [PMID: 30252960 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by degeneration of cholinergic basal forebrain (CBF) neurons in the nucleus basalis of Meynert (nbM), which provides the major cholinergic input to the cortical mantle and is related to cognitive decline in patients with AD. Cortical histone deacetylase (HDAC) dysregulation has been associated with neuronal degeneration during AD progression. However, whether HDAC alterations play a role in CBF degeneration during AD onset is unknown. We investigated global HDAC protein levels and nuclear HDAC2 immunoreactivity in tissue containing the nbM, changes and their association with neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) during the progression of AD. METHODS We used semi-quantitative western blotting and immunohistochemistry to evaluate HDAC and sirtuin (SIRT) levels in individuals that died with a premortem clinical diagnosis of no cognitive impairment (NCI), mild cognitive impairment (MCI), mild/moderate AD (mAD) or severe AD (sAD). Quantitative immunohistochemistry was used to identify HDAC2 protein levels in individual cholinergic nbM nuclei and their colocalization with the early phosphorylated tau marker AT8, the late-stage apoptotic tau marker TauC3 and Thioflavin-S, a marker of β-pleated sheet structures in NFTs. RESULTS In AD patients, HDAC2 protein levels were dysregulated in the basal forebrain region containing cholinergic neurons of the nbM. HDAC2 nuclear immunoreactivity was reduced in individual cholinergic nbM neurons across disease stages. HDAC2 nuclear reactivity correlated with multiple cognitive domains and with NFT formation. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that HDAC2 dysregulation contributes to cholinergic nbM neuronal dysfunction, NFT pathology, and cognitive decline during clinical progression of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Mahady
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.,Arizona State University Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - M Nadeem
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | | | - K Chen
- Banner Alzheimer's Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - S E Perez
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - E J Mufson
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
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Tiernan CT, Ginsberg SD, He B, Ward SM, Guillozet-Bongaarts AL, Kanaan NM, Mufson EJ, Counts SE. Pretangle pathology within cholinergic nucleus basalis neurons coincides with neurotrophic and neurotransmitter receptor gene dysregulation during the progression of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 117:125-136. [PMID: 29859871 PMCID: PMC6278831 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Cholinergic basal forebrain neurons of the nucleus basalis of Meynert (nbM) regulate attentional and memory function and are exquisitely prone to tau pathology and neurofibrillary tangle (NFT) formation during the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). nbM neurons require the neurotrophin nerve growth factor (NGF), its cognate receptor TrkA, and the pan-neurotrophin receptor p75NTR for their maintenance and survival. Additionally, nbM neuronal activity and cholinergic tone are regulated by the expression of nicotinic (nAChR) and muscarinic (mAChR) acetylcholine receptors as well as receptors modulating glutamatergic and catecholaminergic afferent signaling. To date, the molecular and cellular relationships between the evolution of tau pathology and nbM neuronal survival remain unknown. To address this knowledge gap, we profiled cholinotrophic pathway genes within nbM neurons immunostained for pS422, a pretangle phosphorylation event preceding tau C-terminal truncation at D421, or dual-labeled for pS422 and TauC3, a later stage tau neo-epitope revealed by this same C-terminal truncation event, via single-population custom microarray analysis. nbM neurons were obtained from postmortem tissues from subjects who died with an antemortem clinical diagnosis of no cognitive impairment (NCI), mild cognitive impairment (MCI), or mild/moderate AD. Quantitative analysis revealed significant downregulation of mRNAs encoding TrkA as well as TrkB, TrkC, and the Trk-mediated downstream pro-survival kinase Akt in pS422+ compared to unlabeled, pS422-negative nbM neurons. In addition, pS422+ neurons displayed a downregulation of transcripts encoding NMDA receptor subunit 2B, metabotropic glutamate receptor 2, D2 dopamine receptor, and β1 adrenoceptor. By contrast, transcripts encoding p75NTR were downregulated in dual-labeled pS422+/TauC3+ neurons. Appearance of the TauC3 epitope was also associated with an upregulation of the α7 nAChR subunit and differential downregulation of the β2 nAChR subunit. Notably, we found that gene expression patterns for each cell phenotype did not differ with clinical diagnosis. However, linear regression revealed that global cognition and Braak stage were predictors of select transcript changes within both unlabeled and pS422+/TauC3- neurons. Taken together, these cell phenotype-specific gene expression profiling data suggest that dysregulation of neurotrophic and neurotransmitter signaling is an early pathogenic mechanism associated with NFT formation in vulnerable nbM neurons and cognitive decline in AD, which may be amenable to therapeutic intervention early in the disease process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea T Tiernan
