Understanding Tobacco Use Behaviors Among African Americans: Progress, Critical Gaps, and Opportunities

Recruitment Methods, Inclusion, and Successful Participation in a Longitudinal Clinical Trial Using Ecological Momentary Assessment

Underrepresentation of historically marginalized populations in clinical trials continues to threaten the validity of health intervention research. Evidence supports the merits of intercept and other proactive forms of recruitment for achieving more equitable representation. However, researchers also report lower retention and adherence to protocols among these populations, particularly in longitudinal studies. Few studies have compared recruitment methods for longitudinal randomized trials testing health interventions, with even fewer having done so for trials involving ecological momentary assessment (EMA). As intervention research integrates EMA and other data collection approaches requiring substantial participant effort, it is critical to better understand the effectiveness and implications of strategies to improve the representativeness of health research. This secondary data analysis compared outcomes of proactive and reactive recruitment strategies (mobile lab intercepts and internet/flyer advertising, respectively) in study inclusion, task completion, and retention within a 14-day randomized controlled trial that used EMA to evaluate cigarette package health messages. Proactive recruitment resulted in higher proportions of participants with low income and education, limited health literacy, and of diverse racial/ethnic makeup. However, this recruitment method also resulted in lower task completion, especially in the second week of the trial period, and lower retention, although group differences were not explained by participant sociodemographic characteristics targeted by inclusion efforts. We conclude that proactive recruitment via intercepts is an effective strategy for health intervention research that aims to include stakeholders from historically marginalized groups but that researchers and funders must recognize these methods require additional resources, considerations, and capacity to address non-trivial challenges to successful participation.

Human Capital Development Factors and Black Adolescent Tobacco and Cannabis Use

INTRODUCTION

This study examined the association of four domains of human capital development (cognitive development, social and emotional development, physical health, and mental health) and exclusive and concurrent tobacco and cannabis use (TCU) among black youth.

AIMS AND METHODS

Nationally representative annual cross-sectional data for black adolescents (12-17 years; N = 9017) in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health 2015-2019 were analyzed. Analyses examined the influence of human capital factors (cognitive development, social and emotional development, physical health, and mental health) on exclusive and concurrent TCU.

RESULTS

In total, 50.4% were males; prevalence of 12-month tobacco use fluctuated insignificantly between 5.6% and 7.6% across survey years. Similarly, prevalence of 12-month cannabis use remained relatively stable around 13%, with no significant linear change. Prevalence of concurrent TCU also fluctuated insignificantly between 3.5% and 5.3%. Investment in cognitive development decreased the odds of tobacco (aOR = 0.58, p < .001), cannabis (aOR = 0.64, p < .001), and concurrent tobacco and cannabis (aOR = 0.58, p < .001) use. Similarly, investment in social and emotional development reduced the odds of tobacco (aOR = 086, p < .001), cannabis (aOR = 0.83, p < .001), and concurrent tobacco and cannabis (aOR = 0.81, p < .001) use. Good physical health reduced the odds of tobacco (aOR = 0.52, p < .1), cannabis (aOR = 0.63, p < .05), and concurrent TCU (aOR = 0.54, p < .05). Major depressive episodes increased the likelihood of cannabis use (aOR = 1.62, p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Investment in cognitive, social, and emotional aspects of human capital development, and physical health among black youth is protective against TCU. Efforts to sustain human capital development among black adolescents may contribute to reducing TCU disparities.

IMPLICATIONS

This is one of few studies to examine human capital development factors and their associations with TCU among black youth. Efforts to eliminate tobacco/cannabis-related disparities among black youth should also invest in social, emotional, cognitive, and physical health development opportunities.

