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Devillier VM, Hall ER, Lovko V, Pierce R, Anderson DM, Lewis KA. Mesocosm study of PAC-modified clay effects on Karenia brevis cells and toxins, chemical dynamics, and benthic invertebrate physiology. HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 134:102609. [PMID: 38705612 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
Modified clay compounds are used globally as a method of controlling harmful algal blooms, and their use is currently under consideration to control Karenia brevis blooms in Florida, USA. In 1400 L mesocosm tanks, chemical dynamics and lethal and sublethal impacts of MC II, a polyaluminum chloride (PAC)-modified kaolinite clay, were evaluated over 72 h on a benthic community representative of Sarasota Bay, which included blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), sea urchin (Lytechinus variegatus), and hard clam (Mercenaria campechiensis). In this experiment, MC II was dosed at 0.2 g L-1 to treat bloom-level densities of K. brevis at 1 × 106 cells L-1. Cell removal in MC II-treated tanks was 57% after 8 h and 95% after 48 h. In the water column, brevetoxin analogs BTx-1 and BTx-2 were found to be significantly higher in untreated tanks at 24 and 48 h, while in MC II-treated tanks, BTx-3 was found to be higher at 48 h and BTx-B5 was found to be higher at 24 and 48 h. In MC II floc, we found no significant differences in BTx-1 or BTx-2 between treatments for any time point, while BTx-3 was found to be significantly higher in the MC II-treated tanks at 48 and 72 h, and BTx-B5 was higher in MC II-treated tanks at 24 and 72 h. Among various chemical dynamics observed, it was notable that dissolved phosphorus was consistently significantly lower in MC II tanks after 2 h, and that turbidity in MC II tanks returned to control levels 48 h after treatment. Dissolved inorganic carbon and total seawater alkalinity were significantly reduced in MC II tanks, and partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) was significantly higher in the MC II-only treatment after 2 h. In MC II floc, particulate phosphorus was found to be significantly higher in MC II tanks after 24 h. In animals, lethal and sublethal responses to MC II-treated K. brevis did not differ from untreated K. brevis for either of our three species at any time point, suggesting MC II treatment at this dosage has negligible impacts to these species within 72 h of exposure. These results appear promising in terms of the environmental safety of MC II as a potential bloom control option, and we recommend scaling up MC II experiments to field trials in order to gain deeper understanding of MC II performance and dynamics in natural waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria M Devillier
- National Center for Integrated Coastal Research, Department of Biology, University of Central Florida, Research 1, 4353 Scorpius St., Orlando, FL, 32816, USA
| | - Emily R Hall
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Pkwy, Sarasota, FL, 34236, USA
| | - Vince Lovko
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Pkwy, Sarasota, FL, 34236, USA
| | - Richard Pierce
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Pkwy, Sarasota, FL, 34236, USA
| | - Donald M Anderson
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 86 Water St, Falmouth, MA, 02543, USA
| | - Kristy A Lewis
- University of Rhode Island, Graduate School of Oceanography, 215 S Ferry Rd, Narragansett, RI, 02882, USA.
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Devillier VM, Hall ER, Anderson DM, Lewis KA. Exposure of blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) to modified clay treatment of Karenia brevis as a bloom control strategy. HARMFUL ALGAE 2023; 128:102492. [PMID: 37714578 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2023.102492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) of the toxic marine dinoflagellate Karenia brevis, commonly called red tides, are an ongoing threat to human health and marine ecosystems in Florida. Clay flocculation is a standard control strategy for marine HABs in China and Korea and is currently being assessed for use in the United States. We evaluated the effects of a PAC-modified clay called Modified Clay II on mortality, eyestalk reflexes, and righting reflexes of 48 adult blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). Crabs were exposed to clay alone (0.5 g L - 1), untreated K. brevis (1 × 106 cells L - 1), or a combination of K. brevis and clay for eight days. Clay treatment reduced cell concentrations in the water column by 95% after 24 h. We detected no significant differences in mortality, righting reflexes, or eyestalk reflexes between treatments. Our results indicate that the clay alone is not harmful to adult crabs at typical treatment concentrations within the measured time frame, and that treatment of K. brevis with this clay appears to have a negligible impact on crab mortality and the reflex variables we measured. These results suggest that Modified Clay II may be a viable option to treat K. brevis blooms without impacting adult blue crab populations. Additional controlled experiments and field tests are needed to further evaluate the impact of clay on natural benthic communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria M Devillier
- University of Central Florida, National Center for Integrated Coastal Research, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Emily R Hall
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Pkwy, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA
| | - Donald M Anderson
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, MS # 32, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| | - Kristy A Lewis
- University of Central Florida, National Center for Integrated Coastal Research, Orlando, FL, USA.
