KNOX protein KNAT1 regulates fruitlet abscission in litchi by repressing ethylene biosynthetic genes

SlTCP29 and SlTCP24 participate in the morphological development of tomato compound leaves by integrating multiple pathways

Leaves are the primary vegetative organs of plants, and their morphology is an important trait affecting plant architecture, light energy utilization, environmental adaptation, and fruit quality and yield. Leaf development is highly flexible; however, understanding the regulatory mechanisms of factors coordinating leaf morphogenesis and differentiation remains limited. In this study, we obtained a double mutant for SlTCP29 and SlTCP24 genes from the CRISPR/Cas9 mutant population, both belonging to the CINCINNATA-like TCP (TEOSINTE BRANCHED, CYCLOIDEA and PCF1/2) transcription factor subfamily. Simultaneous mutations of SlTCP29 and SlTCP24 genes increase the complexity of tomato leaves, characterized by deeper leaf margin notches and increased number of leaflets. In conjunction with RNA-seq analysis, determination of plant hormone content, and molecular interaction assays, we identified the KNOXII gene SlTKNII5, SlMIR164a, and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase gene SlACS1A as direct downstream targets of SlTCP29 and SlTCP24, among which SlTKNII5 can physically interact with other KNOXII members to form heterodimers. Our study provides insight into the mechanisms by which SlTCP29 and SlTCP24 are involved in the morphological development of tomato compound leaves by integrating multiple pathways, including transcription factor, microRNA, and phytohormone.

Phytohormonal dynamics in the abscission zone of Korla fragrant pear during calyx abscission: a visual study

Introduction

Phytohormones play a crucial role in regulating the abscission of plant organs and tissues.

Methods

In this study, the ultrastructure of the sepals of Korla fragrant pears was observed using a transmission electron microscope, and high-performance liquid and gas chromatography were used to analyze the dynamic changes of phytohormones in the abscission zone during the calyx abscission process of Korla fragrant pears, and mass spectrometry imaging was applied to ascertain the spatial distribution of phytohormones.

Results

The results revealed that the mitochondria in the abscission zone of the decalyx fruits were regularly distributed around the cell wall, and the chloroplasts were moderately present. In contrast, in the persistent calyx fruit, the corresponding parts of the abscission zone showed a scattered distribution of mitochondria within the cells, and there was a higher number of chloroplasts, which also contained starch granules inside. Mass spectrometry imaging revealed that ABA was enriched in the abscission zone of the decalyx fruit, and their ionic signal intensities were significantly stronger than those of the persistent calyx fruit. However, the ionic signal intensities of Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and Gibberellin A3 (GA3) of the persistent calyx fruit were significantly stronger than those in the abscission zone of the decalyx fruit and were concentrated in the persistent calyx fruit. 1-Aminocyclopropanecarboxylic Acid (ACC) did not show distinct regional distribution in both the decalyx and persistent calyx fruits. Furthermore, before the formation of the abscission zone, the levels of IAA, GA3, and zeatin (ZT) in the abscission zone of the decalyx fruits were significantly lower than those in the persistent calyx fruits by 37.9%, 57.7%, and 33.0%, respectively, while the levels of abscisic acid (ABA) and ethylene (ETH) were significantly higher by 21.9% and 25.0%, respectively. During the formation of the abscission zone, the levels of IAA, GA3, and ZT in the abscission zone of the decalyx fruits were significantly lower than those in the persistent calyx fruits by 41.7%, 71.7%, and 24.6%, respectively, while the levels of ABA and ETH were significantly higher by 15.2% and 80.0%, respectively. After the formation of the abscission zone, the levels of IAA and GA3 in the abscission zone of the decalyx fruits were lower than those in the persistent calyx fruits by 20.8% and 47.8%, respectively, while the levels of ABA and ETH were higher by 271.8% and 26.9%, respectively. In summary, during the calyx abscission process of Korla fragrant pears, IAA and GA3 in the abscission zone inhibited abscission, while ABA and ETH promoted calyx abscission. These research findings enrich the understanding of the regulatory mechanism of plant hormones on calyx abscission and provide a theoretical basis for the study of exogenous plant growth regulators for regulating calyx abscission in Korla fragrant pear.

The BnaBPs gene regulates flowering time and leaf angle in Brassica napus

The flowering time and plant architecture of Brassica napus were significantly associated with yield. In this study, we found that the BREVIPEDICELLUS/KNAT1(BP) gene regulated the flowering time and plant architecture of B. napus. However, the precise regulatory mechanism remains unclear. We cloned two homologous BP genes, BnaBPA03 and BnaBPC03, from B. napus Xiaoyun. The protein sequence analysis showed two proteins containing conserved domains KNOX I, KNOX II, ELK, and HOX of the KONX protein family. The CRISPR/Cas9 knockout lines exhibited early budding and flowering time, coupled with floral organ abscission earlier and a larger leaf angle. On the contrary, overexpression plants displayed a phenotype that was the inverse of these characteristics. Furthermore, we observed upregulation of gibberellin and ethylene biosynthesis genes, as well as floral integrator genes in knocked-out plants. The results revealed that BnaBPs play a role in flowering time, floral organ abscission, and leaf angle as well as germination processes mediated. Additionally, BnaBPs exerted an impact on the biosynthesis pathways of ethylene and GA.