- Department of Translational Science and Molecular Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Stephen D Ginsberg
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, NYU Langone School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Physiology & Neuroscience, NYU Langone School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; NYU Neuroscience Institute, NYU Langone School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Bin He
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Sarah M Ward
- Department of Translational Science and Molecular Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | | | - Nicholas M Kanaan
- Department of Translational Science and Molecular Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA; Hauenstein Neurosciences Center, Mercy Health Saint Mary's Hospital, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Elliott J Mufson
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Scott E Counts
- Department of Translational Science and Molecular Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA; Hauenstein Neurosciences Center, Mercy Health Saint Mary's Hospital, Grand Rapids, MI, USA; Department of Family Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA; Michigan Alzheimer's Disease Core Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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Merlo S, Spampinato SF, Sortino MA. Early compensatory responses against neuronal injury: A new therapeutic window of opportunity for Alzheimer's Disease? CNS Neurosci Ther 2018; 25:5-13. [PMID: 30101571 DOI: 10.1111/cns.13050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by extensive neurodegeneration and inflammation in selective brain areas, linked to severely disabling cognitive deficits. Before full manifestation, different stages appear with progressively increased brain pathology and cognitive impairment. This significantly extends the time lag between initial molecular triggers and appearance of detectable symptoms. Notably, a number of studies in the last decade have revealed that in the early stage of mild cognitive impairment, events that appear in contrast with neuronal distress may occur. These have been reproduced in vitro and in animal models and include increase in synaptic elements, increase in synaptic and metabolic activity, enhancement of neurotrophic milieu and changes in glial cell reactivity and inflammation. They have been interpreted as compensatory responses that could either delay disease progression or, in the long run, result detrimental. For this reason, these mechanisms define a new and previously undervalued window of opportunity for intervention. Their importance resides especially in their early appearance. Directing efforts to better characterize this stage, in order to identify new pharmacological targets, is an exciting new avenue to future advances in AD research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Merlo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Simona Federica Spampinato
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Angela Sortino
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
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42
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Loera-Valencia R, Piras A, Ismail MAM, Manchanda S, Eyjolfsdottir H, Saido TC, Johansson J, Eriksdotter M, Winblad B, Nilsson P. Targeting Alzheimer's disease with gene and cell therapies. J Intern Med 2018; 284:2-36. [PMID: 29582495 DOI: 10.1111/joim.12759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) causes dementia in both young and old people affecting more than 40 million people worldwide. The two neuropathological hallmarks of the disease, amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles consisting of protein tau are considered the major contributors to the disease. However, a more complete picture reveals significant neurodegeneration and decreased cell survival, neuroinflammation, changes in protein and energy homeostasis and alterations in lipid and cholesterol metabolism. In addition, gene and cell therapies for severe neurodegenerative disorders have recently improved technically in terms of safety and efficiency and have translated to the clinic showing encouraging results. Here, we review broadly current data within the field for potential targets that could modify AD through gene and cell therapy strategies. We envision that not only Aβ will be targeted in a disease-modifying treatment strategy but rather that a combination of treatments, possibly at different intervention times may prove beneficial in curing this devastating disease. These include decreased tau pathology, neuronal growth factors to support neurons and modulation of neuroinflammation for an appropriate immune response. Furthermore, cell based therapies may represent potential strategies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Loera-Valencia