Advancing racial equity and social justice for Black communities in US tobacco control policy

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) applies the Population Health Standard in tobacco product review processes by weighing anticipated health benefits against risks associated with a given commercial tobacco product at the population level. However, systemic racism (ie, discriminatory policies and practices) contributes to an inequitable distribution of tobacco-related health benefits and risks between white and Black/African Americans at the population level. Therefore, Black-centered, antiracist data standards for tobacco product review processes are needed to achieve racial equity and social justice in US tobacco control policy. Regardless of whether FDA implements such data standards, non-industry tobacco scientists should prioritise producing and disseminating Black-centred data relevant to FDA's regulatory authority. We describe how systemic racism contributes to disparities in tobacco-related outcomes and why these disparities are relevant for population-level risk assessments, then discuss four possible options for Black-centred data standards relevant to tobacco product review processes.

Inequitable distribution of FTP marketing by neighborhood characteristics: further evidence for targeted marketing

Introduction

Flavored tobacco products (FTPs) are disproportionately used among young people and racial/ethnic minority populations. However, few studies have examined the retail distribution of such product marketing beyond menthol cigarettes. This study created geographic-based predictions about marketing of FTPs (overall, cigarettes, cigars, e-cigarettes, and smokeless) in stores across Washington, DC neighborhoods. We examined neighborhood-level demographic correlates of the amount of FTP and non-FTP marketing.

Methods

We conducted photographic audits of interior and exterior tobacco marketing in 96 Washington, DC tobacco retailers visited by 149 young adult respondents between 2018–2019. We created a geographic predictive surface of overall and product-specific tobacco marketing and then estimated the average predicted amount of marketing at the census-tract level using zonal statistics. Using linear regression, we examined neighborhood demographic correlates (race/ethnicity, family poverty, and youth population under 18) of FTP and non-FTP marketing.

Results

The predicted amount of non-FTP ads/displays were evenly distributed with no neighborhood variability (Range 8.46–8.46). FTP marketing overall was geographically concentrated with greater range across neighborhoods (Range 6.27–16.77). Greater FTP marketing overall and flavored cigar marketing was available in neighborhoods with higher percentages of Black residents. Flavored cigar marketing was less available in neighborhoods with more Hispanic residents, but there was greater flavored smokeless tobacco marketing. Nonflavored marketing overall and by product did not vary across neighborhoods.

Conclusions

This study provides evidence of disproportionate distribution of FTP marketing in Black neighborhoods, especially for flavored cigars, at the point-of-sale. Policies that restrict the sale of FTPs may enhance health equity.

Implications

Tobacco marketing has frequently been shown to be more prevalent in neighborhoods with lower household income and more Black residents. Using geographic-based predictions, we find that greater flavored tobacco marketing in these neighborhoods, not decreased marketing for nonflavored tobacco, is driving this disparity. Targeting Black neighborhoods with increased marketing of flavored tobacco products, which has been found to be more appealing, easier to use, and harder to quit is a social justice issue.

Explaining the Black-White Disparity in Preterm Birth: A Consensus Statement From a Multi-Disciplinary Scientific Work Group Convened by the March of Dimes

In 2017–2019, the March of Dimes convened a workgroup with biomedical, clinical, and epidemiologic expertise to review knowledge of the causes of the persistent Black-White disparity in preterm birth (PTB). Multiple databases were searched to identify hypothesized causes examined in peer-reviewed literature, 33 hypothesized causes were reviewed for whether they plausibly affect PTB and either occur more/less frequently and/or have a larger/smaller effect size among Black women vs. White women. While definitive proof is lacking for most potential causes, most are biologically plausible. No single downstream or midstream factor explains the disparity or its social patterning, however, many likely play limited roles, e.g., while genetic factors likely contribute to PTB, they explain at most a small fraction of the disparity. Research links most hypothesized midstream causes, including socioeconomic factors and stress, with the disparity through their influence on the hypothesized downstream factors. Socioeconomic factors alone cannot explain the disparity's social patterning. Chronic stress could affect PTB through neuroendocrine and immune mechanisms leading to inflammation and immune dysfunction, stress could alter a woman's microbiota, immune response to infection, chronic disease risks, and behaviors, and trigger epigenetic changes influencing PTB risk. As an upstream factor, racism in multiple forms has repeatedly been linked with the plausible midstream/downstream factors, including socioeconomic disadvantage, stress, and toxic exposures. Racism is the only factor identified that directly or indirectly could explain the racial disparities in the plausible midstream/downstream causes and the observed social patterning. Historical and contemporary systemic racism can explain the racial disparities in socioeconomic opportunities that differentially expose African Americans to lifelong financial stress and associated health-harming conditions. Segregation places Black women in stressful surroundings and exposes them to environmental hazards. Race-based discriminatory treatment is a pervasive stressor for Black women of all socioeconomic levels, considering both incidents and the constant vigilance needed to prepare oneself for potential incidents. Racism is a highly plausible, major upstream contributor to the Black-White disparity in PTB through multiple pathways and biological mechanisms. While much is unknown, existing knowledge and core values (equity, justice) support addressing racism in efforts to eliminate the racial disparity in PTB.