Transcription Factor VlbZIP14 Inhibits Postharvest Grape Berry Abscission by Directly Activating VlCOMT and Promoting Lignin Biosynthesis

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is the most effective preservative for table grapes as it reduces the respiratory intensity of berries and inhibits mold growth. However, excessive SO2 causes berry abscission during storage, resulting in an economic loss postharvest. In this study, grapes were exogenously treated with SO2, SO2 + 1.5% chitosan, SO2 + 1.5% eugenol, and SO2 + eugenol-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (SN). In comparison to SO2 treatment, SN treatment reduced the berries' abscission rate by 74% while maintaining the quality of the berries. Among the treatments, SN treatment most effectively inhibited berry abscission and maintained berry quality. RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) revealed that SN treatment promoted the expression of genes related to cell wall metabolism. Among these genes, VlCOMT was detected as the central gene, playing a key role in mediating the effects of SN. Dual luciferase and yeast one-hybrid (Y1H) assays demonstrated that VlbZIP14 directly activated VlCOMT by binding to the G-box motif in the latter's promoter, which then participated in lignin synthesis. Our results provide key insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the SN-mediated inhibition of berry abscission and could be used to improve the commercial value of SO2-treated postharvest table grapes.

Transcriptome analysis unravels key pathways and hub genes related to immature fruit abscission in Camellia oleifera

Immature fruit abscission of Camellia oleifera (C. oleifera) is a common problem limiting yield increases. However, the regulatory mechanisms underlying immature fruit abscission in C. oleifera are unclear. In this study, we systematically investigated changes in the morphological, physiological, and gene expression of fruit abscission zones (FAZs) of soon-to-abscise fruits (M2). We found that fruit abscission before ripening mainly occurs during the August abscission stage of 'Huashuo'. At the beginning of this stage, the FAZs of M2 have a marked dent, and the separation layer structures are preliminarily formed. Phytohormone analysis showed that the contents of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and jasmonic acid (JA) in the FAZs of M2 were significantly decreased compared with the non-abscised fruits, while the content of trans-zeatin (TZR) was increased. Transcriptome analysis identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) mainly involved in phytohormone metabolism, including ethylene, auxin, JA, and the cis-zeatin signal transduction pathway. There were also many DEGs involved in cell wall catabolism. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) further suggested that the transcription factors NAC100 and ERF114 participate in the immature fruit abscission of C. oleifera. This study provides insights into the fruit abscission mechanism of C. oleifera.

LcMPK3 and LcMPK6 positively regulate fruitlet abscission in litchi

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades have been discovered to play a fundamental role in regulating organ abscission. However, the identity of protein substrates targeted by MAPK cascades, as well as whether the role of MAPK protein cascades in the abscission process is conserved across different plant species, remain unknown. Here, the role of homologs of MPK3 and MPK6 in regulating fruit abscission were characterized in litchi. Ectopic expression of LcMPK3 or LcMPK6 in Arabidopsis mpk3 mpk6 mutant rescued the deficiency in floral organ abscission, while silencing of LcMPK3 or LcMPK6 in litchi significantly decreased fruitlet abscission. Importantly, a total of 49 proteins interacting with LcMPK3 were identified through yeast two-hybrid screening, including two components of the MAPK signaling cascade, five transcription factors, and two aquaporins. Furthermore, the interaction between LcMPK3/6 with LcBZR1/2, core components in brassinosteroids signaling that suppress litchi fruitlet abscission, was confirmed using in vitro and in vivo assays. Moreover, phos-tag assays demonstrated that LcMPK3/6 could phosphorylate LcBZR1/2, with several phosphorylation residues identified. Together, our findings suggest that LcMPK3 and LcMPK6 play a positive regulatory role in fruitlet abscission in litchi, and offer crucial information for the investigation of mechanisms underlying MPK3/6-mediated organ abscission in plants.

An ethylene response factor AcERF116 identified from A. catechu is involved in fruitlet abscission

Procedural abscission of outer reproductive organs during flower and fruit development occurs in most plant lineages. Undesired abscission, such as fruitlet shedding causes considerable yield loss in many fruit-producing species. Ethylene is one of the key factors regulating organ abscission. However, the participants involved in the ethylene-mediated abscission pathway remains largely unidentified. In this study, we focused on the ethylene response transcription factors (ERFs) regulating fruitlet abscission in an industrial tree species, A. catechu. A total of 165 ERF genes have been found in the A. catechu genome and eight of these showed distinct expression between the "about-to-abscise" and "non-abscised" samples. An AcERF116 gene with high expression level in the fruit abscission zone (FAZ) was selected for further study. Overexpression of the AcERF116 gene accelerated cell separation in the abscission zone (AZ) and promoted pedicel abscission in transgenic tomato lines. The PG (ploygalacturonase) activity was enhanced in the FAZs of A. catechu fruitlets during ethylene-induced fruitlet abscission, while the PME (pectin methylesterase) activity was suppressed. In addition, cytosolic alkalization was observed in the AZs during abscission in both tomato and A. catechu. Our results suggest that AcERF116 plays a critical role in the crosstalk of ethylene and fruitlet abscission in A. catechu.