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - A Piras
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - M A M Ismail
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden.,Theme Neuro, Diseases of the Nervous System Patient Flow, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - S Manchanda
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - H Eyjolfsdottir
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden.,Theme Aging, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - T C Saido
- RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Wako, Saitama, Japan
| | - J Johansson
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - M Eriksdotter
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden.,Theme Aging, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - B Winblad
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden.,Theme Aging, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - P Nilsson
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
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Postmortem Brain, Cerebrospinal Fluid, and Blood Neurotrophic Factor Levels in Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Mol Neurosci 2018; 65:289-300. [PMID: 29956088 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-018-1100-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggest that aberrations of neurotrophic factors are involved in the etiology and pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), but clinical data were inconsistent. Therefore, a meta-analysis on neurotrophic factor levels in AD is necessary. We performed a systematic review of blood, CSF, and post-mortem brain neurotrophic factor levels in patients with AD compared with controls and quantitatively summarized the clinical data in blood and CSF with a meta-analytical technique. A systematic search of PubMed and Web of Science identified 98 articles in this study (with samples more than 9000). Random effects meta-analysis demonstrated that peripheral blood BDNF levels were significantly decreased in AD patients compared with controls. However, blood NGF, IGF, and VEGF did not show significant differences between cases and controls. In CSF, random effects meta-analysis showed significantly deceased BDNF and increased NGF levels in patients with AD, whereas IGF and VEGF did not show significant differences between the AD group and control group. In addition, 23 post-mortem studies were included in the systematic review. Although data from post-mortem brains were not always consistent across studies, most studies suggested decreased BDNF and increased (pro)NGF levels in hippocampus and neocortex of patients with AD. These results provide strong clinical evidence that AD is accompanied by an aberrant neurotrophin profile, and future investigations into neurotrophins as biomarkers (especially CSF BDNF and NGF) and therapeutic targets for AD may be warranted.
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Mañucat-Tan NB, Saadipour K, Wang YJ, Bobrovskaya L, Zhou XF. Cellular Trafficking of Amyloid Precursor Protein in Amyloidogenesis Physiological and Pathological Significance. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:812-830. [PMID: 29797184 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1106-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The accumulation of excess intracellular or extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) is one of the key pathological events in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Aβ is generated from the cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by beta secretase-1 (BACE1) and gamma secretase (γ-secretase) within the cells. The endocytic trafficking of APP facilitates amyloidogenesis while at the cell surface, APP is predominantly processed in a non-amyloidogenic manner. Several adaptor proteins bind to both APP and BACE1, regulating their trafficking and recycling along the secretory and endocytic pathways. The phosphorylation of APP at Thr668 and BACE1 at Ser498, also influence their trafficking. Neurotrophins and proneurotrophins also influence APP trafficking through their receptors. In this review, we describe the molecular trafficking pathways of APP and BACE1 that lead to Aβ generation, the involvement of different signaling molecules or adaptor proteins regulating APP and BACE1 subcellular localization. We have also discussed how neurotrophins could modulate amyloidogenesis through their receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noralyn Basco Mañucat-Tan
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000, Australia.
| | - Khalil Saadipour
- Departments of Cell Biology, Physiology and Neuroscience, and Psychiatry, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, New York University Langone School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yan-Jiang Wang
- Department of Neurology and Center for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400042, China
| | - Larisa Bobrovskaya
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000, Australia
| | - Xin-Fu Zhou
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000, Australia.