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Finol-Urdaneta RK, Zhorov BS, Baden DG, Adams DJ. Brevetoxin versus Brevenal Modulation of Human Nav1 Channels. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:396. [PMID: 37504927 PMCID: PMC10382042 DOI: 10.3390/md21070396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Brevetoxins (PbTx) and brevenal are marine ladder-frame polyethers. PbTx binds to and activates voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channels in native tissues, whereas brevenal antagonizes these actions. However, the effects of PbTx and brevenal on recombinant Nav channel function have not been systematically analyzed. In this study, the PbTx-3 and brevenal modulation of tissue-representative Nav channel subtypes Nav1.2, Nav1.4, Nav1.5, and Nav1.7 were examined using automated patch-clamp. While PbTx-3 and brevenal elicit concentration-dependent and subtype-specific modulatory effects, PbTx-3 is >1000-fold more potent than brevenal. Consistent with effects observed in native tissues, Nav1.2 and Nav1.4 channels were PbTx-3- and brevenal-sensitive, whereas Nav1.5 and Nav1.7 appeared resistant. Interestingly, the incorporation of brevenal in the intracellular solution caused Nav channels to become less sensitive to PbTx-3 actions. Furthermore, we generated a computational model of PbTx-2 bound to the lipid-exposed side of the interface between domains I and IV of Nav1.2. Our results are consistent with competitive antagonism between brevetoxins and brevenal, setting a basis for future mutational analyses of Nav channels' interaction with brevetoxins and brevenal. Our findings provide valuable insights into the functional modulation of Nav channels by brevetoxins and brevenal, which may have implications for the development of new Nav channel modulators with potential therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocio K Finol-Urdaneta
- Illawarra Health & Medical Research Institute (IHMRI), Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Boris S Zhorov
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
- I.M. Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 194223 Saint Petersburg, Russia
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Daniel G Baden
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington MARBIONC, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
| | - David J Adams
- Illawarra Health & Medical Research Institute (IHMRI), Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
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Yu S, Zhou X, Hu P, Chen H, Shen F, Yu C, Meng H, Zhang Y, Wu Y. Inhalable particle-bound marine biotoxins in a coastal atmosphere: Concentration levels, influencing factors and health risks. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 434:128925. [PMID: 35460997 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Characterizing marine biotoxins (MBs) composition in coastal aerosol particles has become essential to tracking sources of atmospheric contaminants and assessing human inhalable exposure risks to air particles. Here, coastal aerosol particles were collected over an almost 3-year period for the analysis of eight representative MBs, including brevetoxin (BTX), okadaic acid (OA), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2), domoic acid (DA), tetrodotoxin (TTX), saxitoxin (STX), ciguatoxin (CTX) and ω-Conotoxin. Our data showed that the levels of inhalable airborne marine biotoxins (AMBs) varied greatly among the subcategories and over time. Both in daytime and nighttime, a predominance of coarse-mode AMB particles was found for all the target AMBs. Based on the experimental data, we speculate that an ambient AMB might have multiple sources/production pathways, which include air-sea aerosol production and direct generation and release from toxigenic microalgae/bacteria suspended in surface seawater or air, and different sources may make different contribution. Regardless of the subcategory, the highest deposition efficiency of an individual AMB was found in the head airway region, followed by the alveolar and tracheobronchial regions. This study provides new information about inhalable MBs in the coastal atmosphere. The coexistence of various particle-bound MBs raises concerns about potential health risks from exposure to coastal air particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Yu
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Xuedong Zhou
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Peiwen Hu
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Haoxuan Chen
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Fangxia Shen
- School of Space and Environment, Beihang University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Chenglin Yu
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - He Meng
- Qingdao Eco-Environment Monitoring Center of Shandong Province, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Institute of Marine Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Yan Wu
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China.