Identification of Chromosomal Regions and Candidate Genes for Round leaf Locus in Cucumis melo L

Leaf morphology plays a crucial role in plant classification and provides a significant model for studying plant diversity while directly impacting photosynthetic efficiency. In the case of melons, leaf shape not only influences production and classification but also represents a key genetic trait that requires further exploration. In this study, we utilized forward genetics to pinpoint a recessive locus, dubbed Cmrl (Round leaf), which is responsible for regulating melon leaf shape. Through bulked segregant analysis sequencing and extensive evaluation of a two-year F2 population, we successfully mapped the Cmrl locus to a 537.07 kb region on chromosome 8 of the melon genome. Subsequent genetic fine-mapping efforts, leveraging a larger F2 population encompassing 1322 plants and incorporating F2:3 phenotypic data, further refined the locus to an 80.27 kb interval housing five candidate genes. Promoter analysis and coding sequence cloning confirmed that one of these candidates, MELO3C019152.2 (Cmppr encoding a pentatricopeptide repeat-containing family protein, Cmppr), stands out as a strong candidate gene for the Cmrl locus. Notably, comparisons of Cmrl expressions across various stages of leaf development and different leaf regions suggest a pivotal role of Cmrl in the morphogenesis of melon leaves.

Genomic loci associated with leaf abscission contribute to machine picking and environmental adaptability in upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.)

INTRODUCTION

Defoliation by applying defoliants before machine picking is an important agricultural practice that enhances harvesting efficiency and leads to increased raw cotton purity. However, the fundamental characteristics of leaf abscission and the underlying genetic basis in cotton are not clearly understood.

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we aimed to (1) reveal the phenotypic variations in cotton leaf abscission, (2) discover the whole-genome differentiation sweeps and genetic loci related to defoliation, (3) identify and verify the functions of key candidate genes associated with defoliation, and (4) explore the relationship between haplotype frequency of loci and environmental adaptability.

METHODS

Four defoliation-related traits of 383 re-sequenced Gossypium hirsutum accessions were investigated in four environments. The genome-wide association study (GWAS), linkage disequilibrium (LD) interval genotyping and functional identification were conducted. Finally, the haplotype variation related to environmental adaptability and defoliation traits was revealed.

RESULTS

Our findings revealed the fundamental phenotypic variations of defoliation traits in cotton. We showed that defoliant significantly increased the defoliation rate without incurring yield and fiber quality penalties. The strong correlations between defoliation traits and growth period traits were observed. A genome-wide association study of defoliation traits identified 174 significant SNPs. Two loci (RDR7 on A02 and RDR13 on A13) that significantly associated with the relative defoliation rate were described, and key candidate genes GhLRR and GhCYCD3;1, encoding a leucine-rich repeat (LRR) family protein and D3-type cell cyclin 1 protein respectively, were functional verified by expression pattern analysis and gene silencing. We found that combining of two favorable haplotypes (HapRDR7 and HapRDR13) improved sensitivity to defoliant. The favorable haplotype frequency generally increased in high latitudes in China, enabling adaptation to the local environment.

CONCLUSION

Our findings lay an important foundation for the potentially broad application of leveraging key genetic loci in breeding machine-pickable cotton.

New Advances in the Study of Regulation of Tomato Flowering-Related Genes Using Biotechnological Approaches

The tomato is a convenient object for studying reproductive processes, which has become a classic. Such complex processes as flowering and fruit setting require an understanding of the fundamental principles of molecular interaction, the structures of genes and proteins, the construction of signaling pathways for transcription regulation, including the synchronous actions of cis-regulatory elements (promoter and enhancer), trans-regulatory elements (transcription factors and regulatory RNAs), and transposable elements and epigenetic regulators (DNA methylation and acetylation, chromatin structure). Here, we discuss the current state of research on tomatoes (2017-2023) devoted to studying the function of genes that regulate flowering and signal regulation systems using genome-editing technologies, RNA interference gene silencing, and gene overexpression, including heterologous expression. Although the central candidate genes for these regulatory components have been identified, a complete picture of their relationship has yet to be formed. Therefore, this review summarizes the latest achievements related to studying the processes of flowering and fruit set. This work attempts to display the gene interaction scheme to better understand the events under consideration.

KNOTTED1-like homeobox (KNOX) transcription factors - Hubs in a plethora of networks: A review

KNOX (KNOTTED1-like HOMEOBOX) belongs to a class of important homeobox genes, which encode the homeodomain proteins binding to the specific element of target genes, and widely participate in plant development. Advancements in genetics and molecular biology research generate a large amount of information about KNOX genes in model and non-model plants, and their functions in different developmental backgrounds are gradually becoming clear. In this review, we summarize the known and presumed functions of the KNOX gene in plants, focusing on horticultural plants and crops. The classification and structural characteristics, expression characteristics and regulation, interacting protein factors, functions, and mechanisms of KNOX genes are systematically described. Further, the current research gaps and perspectives were discussed. These comprehensive data can provide a reference for the directional improvement of agronomic traits through KNOX gene regulation.

Phytohormones and candidate genes synergistically regulate fruitlet abscission in Areca catechu L

BACKGROUND

The fruit population of most plants is under the control of a process named "physiological drop" to selectively abort some developing fruitlets. However, frequent fruitlet abscission severely restricts the yield of Areca catechu. To reveal the physiological and molecular variations in this process, we detected the variation of phytohormone levels in abscised and non-abscised fruitlets in A. catechu.