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Abstract
Objectives Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects millions of individuals. Moreover, hypothyroidism has been identified as one of the risk factors that may contribute to the development of AD. Here, we investigated whether there was a correlation among expression levels of proteins involved in the formation of AD lesions, neurite outgrowth, and thyroid hormone levels. Methods Cells were grown in media supplemented with different levels of 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) and then processed for neurite outgrowth and to prepare RNA samples. RNA samples were analysed using quantitative real-time PCR. Protein levels were measured using in cell-Western blotting analysis. Results By using neurite outgrowth studies, it was demonstrated that T3 treatment enhanced neurite outgrowth in NS-1 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Quantitative real-time PCR studies further confirmed that NS-1 cells expressed substantial levels of TRα and significantly less TRβ, either of which could be responsible for the T3-dependent effects on neurite outgrowth. Although the overall tau protein expression was not affected in response to T3 treatment, the splicing of tau exon 10 was impacted in the direction of producing more tau molecules that excluded the exon (tau 3R). Conclusion The results of this study are critical not only to understand the probable link between hypothyroidism and AD but also in providing the basis for future prevention and treatment of AD in hypothyroid patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oldham Ce
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise (BRITE), College of Arts and Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, USA
| | - Wooten Cj
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise (BRITE), College of Arts and Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, USA
| | - Williams Ab
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise (BRITE), College of Arts and Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, USA
| | - Dixon S
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise (BRITE), College of Arts and Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, USA
| | - Lopez D
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise (BRITE), College of Arts and Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, USA
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Allard S, Jacobs ML, Do Carmo S, Cuello AC. Compromise of cortical proNGF maturation causes selective retrograde atrophy in cholinergic nucleus basalis neurons. Neurobiol Aging 2018; 67:10-20. [PMID: 29609077 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The degeneration of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) in Alzheimer's disease (AD) contributes to cognitive impairment. Nerve growth factor (NGF) secreted in the cerebral cortex is necessary for the phenotypic maintenance of BFCNs. AD is associated with disturbances in NGF metabolism, leading to reduced mature NGF levels and to an accumulation of its precursor, proNGF. We previously described that, in rats, this neurotrophic imbalance is sufficient to induce a loss of cortical cholinergic synapses. In the present study, we investigated whether this neurotrophic imbalance can produce an AD-like retrograde degeneration of BFCNs. Using a combination of retrograde labeling and quantitative cell imaging, we could demonstrate that inhibiting cortical proNGF maturation results in an atrophy of BFCNs, a downregulation of the NGF receptors p75 neurotrophin receptor and tropomyosin receptor kinase A, and a reduction in choline acetyltransferase protein expression. The transient increase in sortilin levels and the sustained colocalization with p75 neurotrophin receptor suggest a participation of proNGF in this degenerative process. This study demonstrates that impairments in the extracellular maturation of proNGF are sufficient to cause a somatodendritic retrograde degeneration of the BFCNs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Allard
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Marie L Jacobs
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sonia Do Carmo
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - A Claudio Cuello
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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47
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Saadipour K, Mañucat-Tan NB, Lim Y, Keating DJ, Smith KS, Zhong JH, Liao H, Bobrovskaya L, Wang YJ, Chao MV, Zhou XF. p75 neurotrophin receptor interacts with and promotes BACE1 localization in endosomes aggravating amyloidogenesis. J Neurochem 2018; 144:302-317. [PMID: 28869759 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a progressive deposition of amyloid beta (Aβ) and dysregulation of neurotrophic signaling, causing synaptic dysfunction, loss of memory, and cell death. The expression of p75 neurotrophin receptor is elevated in the brain of AD patients, suggesting its involvement in this disease. However, the exact mechanism of its action is not yet clear. Here, we show that p75 interacts with beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE1), and this interaction is enhanced in the presence of Aβ. Our results suggest that the colocalization of BACE1 and amyloid precursor protein (APP) is increased in the presence of both Aβ and p75 in cortical neurons. In addition, the localization of APP and BACE1 in early endosomes is increased in the presence of Aβ and p75. An increased phosphorylation of APP-Thr668 and BACE1-Ser498 by c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) in the presence of Aβ and p75 could be responsible for this localization. In conclusion, our study proposes a potential involvement in amyloidogenesis for p75, which may represent a future therapeutic target for AD. Cover Image for this Issue: doi. 10.1111/jnc.14163.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalil Saadipour
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia
- Department of Human Physiology, Centre for Neuroscience, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia
- Departments of Cell Biology, Physiology & Neuroscience, and Psychiatry, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, New York University Langone School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Noralyn B Mañucat-Tan
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia
| | - Yoon Lim
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia
| | - Damien J Keating
- Department of Human Physiology, Centre for Neuroscience, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia
| | - Kevin S Smith