Divergent trends in lifetime drinking and smoking between Black and White Americans diagnosed with chronic pancreatitis

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Black Americans are at increased risk of chronic pancreatitis (CP) compared to their White counterparts. We aimed to describe the race-specific smoking history and lifetime drinking in patients diagnosed with CP.

METHODS

We analyzed data on 334 Black and White CP participants of the North American Pancreatitis Study 2 Continuation and Validation Study and Ancillary Study. Lifetime drinking history and lifetime smoking history were collected through in-person interviews. Intensity, frequency, duration and current status of drinking and smoking were compared between Black and White CP participants, stratified by physician-defined alcohol etiology. In addition, drinking levels at each successive decades in life (20s, 30s, 40s) were compared by race and graphically portrayed as heat diagrams.

RESULTS

Among patients with alcoholic CP, current smoking levels were not different by race (67-70%), but a smaller proportion of Black patients reported having smoked 1 or more packs per day in the past (32%) as compared to White patients (58%, p < 0.0001). Black patients were more likely to report current consumption of alcohol (31%), as opposed to White patients (17%, p = 0.016). Black patients also reported more intense drinking at age 35 and 45 years as compared to White patients, while age at CP onset were similar between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

We found more intense drinking but less intense smoking history in Black CP patients as compared to White CP patients. Effective alcohol abstinence and smoking cessation program with sustained impact are needed in CP patients.

Ethnic and Socioeconomic Disparities in Recalled Exposure to and Self-Reported Impact of Tobacco Marketing and Promotions

The role of tobacco marketing in tobacco use, particularly among the vulnerable ethnic and socioeconomic sub-populations is a regulatory priority of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. There currently exist both ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in the use of tobacco products. Monitoring such inequalities in exposure to tobacco marketing is essential to inform tobacco regulatory policy that may reduce known tobacco-related health disparities. We use data from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Wave 1 youth survey to examine (1) recalled exposure to and liking of tobacco marketing for cigarettes, non-large cigars, and e-cigarettes, (2) self-reported exposure to specific tobacco marketing tactics, namely coupons, sweepstakes, and free samples, and (3) self-reported impact of tobacco marketing and promotions on product use. Findings indicate that African Americans and those of lower SES were more likely to recall having seen cigarette and non-large cigar ads. Reported exposure to coupons, sweepstakes and free samples also varied ethnically and socioeconomically. African Americans and those of lower SES were more likely than other respondents to report that marketing and promotions as played a role in their tobacco product use. Better understanding of communication inequalities and their influence on product use is needed to inform tobacco regulatory action that may reduce tobacco company efforts to target vulnerable groups. Tobacco education communication campaigns focusing on disproportionately affected groups could help counter the effects of targeted industry marketing.