RESULTS

The levels of gibberellin acid, jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, abscisic acid and zeatin were elevated, while the indole-3-acetic acid and indole-3-carboxaldehyde levels were declined in the "about-to-abscise" part (AB) of abscission zone (AZ) compared to the "non-abscised" part (CK). Then the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between AB and CK were screened based on transcriptome data. DEGs involved in phytohormone synthesis, response and transportation were identified as key genes. Genes related to cell wall biosynthesis, degradation, loosening and modification, and critical processes during fruit abscission were identified as role players. In addition, genes encoding transcription factors, such as NAC, ERF, WRKY, MADS and Zinc Finger proteins, showed differentially expressed patterns between AB and CK, were also identified as candidates.

CONCLUSIONS

These results unraveled a phytohormone signaling cross talk and key genes involved in the fruitlet abscission process in A. catechu. This study not only provides a theoretical basis for fruitlet abscission in A. catechu, but also identified many candidate genes or potential molecular markers for further breeding of fruit trees.

Comparative analysis of KNOX genes and their expression patterns under various treatments in Dendrobium huoshanense

Introduction

KNOX plays a pivotal role in governing plant growth, development, and responses to diverse abiotic and biotic stresses. However, information on the relationship between the KNOX gene family and expression levels under different treatments in Dendrobium is still limited.

Methods

To address this problem, we first used bioinformatics methods and revealed the presence of 19 KNOX genes distributed among 13 chromosomes in the Dendrobium huoshanense genome. Through an analysis of phylogenetic relationships, these genes were classified into three distinct clades: class I, class II, and class M. Our investigation included promoter analysis, revealing various cis-acting elements associated with hormones, growth and development, and abiotic stress responses. Additionally, qRT-PCR experiments were conducted to assess the expression patterns of DhKNOX genes under different treatments, including ABA, MeJA, SA, and drought.

Results

The results demonstrated differential expression of DhKNOX genes in response to these treatments, thereby highlighting their potential roles in stress adaptation.

Discussion

Overall, our results contribute important insights for further investigations into the functional characterization of the Dendrobium KNOX gene family, shedding light on their roles in plant development and stress responses.

LcERF10 functions as a positive regulator of litchi fruitlet abscission

Phytohormone ethylene is well-known in positive modulation of plant organ abscission. However, the molecular mechanism underlying ethylene-induced abscission remains largely unknown. Here, we identified an ethylene-responsive factor, LcERF10, as a key regulatory gene in litchi fruitlet abscission. LcERF10 was strongly induced in the fruitlet abscission zone (FAZ) during the ethylene-activated abscission. Silencing of LcERF10 in litchi weakened the cytosolic alkalization of the FAZ and reduced fruitlet abscission. Moreover, LcERF10 directly bound the promoter and repressed the expression of LcNHX7, a Na+/H+ exchanger that was down-regulated in FAZ following the ethylene-activated abscission and up-regulated after LcERF10 silencing. Additionally, ectopic expression of LcERF10 in Arabidopsis promoted the cytosolic alkalization of the floral organ AZ and accelerated the floral organ abscission. Collectively, our results suggest that the transcription factor LcERF10 plays a positive role in litchi fruitlet abscission.

Genome-Wide Identification, Characterization, and Expression Analysis of the NAC Gene Family in Litchi chinensis

NAC proteins play an essential role in the growth and development of litchi, especially during reproductive development. However, a comprehensive analysis of the litchi NAC gene family is currently absent. Based on information from the litchi genome, we found that the 112 NAC genes of litchi show an uneven distribution on the chromosomes. Phylogenetic and conserved structural domain analyses indicated that different types of variability were exhibited in the family of litchi NACs (LcNACs). Gene covariance analysis showed that the LcNACs showed better similarity in the same genus than with Arabidopsis. We further investigated the differential expression patterns of LcNACs in buds and rudimentary leaves of litchi. qRT-PCR results implied that they were involved in the process. Profiling of LcNAC promoter elements in litchi showed that they were extensively involved in light response, phytohormone regulation, abiotic stress response, and plant growth and development processes. This study provides new insights into the identification, structural characterization, tissue-specific expression analysis, and promoter response elements of LcNACs. It reveals the characteristics of the LcNACs and lays the foundation for the subsequent understanding of its biological functions and molecular regulatory mechanisms.

Function of a non-enzymatic hexokinase LcHXK1 as glucose sensor in regulating litchi fruit abscission

Fruit abscission is a severe hindrance to commercial crop production, and a lack of carbohydrates causes fruit abscission to intensify in a variety of plant species. However, the precise mechanism by which carbohydrates affect fruit setting potential has yet to be determined. In the current study, we noticed negative correlation between hexose level and fruit setting by comparing different cultivars, bearing shoots of varying diameters, and girdling and defoliation treatments. The cumulative fruit-dropping rate was significantly reduced in response to exogenous glucose dipping. These results suggested that hexose, especially glucose, is the key player in lowering litchi fruit abscission. Moreover, five putative litchi hexokinase genes (LcHXKs) were isolated and the subcellular localization as well as activity of their expressed proteins in catalyzing hexose phosphorylation were investigated. LcHXK2 was only found in mitochondria and expressed catalytic protein, whereas the other four HXKs were found in both mitochondria and nuclei and had no activity in catalyzing hexose phosphorylation. LcHXK1 and LcHXK4 were found in the same cluster as previously reported hexose sensors AtHXK1 and MdHXK1. Furthermore, VIGS-mediated silencing assay confirms that LcHXK1 suppression increases fruit abscission. These findings revealed that LcHXK1 functions as hexose sensor, negatively regulating litchi fruit abscission.