- Department of Human Physiology, Centre for Neuroscience, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia
| | - Jin-Hua Zhong
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia
| | - Hong Liao
- New Drug Screening Centre, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Larisa Bobrovskaya
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia
| | - Yan-Jiang Wang
- Department of Neurology and Center for Clinical Neuroscience, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Moses V Chao
- Departments of Cell Biology, Physiology & Neuroscience, and Psychiatry, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, New York University Langone School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Xin-Fu Zhou
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia
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48
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Schiel KA. A new etiologic model for Alzheimers Disease. Med Hypotheses 2018; 111:27-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2017.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2017] [Revised: 11/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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49
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Xu XM, Dong MX, Feng X, Liu Y, Pan JX, Jia SY, Cao D, Wei YD. Decreased serum proNGF concentration in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neurol Sci 2017; 39:91-96. [PMID: 29052090 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-017-3157-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD), a progressive and age-related neurodegenerative condition, is a common neurodegenerative disorder. However, no validated biomarkers for PD have been identified to date. Accumulating evidence supports the role of proNGF-p75NTR-sortilin signaling in the neurodegeneration and pathogenesis of PD. The aim of our study was to investigate alterations in serum proNGF concentrations in PD patients and related anxiety. Seventy-seven consecutive PD patients and 39 healthy controls were enrolled, and clinical data were collected. Modified Hoehn-Yahr Staging Scale, Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS), and Hamilton Anxiety (HAMA) Scale scores were assessed upon admission. Serum proNGF concentration was compared between that of PD patients and healthy controls. Pearson correlation coefficients were determined to explore the relationship between proNGF concentration and UPDRS, Hoehn-Yahr, and HAMA scores. Received operating characteristic (ROC) curves and proNGF optimal cutoff point were used to distinguish PD and related anxiety. The median concentration of proNGF was significantly lower (p = 0.000) in PD patients (94.91 ng/L, range 85.92-118.06 ng/L) compared with that of healthy controls (106.67 ng/L, range 102.39-122.06 ng/L). The optimal proNGF cutoff point for distinguishing PD patients was 102.29 ng/L, and the sensitivity and specificity values were 87.0 and 100%, respectively. proNGF concentration positively correlated with UPDRS (r = 0.281, p = 0.013), Hoehn-Yahr (r = 0.260, p = 0.023), and HAMA (r = 0.276, p = 0.015) scores. Our results indicate that serum proNGF concentration may represent a biomarker for PD and its role in the pathogenesis of PD thus warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Min Xu
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No.1 Youyi Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China.,Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing, China
| | - Mei-Xue Dong
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No.1 Youyi Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China.,Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing, China
| | - Xia Feng
- Department of Neurology, The People's Hospital of Tongliang District, Chongqing, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No.1 Youyi Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China.,Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing, China
| | - Jun-Xi Pan
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing, China
| | - Shi-Yu Jia
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No.1 Youyi Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China.,Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing, China
| | - Du Cao
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No.1 Youyi Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - You-Dong Wei
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No.1 Youyi Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China. .,Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing, China.
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Differential deregulation of NGF and BDNF neurotrophins in a transgenic rat model of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2017; 108:307-323. [PMID: 28865749 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence from human neuropathological studies indicates that the levels of the neurotrophins nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are compromised in Alzheimer's disease. However, the causes and temporal (pathology-dependent) evolution of these alterations are not completely understood. To elucidate these issues, we investigated the McGill-R-Thy1-APP transgenic rat, which exhibits progressive intracellular and extracellular amyloid-beta (Aβ) pathology and ensuing cognitive deficits. Neurochemical analyses revealed a differential dysregulation of NGF and BDNF transcripts and protein expression. While BDNF mRNA levels were significantly reduced at very early stages of amyloid pathology, before plaques appeared, there were no changes in NGF mRNA expression even at advanced stages. Paradoxically, the protein levels of the NGF precursor were increased. These changes in neurotrophin expression are identical to those seen during the progression of Alzheimer's disease. At advanced pathological stages, deficits in the protease cascade controlling the maturation and degradation of NGF were evident in McGill transgenic rats, in line with the paradoxical upregulation of proNGF, as seen in Alzheimer's disease, in the absence of changes in NGF mRNA. The compromise in NGF metabolism and BDNF levels was accompanied by downregulation of cortical cholinergic synapses; strengthening the evidence that neurotrophin dysregulation affects cholinergic synapses and synaptic plasticity. Our findings suggest a differential temporal deregulation of NGF and BDNF neurotrophins, whereby deficits in BDNF mRNA appear at early stages of intraneuronal Aβ pathology, before alterations in NGF metabolism and cholinergic synapse loss manifest.
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