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Annunziato M, Eeza MNH, Bashirova N, Lawson A, Matysik J, Benetti D, Grosell M, Stieglitz JD, Alia A, Berry JP. An integrated systems-level model of the toxicity of brevetoxin based on high-resolution magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (HRMAS NMR) metabolic profiling of zebrafish embryos. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 803:149858. [PMID: 34482148 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Brevetoxins (PbTx) are a well-recognized group of neurotoxins associated with harmful algal blooms, and specifically recurrent "Florida Red Tides," in marine waters that are linked to impacts on both human and ecosystem health including well-documented "fish kills" and marine mammal mortalities in affected coastal waters. Understanding mechanisms and pathways of PbTx toxicity enables identification of relevant biomarkers to better understand these environmental impacts, and improve monitoring efforts, in relation to this toxin. Toward a systems-level understanding of toxicity, and identification of potential biomarkers, high-resolution magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (HRMAS NMR) was utilized for metabolic profiling of zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos, as an established toxicological model, exposed to PbTx-2 (the most common congener in marine waters). Metabolomics studies were, furthermore, complemented by an assessment of the toxicity of PbTx-2 in embryonic stages of zebrafish and mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus), the latter representing an ecologically and geographically relevant marine species of fish, which identified acute embryotoxicity at environmentally relevant (i.e., parts-per-billion) concentrations in both species. HRMAS NMR analysis of intact zebrafish embryos exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of PbTx-2 afforded well-resolved spectra, and in turn, identification of 38 metabolites of which 28 were found to be significantly altered, relative to controls. Metabolites altered by PbTx-2 exposure specifically included those associated with (1) neuronal excitotoxicity, as well as associated neural homeostasis, and (2) interrelated pathways of carbohydrate and energy metabolism. Metabolomics studies, thereby, enabled a systems-level model of PbTx toxicity which integrated multiple metabolic, molecular and cellular pathways, in relation to environmentally relevant concentrations of the toxin, providing insight to not only targets and mechanisms, but potential biomarkers pertinent to environmental risk assessment and monitoring strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Annunziato
- Institute of Environment, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151st Street, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Muhamed N H Eeza
- Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany; Institute for Analytical Chemistry, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Narmin Bashirova
- Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany; Institute for Analytical Chemistry, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ariel Lawson
- Institute of Environment, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151st Street, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Jörg Matysik
- Institute for Analytical Chemistry, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Daniel Benetti
- Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Martin Grosell
- Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - John D Stieglitz
- Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - A Alia
- Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany; Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333 Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - John P Berry
- Institute of Environment, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151st Street, North Miami, FL 33181, USA; Biomolecular Science Institute, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th Street, Miami, FL 33199, USA.
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6
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Shen H, Song X, Zhang Y, Zhang P, Li J, Song W, Yu Z. Profiling of Brevetoxin Metabolites Produced by Karenia brevis 165 Based on Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13050354. [PMID: 34069292 PMCID: PMC8156667 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13050354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, Karenia brevis 165 (K. brevis 165), a Chinese strain, was used to research brevetoxin (BTX) metabolites. The sample pretreatment method for the enrichment of BTX metabolites in an algal culture medium was improved here. The method for screening and identifying intracellular and extracellular BTX metabolites was established based on liquid chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-ToF-MS) and liquid chromatography triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (LC-QqQ-MS/MS). The results show that the recovery rates for BTX toxins enriched by a hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) extraction column were higher than those with a C18 extraction column. This method was used to analyze the profiles of extracellular and intracellular BTX metabolites at different growth stages of K. brevis 165. This is the first time a Chinese strain of K. brevis has been reported that can produce toxic BTX metabolites. Five and eight kinds of BTX toxin metabolites were detected in the cell and culture media of K. brevis 165, respectively. Brevenal, a toxic BTX metabolite antagonist, was found for the first time in the culture media. The toxic BTX metabolites and brevenal in the K. brevis 165 cell and culture media were found to be fully proven in terms of the necessity of establishing a method for screening and identifying toxic BTX metabolites. The results found by qualitatively and quantitatively analyzing BTX metabolites produced by K. brevis 165 at different growth stages show that the total toxic BTX metabolite contents in single cells ranged between 6.78 and 21.53 pg/cell, and the total toxin concentration in culture media ranged between 10.27 and 449.11 μg/L. There were significant differences in the types and contents of toxic BTX metabolites with varying growth stages. Therefore, when harmful algal blooms occur, the accurate determination of BTX metabolite types and concentrations will be helpful to assess the ecological disaster risk in order to avoid hazards and provide appropriate disaster warnings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huihui Shen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiuxian Song