Genome-wide identification of the KNOTTED HOMEOBOX gene family and their involvement in stalk development in flowering Chinese cabbage

Gibberellin and cytokinin synergistically regulate the stalk development in flowering Chinese cabbage. KNOX proteins were reported to function as important regulators of the shoot apex to promote meristem activity by synchronously inducing CTK and suppressing GA biosynthesis, while their regulatory mechanism in the bolting and flowering is unknown. In this study, 9 BcKNOX genes were identified and mapped unevenly on 6 out of 10 flowering Chinese cabbage chromosomes. The BcKNOXs were divided into three subfamilies on the basis of sequences and gene structure. The proteins contain four conserved domains except for BcKNATM. Three BcKNOX TFs (BcKNOX1, BcKNOX3, and BcKNOX5) displayed high transcription levels on tested tissues at various stages. The major part of BcKNOX genes showed preferential expression patterns in response to low-temperature, zeatin (ZT), and GA₃ treatment, indicating that they were involved in bud differentiation and bolting. BcKNOX1 and BcKNOX5 showed high correlation level with gibberellins synthetase, and CTK metabolic genes. BcKONX1 also showed high correlation coefficients within BcRGA1 and BcRGL1 which are negative regulators of GA signaling. In addition, BcKNOX1 interacted with BcRGA1 and BcRGL1, as confirmed by yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) and biomolecular fluorescence complementation assay (BiFC). This analysis has provided useful foundation for the future functional roles' analysis of flowering Chinese cabbage KNOX genes.

A SlCLV3-SlWUS module regulates auxin and ethylene homeostasis in low light-induced tomato flower abscission

Premature abscission of flowers and fruits triggered by low light stress can severely reduce crop yields. However, the underlying molecular mechanism of this organ abscission is not fully understood. Here, we show that a gene (SlCLV3) encoding CLAVATA3 (CLV3), a peptide hormone that regulates stem cell fate in meristems, is highly expressed in the pedicel abscission zone (AZ) in response to low light in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). SlCLV3 knockdown and knockout lines exhibit delayed low light-induced flower drop. The receptor kinases SlCLV1 and BARELY ANY MERISTEM1 function in the SlCLV3 peptide-induced low light response in the AZ to decrease expression of the transcription factor gene WUSCHEL (SlWUS). DNA affinity purification sequencing identified the transcription factor genes KNOX-LIKE HOMEDOMAIN PROTEIN1 (SlKD1) and FRUITFULL2 (SlFUL2) as SlWUS target genes. Our data reveal that low light reduces SlWUS expression, resulting in higher SlKD1 and SlFUL2 expression in the AZ, thereby perturbing the auxin response gradient and causing increased ethylene production, eventually leading to the initiation of abscission. These results demonstrate that the SlCLV3-SlWUS signaling pathway plays a central role in low light-induced abscission by affecting auxin and ethylene homeostasis.

Genome-Wide Identification of the DOF Gene Family Involved in Fruitlet Abscission in Areca catechu L

Fruitlet abscission frequently occurs in Areca catechu L. and causes considerable production loss. However, the inducement mechanism of fruitlet abscission remains mysterious. In this study, we observed that the cell architecture in the abscission zone (AZ) was distinct with surrounding tissues, and varied obviously before and after abscission. Transcriptome analysis of the “about-to-abscise” and “non-abscised” AZs were performed in A. catechu, and the genes encoding the plant-specific DOF (DNA-binding with one finger) transcription factors showed a uniform up-regulation in AZ, suggesting a role of the DOF transcription in A. catechu fruitlet abscission. In total, 36 members of the DOF gene family distributed in 13 chromosomes were identified from the A. catechu genome. The 36 AcDOF genes were classified into nine subgroups based on phylogenic analysis. Six of them showed an AZ-specific expression pattern, and their expression levels varied according to the abscission process. In total, nine types of phytohormone response cis-elements and five types of abiotic stress related cis-elements were identified in the promoter regions of the AcDOF genes. In addition, histochemical staining showed that lignin accumulation of vascular bundles in AZ was significantly lower than that in pedicel and mesocarp, indicating the specific characteristics of the cell architecture in AZ. Our data suggests that the DOF transcription factors might play a role in fruitlet abscission regulation in A. catechu.