Race, sex, and physician communication about tobacco as predictors of adolescent smoking trajectories in a primarily African American sample

This study identified latent classes of adolescent smoking and examined race, gender, and physician communication (PC) as predictors of class membership. Data were drawn from five waves of a large (N = 3,049), diverse (82.9% African American) study. Several latent classes were identified: nonsmoker, quitter, early-onset escalating smoking, early-onset stable high smoking, late-onset smoking, and declining smoking. Males, Whites, and teens who received PC were more likely to be in classes with more smoking. Our study identified several youth smoking patterns and differences in smoking based on race, gender, and receipt of PC.

Perceived discrimination and cardiovascular health disparities: a multisystem review and health neuroscience perspective

There are distinct racial disparities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, with Black individuals at much greater risk than White individuals. Although many factors contribute to these disparities, recent attention has focused on the role of discrimination as a stress-related factor that contributes to racial disparities in CVD. As such, it is important to understand the mechanisms by which discrimination might affect CVD. Recent studies have examined these mechanisms by focusing on neurobiological mediators of CVD risk. Given this increase in studies, a systematic review of perceived discrimination and neurobiological mediators of CVD risk is warranted. Our review uses a multisystem approach to review studies on the relationship between perceived discrimination and (1) cardiovascular responses to stress, (2) hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis function, and (3) the immune system, as well as (4) the brain systems thought to regulate these parameters of peripheral physiology. In addition to summarizing existing evidence, our review integrates these findings into a conceptual model describing multidirectional pathways linking perceived discrimination with a CVD risk.

Gender and Menthol Cigarette Use in the United States: A Systematic Review of the Recent Literature (2011 - May 2017)

Purpose of review

To summarize current research on gender differences in mentholated cigarette use and related outcomes. Secondarily, to summarize literature on gender differences in mentholated cigarette use and related outcomes among Black smokers.

Recent findings

Women smokers are more likely to use menthol cigarettes than men. Other than prevalence, there is a paucity of research on gender differences in menthol related outcomes (e.g., cessation, disease). Among both women and men, menthol preference is stable during adolescence and young adulthood. A substantial portion of both women and men who smoke menthol report an expectation of quitting should menthol be banned. We did not identify any studies of gender differences in mentholated cigarette use among Black smokers.

Summary

Despite public health relevance, there is little current research on gender differences in mentholated cigarette use, other than studies of prevalence, and very little research on gender differences among Black smokers, including prevalence.

Impact of Menthol Smoking on Nicotine Dependence for Diverse Racial/Ethnic Groups of Daily Smokers

Introduction: The aims of this study were to evaluate whether menthol smoking and race/ethnicity are associated with nicotine dependence in daily smokers. Methods: The study used two subsamples of U.S. daily smokers who responded to the 2010–2011 Tobacco Use Supplement to the Current Population Survey. The larger subsample consisted of 18,849 non-Hispanic White (NHW), non-Hispanic Black (NHB), and Hispanic (HISP) smokers. The smaller subsample consisted of 1112 non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native (AIAN), non-Hispanic Asian (ASIAN), non-Hispanic Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (HPI), and non-Hispanic Multiracial (MULT) smokers. Results: For larger (smaller) groups the rates were 45% (33%) for heavy smoking (16+ cig/day), 59% (51%) for smoking within 30 min of awakening (Sw30), and 14% (14%) for night-smoking. Overall, the highest prevalence of menthol smoking corresponded to NHB and HPI (≥65%), followed by MULT and HISP (31%–37%), and then by AIAN, NHW, and ASIAN (22%–27%) smokers. For larger racial/ethnic groups, menthol smoking was negatively associated with heavy smoking, not associated with Sw30, and positively associated with night-smoking. For smaller groups, menthol smoking was not associated with any measure, but the rates of heavy smoking, Sw30, and night-smoking varied across the groups. Conclusions: The diverse associations between menthol smoking and nicotine dependence maybe due to distinction among the nicotine dependence measures, i.e., individually, each measure assesses a specific smoking behavior. Menthol smoking may be associated with promoting smoking behaviors.