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- Correspondence:
| | - Yue Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Peipei Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jing Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Weijia Song
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhiming Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
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7
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Gravinese PM, Munley MK, Kahmann G, Cole C, Lovko V, Blum P, Pierce R. The effects of prolonged exposure to hypoxia and Florida red tide (Karenia brevis) on the survival and activity of stone crabs. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 98:101897. [PMID: 33129455 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Florida red tides are harmful algae blooms caused by the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis, which occur along Florida's gulf coast almost annually. In recent years Florida red tide blooms have become more common, frequent, and intense. Florida's southwest coast, from Manatee to Collier County, has experienced repeated and prolonged K. brevis blooms since 2011 with the most recent bloom in 2017 lasting 17 months and resulting in both hypoxic and anoxic events. We therefore determined the survival and level of lethargy (e.g., lack of responsiveness or reduction in behavioral reactions) of sublegal stone crabs to K. brevis and hypoxia as both singular and simultaneous stressors. Crabs were randomly assigned to one of six treatments that included: 1) high concentration of toxic K. brevis (> 1 million cells L-1) maintained at normoxic levels (7.2 mg L-1 ± S.D. 0.47 dissolved oxygen), 2) moderate hypoxia (1.6 mg L-1 ± S.D. 0.42 dissolved oxygen) with no K. brevis, 3) moderate hypoxia (1.5 mg L-1 ± S.D. 0.43 dissolved oxygen) with a high concentration of K. brevis, 4) severe hypoxia with no K. brevis (0.69 mg L-1 ± S.D. 0.36 dissolved oxygen), 5) severe hypoxia (0.63 mg L-1 ± S.D. 0.40 dissolved oxygen) with a high concentration of K. brevis, and 6) a normoxic control (7.3 mg L-1 ± S.D. 0.61 dissolved oxygen) with no K. brevis. Survival and stone crab lethargy or responsiveness was monitored every 10-12 h for six days. Crabs simultaneously exposed to K. brevis and severe hypoxia exhibited a 43% decrease in survival and experienced increased lethargy within 24 h relative to the control (7% decrease in survival, no increase in lethargy). The increase in stress level and sluggish behavior during exposure to hypoxia was evident by a general lack of responsiveness or movement which indicates that nearshore populations of stone crabs are unlikely to emigrate away from such conditions suggesting that future harvests may be reduced following prolonged K. brevis blooms and hypoxic events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M Gravinese
- Mote Marine Laboratory, Fisheries Ecology and Enhancement Program, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States; Florida Southern College, Department of Biological Sciences, 111 Lake Hollingsworth Drive, Lakeland, FL 33801, United States.
| | - Mary Kate Munley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Hampshire, 38 Academic Way Durham, NH 03824, United States
| | - Grace Kahmann
- Department of Biology, Thomas More University, 333 Thomas More Parkway Crestview Hills, KY 41017, United States
| | - Cody Cole
- Phytoplankton Ecology Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States
| | - Vincent Lovko
- Phytoplankton Ecology Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States
| | - Patricia Blum
- Ecotoxicology Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States
| | - Richard Pierce
- Ecotoxicology Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States
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8
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Patel SS, Lovko VJ, Lockey RF. Red Tide: Overview and Clinical Manifestations. THE JOURNAL OF ALLERGY AND CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY-IN PRACTICE 2019; 8:1219-1223. [PMID: 31761688 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaip.2019.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms occur when toxin-producing algae grow rapidly. These occur worldwide and have significant impacts on aquatic ecosystems and on human health. Specifically, the toxic blooms of Karenia brevis in Florida may affect humans via inhalation or ingestion. On retrospective reviews, health care costs appear to rise during these outbreaks because of respiratory and gastrointestinal manifestations. Treatment for exposure is supportive care, though traditional inhalers may help with respiratory complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiven S Patel
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine and James A. Haley Veterans' Affairs Hospital, Tampa, Fla; Acadia Allergy & Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of South Carolina School of Medicine Greenville, Greenville, SC.