Genome-wide identification of three-amino-acid-loop-extension gene family and their expression profile under hormone and abiotic stress treatments during stem development of Prunus mume

Transcription factors encoded by the three-amino-acid-loop-extension (TALE) gene family play a key role in regulating plant growth and development, and are involved in plant hormone regulatory pathways and responses to various environmental stresses. Researchers are currently studying TALE genes in different species, but Prunus mume TALE genes have not yet been studied. Therefore, based on the P. mume genome, we found a total of 23 TALE gene family members, which were distributed on eight chromosomes. TALE genes contained the characteristic domains of this family, and could be divided into KNOTTED-like homeobox (KNOX) subfamily and BEL1-like homeobox (BELL) subfamily. They can form heterodimers with each other. Fragment duplication and tandem duplication events were the main reasons for the expansion of P. mume TALE gene family members and the TALE genes were selected by different degrees of purification. The inter-species collinearity analysis showed that the relationship between P. mume and other four Prunus species was consistent with the distance of origin. Eleven members of P. mume TALE genes were specifically highly expressed in stem, mainly at the early stage of stem development. The cis-element analysis showed that the promoter of P. mume TALE genes contained a variety of hormone and abiotic stress response elements, and four TALE genes responded to two kinds of abiotic stresses and four kinds of hormones at the early stage of stem development. In conclusion, this study lays a foundation to explore the role of TALE gene family in P. mume growth and development.

EPIP as an abscission promoting agent in the phytohormonal pathway

Understanding the mechanisms underlying the activation of the abscission zone (AZ) responsible for organ separation from plant body in crop species will help improve their yielding and economic importance. Special attention has been given recently to the role of the INFLORESCENCE DEFICIENT IN ABSCISSION protein, particularly its functional fragment, EPIP peptide. Its stimulatory effect on abscission in different crops has been demonstrated. Recently we described the role of EPIP in the redox, lipid, and pectin-related events taking place in AZ of Lupinus luteus flowers, which undergo massive abscission in natural conditions. To further examine EPIP contribution in AZ functioning, here, we analyze its impact on the ultrastructural changes, synthesis of two hormonal abscission stimulators - abscisic acid (ABA) and ethylene (ET), and the appearance of phosphoproteins. As our results show, the response of flower AZ to exogenous EPIP involves the induction of distinct modifications related to the one hand with upregulation of cell activity but on the other hand degradation processes and possible autophagy. Furthermore, the EPIP stimulated biosynthesis pathways of ABA and ET precisely in AZ cells. In addition, progressive phosphorylation of proteins has been observed under EPIP influence. The highly accumulated ones were identified as those, related to primary metabolism and reactive oxygen species homeostasis, and their role in abscission has been discussed. To summarizing, the presented detailed description of EPIP action in AZ cells in combination with our previous data offers new insights into its regulatory function and provides opportunities to counteract excessive flower abscission in lupine.

BREVIPEDICELLUS and ERECTA control the expression of AtPRX17 to prevent Arabidopsis callus browning

Efficient in vitro callus generation is required for tissue culture propagation, a process that allows for plant regeneration and transgenic breeding for desired phenotypes. Identifying genes and regulatory elements that prevent impaired callus growth and callus browning is essential for the development of in vitro callus systems. Here, we show that the BREVIPEDICELLUS and ERECTA pathways in Arabidopsis calli converge to prevent callus browning, and positively regulate the expression of the isoperoxidase gene AtPRX17 in rapidly growing calli. Loss-of-function mutations in both BREVIPEDICELLUS and ERECTA resulted in markedly increased callus browning. Transgenic lines expressing 35S pro::AtPRX17 in the bp-5 er105 double mutant background fully rescued this phenotypic abnormality. Using in vivo (chromatin immunoprecipitation-PCR and transient expression) and in vitro (electrophoretic mobility shift assays) assays, we observed that the BREVIPEDICELLUS protein binds directly to the upstream sequence of AtPRX17 to promote its transcription during callus growth. ERECTA is a ubiquitous factor required for cell proliferation and growth. We show that ERECTA positively regulates the expression of the transcription factor WRKY6, which directly binds to a separate site on the AtPRX17 promoter, further increasing its expression. Our data reveal an important molecular mechanism involved in the regulation of peroxidase isozyme expression to reduce Arabidopsis callus browning.

The LcKNAT1-LcEIL2/3 Regulatory Module Is Involved in Fruitlet Abscission in Litchi

Large and premature organ abscission may limit the industrial development of fruit crops by causing serious economic losses. It is well accepted that ethylene (ET) is a strong inducer of organ abscission in plants. However, the mechanisms underlying the control of organ abscission by ET are largely unknown. We previously revealed that LcKNAT1, a KNOTTED-LIKE FROM ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA1 (KNAT1)-like protein, acted as a negative regulator in control of fruitlet abscission through suppressing the expression of ET biosynthetic genes in litchi. In this study, we further reported that LcKNAT1 could also directly repress the transcription of LcEIL2 and LcEIL3, two ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 3-like (EIL) homologs in litchi, which functioned as positive regulators in ET-activated fruitlet abscission by directly promoting the expression of genes responsible for ET biosynthesis and cell wall degradation. The expression level of LcKNAT1 was downregulated, while LcEIL2/3 was upregulated at the abscission zone (AZ) accompanying the fruitlet abscission in litchi. The results of electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) and transient expression showed that LcKNAT1 could directly bind to the promoters of LcEIL2 and LcEIL3 and repress their expression. Furthermore, the genetic cross demonstrated that the β-glucuronidase (GUS) expression driven by the promoters of LcEIL2 or LcEIL3 at the floral AZ was obviously suppressed by LcKNAT1 under stable transformation in Arabidopsis. Taken together, our findings suggest that the LcKNAT1-LcEIL2/3 regulatory module is likely involved in the fruitlet abscission in litchi, and we propose that LcKNAT1 could suppress both ET biosynthesis and signaling to regulate litchi fruit abscission.