| | - Vincent J Lovko
- Phytoplankton Ecology Research Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, Fla
| | - Richard F Lockey
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine and James A. Haley Veterans' Affairs Hospital, Tampa, Fla
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9
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J Kramer B, J Bourdelais A, Kitchen SA, Taylor AR. Uptake and localization of fluorescently-labeled Karenia brevis metabolites in non-toxic marine microbial taxa. JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2019; 55:47-59. [PMID: 30239000 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.12787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Brevetoxin (PbTx) is a neurotoxic secondary metabolite of the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. We used a novel, fluorescent BODIPY-labeled conjugate of brevetoxin congener PbTx-2 (B-PbTx) to track absorption of the metabolite into a variety of marine microbes. The labeled toxin was taken up and brightly fluoresced in lipid-rich regions of several marine microbes including diatoms and coccolithophores. The microzooplankton (20-200 μm) tintinnid ciliate Favella sp. and the rotifer Brachionus rotundiformis also took up B-PbTx. Uptake and intracellular fluorescence of B-PbTx was weak or undetectable in phytoplankton species representative of dinoflagellates, cryptophytes, and cyanobacteria over the same (4 h) time course. The cellular fate of two additional BODIPY-conjugated K. brevis associated secondary metabolites, brevenal (B-Bn) and brevisin (B-Bs), were examined in all the species tested. All taxa exhibited minimal or undetectable fluorescence when exposed to the former conjugate, while most brightly fluoresced when treated with the latter. This is the first study to observe the uptake of fluorescently-tagged brevetoxin conjugates in non-toxic phytoplankton and zooplankton taxa, demonstrating their potential in investigating whether marine microbes can serve as a significant biological sink for algal toxins. The highly variable uptake of B-PbTx observed among taxa suggests some may play a more significant role than others in vectoring lipophilic toxins in the marine environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Kramer
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina, USA
| | - Andrea J Bourdelais
- MARBIONC, CREST Research Park, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina, USA
| | - Sheila A Kitchen
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina, USA
| | - Alison R Taylor
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina, USA
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Rolton A, Vignier J, Volety A, Shumway S, Bricelj VM, Soudant P. Impacts of exposure to the toxic dinoflagellate Karenia brevis on reproduction of the northern quahog, Mercenaria mercenaria. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2018; 202:153-162. [PMID: 30031906 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2018.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 07/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The Gulf of Mexico, including the southwest Florida coast, USA, experience recurrent blooms of the brevetoxin (PbTx)-producing dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis. Northern quahogs (hard clams) Mercenaria mercenaria, are an important commercial species in this region. This study examined the effects of field and laboratory exposure of adult clams to K. brevis during their reproductive period, and effects on their subsequently produced offspring. Ripe adult clams were collected from a site which had been exposed to an eight-month natural bloom of K. brevis and an unaffected reference site. Ripe adult clams were also exposed to bloom concentrations of K. brevis for 10 days in the laboratory. Clams exposed to K. brevis accumulated PbTx at concentrations of 1508 (field exposure), 1444 (1000 cells mL-1 laboratory treatment) and 5229 ng g-1 PbTx-3 eq (5000 cells mL-1 laboratory treatment). Field-exposed clams showed histopathological effects: a significantly higher prevalence of mucus in the stomach/ intestine (23.3%), edema in gill tissues (30%) and presence of the cestode parasite, Tylocephalum spp. in whole tissue (40%), compared to non-exposed clams (0, 3.3 and 6.7% respectively). These clams also showed reduced gonadal allocation (23% gonadal area) and a higher prevalence of clams of undetermined sex (20%) compared to those sampled from the non-exposed site (43% and 0%, respectively). It is hypothesized that less energy may be channeled into reproduction as more is allocated for homeostasis or tissue repair. The fertilization success of gametes obtained from both field and laboratory-exposed adults was significantly lower in clams that had been exposed to K. brevis and development of these offspring was negatively affected at Days 1 and 4 post-fertilization (in field- and laboratory-exposed clams at the higher K. brevis concentration and in laboratory-exposed clams at the higher K. brevis concentration, respectively). Negative effects may be due to toxin accumulation in the gametes of field-exposed clams (244 ± 50 ng PbTx g-1 and 470 ± 82 ng g-1 wet weight in oocytes and sperm, respectively). Adverse effects in M. mercenaria are compared to those previously reported in oysters, Crassostrea virginica, under similar conditions of exposure. This study provides further evidence of the impacts of K. brevis and its associated toxins on the adults and offspring of exposed shellfish. Site-selection for the collection of broodstock and aquaculture grow-out efforts should therefore consider the local occurrence of K. brevis blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Rolton
- Université de Bretagne Occidentale-IUEM, LEMAR CNRS UMR 6539, Place Nicolas Copernic, Technopôle Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France; Florida Gulf Coast University, College of Arts and Sciences, 10501 FGCU Blvd South, Fort Myers, FL 33965, United States.
| | - Julien Vignier
- Université de Bretagne Occidentale-IUEM, LEMAR CNRS UMR 6539, Place Nicolas Copernic, Technopôle Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France; Florida Gulf Coast University, College of Arts and Sciences, 10501 FGCU Blvd South, Fort Myers, FL 33965, United States
| | - Aswani Volety
- Florida Gulf Coast University, College of Arts and Sciences, 10501 FGCU Blvd South, Fort Myers, FL 33965, United States; University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 S. College Rd, Wilmington, NC 28403, United States
| | - Sandra Shumway
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, 1080 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States
| | - V Monica Bricelj
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ 08349, United States
| | - Philippe Soudant
- Université de Bretagne Occidentale-IUEM, LEMAR CNRS UMR 6539, Place Nicolas Copernic, Technopôle Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
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Gravinese PM, Kronstadt SM, Clemente T, Cole C, Blum P, Henry MS, Pierce RH, Lovko VJ. The effects of red tide (Karenia brevis) on reflex impairment and mortality of sublegal Florida stone crabs, Menippe mercenaria. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2018; 137:145-148. [PMID: 29571587 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2018.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Revised: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The Florida stone crab, Menippe mercenaria, is a major commercial fishery that occurs primarily along Florida's west coast, where harmful algal blooms of Karenia brevis frequently develop. To determine sublethal and lethal effects of K. brevis on M. mercenaria, we exposed sublegal stone crabs to three seawater treatments in laboratory conditions: no K. brevis (control), a low-toxin K. brevis strain (Wilson LT), and a toxic K. brevis (New Pass strain). Total food consumed, reflex impairment and survivorship of each crab was monitored throughout the nine-day experiment. Crabs in the toxic treatment consumed 67% less food. The probability of an individual losing a reflex significantly increased with time (days), and there was a 42% decrease in survivorship in the toxic treatment. This is the first study to demonstrate negative effects of K. brevis on the stone crab, presenting the critical need of further investigation to fully understand how red tide may impact sustainability of the fishery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M Gravinese
- Mote Marine Laboratory, Fisheries Ecology and Enhancement, 1600 Ken Thompson Way, Sarasota, FL, 34236-1096, USA.
| | - Stephanie M Kronstadt
- Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 100 Eighth Avenue SE, Saint Petersburg, FL, 33701-5020, USA
| | - Talib Clemente
- Mote Marine Laboratory, Fisheries Ecology and Enhancement, 1600 Ken Thompson Way, Sarasota, FL, 34236-1096, USA
| | - Cody Cole
- Mote Marine Laboratory, Fisheries Ecology and Enhancement, 1600 Ken Thompson Way, Sarasota, FL, 34236-1096, USA
| | - Patricia Blum
- Mote Marine Laboratory, Fisheries Ecology and Enhancement, 1600 Ken Thompson Way, Sarasota, FL, 34236-1096, USA
| | - Michael S Henry
- Mote Marine Laboratory, Fisheries Ecology and Enhancement, 1600 Ken Thompson Way, Sarasota, FL, 34236-1096, USA
| | - Richard H Pierce
- Mote Marine Laboratory, Fisheries Ecology and Enhancement, 1600 Ken Thompson Way, Sarasota, FL, 34236-1096, USA
| | - Vincent J Lovko
- Mote Marine Laboratory, Fisheries Ecology and Enhancement, 1600 Ken Thompson Way, Sarasota, FL, 34236-1096, USA
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Perrault JR, Bauman KD, Greenan TM, Blum PC, Henry MS, Walsh CJ. Maternal transfer and sublethal immune system effects of brevetoxin exposure in nesting loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) from western Florida. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 180:131-140. [PMID: 27716578 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2016.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Blooms of Karenia brevis (also called red tides) occur almost annually in the Gulf of Mexico. The health effects of the neurotoxins (i.e., brevetoxins) produced by this toxic dinoflagellate on marine turtles are poorly understood. Florida's Gulf Coast represents an important foraging and nesting area for a number of marine turtle species. Most studies investigating brevetoxin exposure in marine turtles thus far focus on dead and/or stranded individuals and rarely examine the effects in apparently "healthy" free-ranging individuals. From May-July 2014, one year after the last red tide bloom, we collected blood from nesting loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) on Casey Key, Florida USA. These organisms show both strong nesting and foraging site fidelity. The plasma was analyzed for brevetoxin concentrations in addition to a number of health and immune-related parameters in an effort to establish sublethal effects of this toxin. Lastly, from July-September 2014, we collected unhatched eggs and liver and yolk sacs from dead-in-nest hatchlings from nests laid by the sampled females and tested these samples for brevetoxin concentrations to determine maternal transfer and effects on reproductive success. Using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), all plasma samples from nesting females tested positive for brevetoxin (reported as ng brevetoxin-3[PbTx-3] equivalents [eq]/mL) exposure (2.1-26.7ng PbTx-3eq/mL). Additionally, 100% of livers (1.4-13.3ng PbTx-3eq/mL) and yolk sacs (1.7-6.6ng PbTx-3eq/mL) from dead-in-nest hatchlings and 70% of eggs (<1.0-24.4ng PbTx-3eq/mL) tested positive for brevetoxin exposure with the ELISA. We found that plasma brevetoxin concentrations determined by an ELISA in nesting females positively correlated with gamma-globulins, indicating a potential for immunomodulation as a result of brevetoxin exposure. While the sample sizes were small, we also found that plasma brevetoxin concentrations determined by an ELISA in nesting females significantly correlated with liver brevetoxin concentrations of dead-in-nest hatchlings and that brevetoxins could be related to a decreased reproductive success in this species. This study suggests that brevetoxins can still elicit negative effects on marine life long after a bloom has dissipated. These results improve our understanding of maternal transfer and sublethal effects of brevetoxin exposure in marine turtles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin R Perrault
- Marine Immunology Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA.