TALE Transcription Factors in Sweet Orange (Citrus sinensis): Genome-Wide Identification, Characterization, and Expression in Response to Biotic and Abiotic Stresses

Three-amino-acid-loop-extension (TALE) transcription factors comprise one of the largest gene families in plants, in which they contribute to regulation of a wide variety of biological processes, including plant growth and development, as well as governing stress responses. Although sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) is among the most commercially important fruit crops cultivated worldwide, there have been relatively few functional studies on TALE genes in this species. In this study, we investigated 18 CsTALE gene family members with respect to their phylogeny, physicochemical properties, conserved motif/domain sequences, gene structures, chromosomal location, cis-acting regulatory elements, and protein-protein interactions (PPIs). These CsTALE genes were classified into two subfamilies based on sequence homology and phylogenetic analyses, and the classification was equally strongly supported by the highly conserved gene structures and motif/domain compositions. CsTALEs were found to be unevenly distributed on the chromosomes, and duplication analysis revealed that segmental duplication and purifying selection have been major driving force in the evolution of these genes. Expression profile analysis indicated that CsTALE genes exhibit a discernible spatial expression pattern in different tissues and differing expression patterns in response to different biotic/abiotic stresses. Of the 18 CsTALE genes examined, 10 were found to be responsive to high temperature, four to low temperature, eight to salt, and four to wounding. Moreover, the expression of CsTALE3/8/12/16 was induced in response to infection with the fungal pathogen Diaporthe citri and bacterial pathogen Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus, whereas the expression of CsTALE15/17 was strongly suppressed. The transcriptional activity of CsTALE proteins was also verified in yeast, with yeast two-hybrid assays indicating that CsTALE3/CsTALE8, CsTALE3/CsTALE11, CsTALE10/CsTALE12, CsTALE14/CsTALE8, CsTALE14/CsTALE11 can form respective heterodimers. The findings of this study could lay the foundations for elucidating the biological functions of the TALE family genes in sweet orange and contribute to the breeding of stress-tolerant plants.

Role of the KNOTTED1-LIKE HOMEOBOX protein (KD1) in regulating abscission of tomato flower pedicels at early and late stages of the process

The KNOTTED1-LIKE HOMEOBOX PROTEIN1 (KD1) gene is highly expressed in flower and leaf abscission zones (AZs), and KD1 was reported to regulate tomato flower pedicel abscission via alteration of the auxin gradient and response in the flower AZ (FAZ). The present work was aimed to further examine how KD1 regulates signaling factors and regulatory genes involved in pedicel abscission, by using silenced KD1 lines and performing a large-scale transcriptome profiling of the FAZ before and after flower removal, using a customized AZ-specific microarray. The results highlighted a differential expression of regulatory genes in the FAZ of KD1-silenced plants compared to the wild-type. In the TAPG4::antisense KD1-silenced plants, KD1 gene expression decreased before flower removal, resulting in altered expression of regulatory genes, such as epigenetic modifiers, transcription factors, posttranslational regulators, and antioxidative defense factors occurring at zero time and before affecting auxin levels in the FAZ detected at 4 h after flower removal. The expression of additional regulatory genes was altered in the FAZ of KD1-silenced plants at 4-20 h after flower removal, thereby leading to an inhibited abscission phenotype, and downregulation of genes involved in abscission execution and defense processes. Our data suggest that KD1 is a master regulator of the abscission process, which promotes abscission of tomato flower pedicels. This suggestion is based on the inhibitory effect of KD1 silencing on flower pedicel abscission that operates via alteration of various regulatory pathways, which delay the competence acquisition of the FAZ cells to respond to ethylene signaling.

Two citrus KNAT-like genes, CsKN1 and CsKN2, are involved in the regulation of spring shoot development in sweet orange

Shoot-tip abortion is a very common phenomenon in some perennial woody plants and it affects the height, architecture, and branch orientation of trees; however, little is currently known about the underlying mechanisms. In this study, we identified a gene in sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) encoding a KNAT-like protein (CsKN1) and found high expression in the shoot apical meristem (SAM). Overexpression of CsKN1 in transgenic plants prolonged the vegetative growth of SAMs, whilst silencing resulted in either the loss or inhibition of SAMs. Yeast two-hybrid analysis revealed that CsKN1 interacted with another citrus KNAT-like protein (CsKN2), and overexpression of CsKN2 in lemon and tobacco caused an extreme multiple-meristem phenotype. Overexpression of CsKN1 and CsKN2 in transgenic plants resulted in the differential expression of numerous genes related to hormone biosynthesis and signaling. Yeast one-hybrid analysis revealed that the CsKN1-CsKN2 complex can bind to the promoter of citrus floral meristem gene LEAFY (CsLFY) and inhibit its expression. These results indicated that CsKN1 might prolong the vegetative growth period of SAMs by delaying flowering. In addition, an ethylene-responsive factor (CsERF) was found to bind to the CsKN1 promoter and suppresses its transcription. Overexpression of CsERF in Arabidopsis increased the contents of ethylene and reactive oxygen species, which might induce the occurrence of shoot-tip abscission. On the basis of our results, we conclude that CsKN1 and CsKN2 might work cooperatively to regulate the shoot-tip abscission process in spring shoots of sweet orange.