| | - Katherine D Bauman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Middlebury College, 14 Old Chapel Road, Middlebury, VT 05753, USA.
| | - Taylor M Greenan
- College of Arts and Sciences, University of South Florida Sarasota-Manatee, 8350 North Tamiami Trail, Sarasota, FL 34243, USA.
| | - Patricia C Blum
- Marine Immunology Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA.
| | - Michael S Henry
- Marine Immunology Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA.
| | - Catherine J Walsh
- Marine Immunology Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA.
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Rolton A, Vignier J, Volety AK, Pierce RH, Henry M, Shumway SE, Bricelj VM, Hégaret H, Soudant P. Effects of field and laboratory exposure to the toxic dinoflagellate Karenia brevis on the reproduction of the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, and subsequent development of offspring. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 57:13-26. [PMID: 30170718 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2016] [Revised: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Blooms of the brevetoxin-producing dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis, are a recurrent and sometimes devastating phenomenon in the Gulf of Mexico. The eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, is exposed regularly to these blooms, yet little is known about the impacts of K. brevis upon this important species. The present study considered the effects of exposure to both a natural bloom and cultured K. brevis on the reproductive development of C. virginica. Oysters had been exposed to a bloom of K. brevis that occurred in Lee County, Florida, from September 2012 through May 2013, during a period of gametogenesis and gamete ripening. Ripe adult oysters were collected from this bloom-exposed site and from a site 200 miles north which was not exposed to any bloom. In addition, responses to two 10-day laboratory exposures of either unripe or ripe adult oysters to whole cells of K. brevis at high bloom concentrations (1000 and 5000cellsmL-1) were determined. Both field- and laboratory-exposed adult oysters accumulated PbTx (attaining ∼22×103ngg-1 and 922ngg-1 PbTx-3 equivalents in the laboratory and the field, respectively), and significant mucal, edematous, and inflammatory features, indicative of a defense response, were recorded in adult tissues in direct contact with K. brevis cells. Laboratory-exposed oysters also showed an increase in the total number of circulating hemocytes suggesting that: (1) new hemocytes may be moving to sites of tissue inflammation, or, (2) hemocytes are released into the circulatory system from inflamed tissues where they may be produced. The area of oyster tissue occupied by gonad (representative of reproductive effort) and reactive oxygen species production in the spermatozoa of oysters exposed to the natural bloom of K. brevis were significantly lower compared to oysters that were not exposed to K. brevis. Additionally, following 10-day exposure of ripe oysters, a significant, 46% reduction in the prevalence of individuals with ripe gametes was obtained in the 5000cellsmL-1K. brevis treatment. Brevetoxin (PbTx) was recorded within the spermatozoa and oocytes of naturally exposed oysters and was estimated to be 18 and 26% of the adult PbTx load, respectively. Larvae derived from gametes containing PbTx showed significantly higher mortalities and attained a smaller larval size for the first 6 days post-fertilization. These negative effects on larval development may be due to the presence of PbTx in the lipid droplets of the oocytes, which is mobilized by the larvae during embryonic and lecithotrophic larval development. Provision of a non-contaminated food source to larvae however, appeared to mitigate the early negative effects of this neonatal PbTx exposure. Results herein show that adult eastern oysters and their offspring are susceptible to exposure to K. brevis. Caution should therefore be exercised when identifying oyster reef restoration areas and in efforts to establish aquaculture in areas prone to red tides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Rolton
- Université de Bretagne Occidentale-IUEM, LEMAR CNRS UMR 6539, Place Nicolas Copernic, Technopôle Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France; Florida Gulf Coast University, College of Arts and Sciences, 10501 FGCU Blvd South, Fort Myers, FL 33965, United States
| | - Julien Vignier
- Université de Bretagne Occidentale-IUEM, LEMAR CNRS UMR 6539, Place Nicolas Copernic, Technopôle Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France; Florida Gulf Coast University, College of Arts and Sciences, 10501 FGCU Blvd South, Fort Myers, FL 33965, United States
| | - Aswani K Volety
- Florida Gulf Coast University, College of Arts and Sciences, 10501 FGCU Blvd South, Fort Myers, FL 33965, United States.