IDA (INFLORESCENCE DEFICIENT IN ABSCISSION)-like peptides and HAE (HAESA)-like receptors regulate corolla abscission in Nicotiana benthamiana flowers

BACKGROUND

Abscission is an active, organized, and highly coordinated cell separation process enabling the detachment of aerial organs through the modification of cell-to-cell adhesion and breakdown of cell walls at specific sites on the plant body known as abscission zones. In Arabidopsis thaliana, abscission of floral organs and cauline leaves is regulated by the interaction of the hormonal peptide INFLORESCENCE DEFICIENT IN ABSCISSION (IDA), a pair of redundant receptor-like protein kinases, HAESA (HAE) and HAESA-LIKE2 (HSL2), and SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE (SERK) co-receptors. However, the functionality of this abscission signaling module has not yet been demonstrated in other plant species.

RESULTS

The expression of the pair of NbenIDA1 homeologs and the receptor NbenHAE.1 was supressed at the base of the corolla tube by the inoculation of two virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) constructs in Nicotiana benthamiana. These gene suppression events arrested corolla abscission but did not produce any obvious effect on plant growth. VIGS plants retained a higher number of corollas attached to the flowers than control plants, an observation related to a greater corolla breakstrength. The arrest of corolla abscission was associated with the preservation of the parenchyma tissue at the base of the corolla tube that, in contrast, was virtually collapsed in normal corollas. In contrast, the inoculation of a viral vector construct that increased the expression of NbenIDA1A at the base of the corolla tube negatively affected the growth of the inoculated plants accelerating the timing of both corolla senescence and abscission. However, the heterologous ectopic overexpression of citrus CitIDA3 and Arabidopsis AtIDA in N. benthamiana did not alter the standard plant phenotype suggesting that the proteolytic processing machinery was unable to yield active peptides.

CONCLUSION

Here, we demonstrate that the pair of NbenIDA1 homeologs encoding small peptides of the IDA-like family and the receptor NbenHAE.1 control cellular breakdown at the base of the corolla tube awhere an adventitious AZ should be formed and, therefore, corolla abscission in N. benthamiana flowers. Altogether, our results provide the first evidence supporting the notion that the IDA-HAE/HSL2 signaling module is conserved in angiosperms.

LcERF2 modulates cell wall metabolism by directly targeting a UDP-glucose-4-epimerase gene to regulate pedicel development and fruit abscission of litchi

Elucidating the biochemical and molecular basis of premature abscission in fruit crops should help develop strategies to enhance fruit set and yield. Here, we report that LcERF2 contributes to differential abscission rates and responses to ethylene in Litchi chinensis (litchi). Reduced LcERF2 expression in litchi was observed to reduce fruit abscission, concurrent with enhanced pedicel growth and increased levels of hexoses, particularly galactose, as well as pectin abundance in the cell wall. Ecoptic expression of LcERF2 in Arabidopsis thaliana caused enhanced petal abscission, together with retarded plant growth and reduced pedicel galactose and pectin contents. Transcriptome analysis indicated that LcERF2 modulates the expression of genes involved in cell wall modification. Yeast one-hybrid, dual-luciferase reporter and electrophoretic mobility shift assays all demonstrated that a UDP-glucose-4-epimerase gene (LcUGE) was the direct downstream target of LcERF2. This result was further supported by a significant reduction in the expression of the A. thaliana homolog AtUGE2-4 in response to LcERF2 overexpression. Significantly reduced pedicel diameter and enhanced litchi fruit abscission were observed in response to LcUGE silencing. We conclude that LcERF2 mediates fruit abscission by orchestrating cell wall metabolism, and thus pedicel growth, in part by repressing the expression of LcUGE.

MdKNOX19, a class II knotted-like transcription factor of apple, plays roles in ABA signalling/sensitivity by targeting ABI5 during organ development

The ABI5 transcription factor, which is a core component of the ABA signaling pathway, affects various plant processes, including seed development and germination and responses to environmental cues. The knotted1-like homeobox (KNOX) transcription factor has crucial functions related to plant development, including the regulation of various hormones. In this study, an ABA-responsive KNOX gene, MdKNOX19, was identified in apple (Malus domestica). The overexpression of MdKNOX19 increased the ABA sensitivity of apple calli, resulting in a dramatic up-regulation in the transcription of the Arabidopsis ABI5-like MdABI5 gene. Additionally, MdKNOX19 overexpression in Micro-Tom adversely affected fruit size and seed yield as well as enhanced ABA sensitivity and up-regulated SlABI5 transcription during seed germination and early seedling development. An examination of MdKNOX19-overexpressing Arabidopsis plants also revealed severe defects in seed development and up-regulated expression of ABA-responsive genes. Furthermore, we further confirmed that MdKNOX19 binds directly to the MdABI5 promoter to activate expression. Our findings suggest MdKNOX19 is a positive regulator of ABI5 expression, and the conserved module MdKNOX19-MdABI5-ABA may contribute to organ development.