| | - Richard H Pierce
- The Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States
| | - Michael Henry
- The Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States
| | - Sandra E Shumway
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, 1080 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States
| | - V Monica Bricelj
- Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences and Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ 08349, United States
| | - Hélène Hégaret
- Université de Bretagne Occidentale-IUEM, LEMAR CNRS UMR 6539, Place Nicolas Copernic, Technopôle Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Philippe Soudant
- Université de Bretagne Occidentale-IUEM, LEMAR CNRS UMR 6539, Place Nicolas Copernic, Technopôle Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
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Mead RN, Probst EE, Helms JR, Avery GB, Kieber RJ, Skrabal SA. Enhanced detection of the algal toxin PbTx-2 in marine waters by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2014; 28:2455-2460. [PMID: 25303474 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Revised: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Karenia brevis, a marine dinoflagellate, biosynthesizes a unique class of polyether toxins called brevetoxins that produce significant health, environmental and economic impacts in and along coastal waters. Previous application of liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry for detection of the most common brevetoxin, PbTx-2, has relied almost exclusively upon electrospray ionization (ESI). A different ionization source is proposed in this study with improved sensitivity ultimately leading to lower limit of detection compared to (+) ESI. METHODS Brevetoxin standards and samples (PbTx-2) were analyzed by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry using both (+) atmospheric pressure chemical ionization and (+) electrospray ionization sources. RESULTS LC/MS with (+) APCI exhibited an order of magnitude improvement in the limit of detection (7.7 × 10(-4) pg mass on-column) compared to the same method using (+) ESI (7.5 × 10(-3) pg mass on-column). The calibration sensitivity of (+) APCI (1.3 × 10(3)) was also five times higher than positive mode (+) ESI (0.26 × 10(3)). CONCLUSIONS Positive mode APCI represents a significant improvement in detection and quantification of PbTx-2 by LC/MS allowing for smaller sample sizes compared to previous studies using (+) ESI. This in turn leads to higher throughput of samples during and after bloom events giving stakeholders detailed information on the fate of this potent marine toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralph N Mead
- Marine and Atmospheric Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, 28403, USA
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Munday R, Reeve J. Risk assessment of shellfish toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:2109-37. [PMID: 24226039 PMCID: PMC3847717 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5112109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Revised: 10/23/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Complex secondary metabolites, some of which are highly toxic to mammals, are produced by many marine organisms. Some of these organisms are important food sources for marine animals and, when ingested, the toxins that they produce may be absorbed and stored in the tissues of the predators, which then become toxic to animals higher up the food chain. This is a particular problem with shellfish, and many cases of poisoning are reported in shellfish consumers each year. At present, there is no practicable means of preventing uptake of the toxins by shellfish or of removing them after harvesting. Assessment of the risk posed by such toxins is therefore required in order to determine levels that are unlikely to cause adverse effects in humans and to permit the establishment of regulatory limits in shellfish for human consumption. In the present review, the basic principles of risk assessment are described, and the progress made toward robust risk assessment of seafood toxins is discussed. While good progress has been made, it is clear that further toxicological studies are required before this goal is fully achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rex Munday
- AgResearch Ltd, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +64-7-838-5138; Fax: +64-7-838-5012
| | - John Reeve
- Ministry of Primary Industries, PO Box 2526, Wellington, New Zealand; E-Mail:
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Ruiz-de la Torre MC, Maske H, Ochoa J, Almeda-Jauregui CO. Maintenance of coastal surface blooms by surface temperature stratification and wind drift. PLoS One 2013; 8:e58958. [PMID: 23593127 PMCID: PMC3623857 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Algae blooms are an increasingly recurrent phenomenon of potentially socio-economic impact in coastal waters globally and in the coastal upwelling region off northern Baja California, Mexico. In coastal upwelling areas the diurnal wind pattern is directed towards the coast during the day. We regularly found positive Near Surface Temperature Stratification (NSTS), the resulting density stratification is expected to reduce the frictional coupling of the surface layer from deeper waters and allow for its more efficient wind transport. We propose that the net transport of the top layer of approximately 2.7 kilometers per day towards the coast helps maintain surface blooms of slow growing dinoflagellate such as Lingulodinium polyedrum. We measured: near surface stratification with a free-rising CTD profiler, trajectories of drifter buoys with attached thermographs, wind speed and direction, velocity profiles via an Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler, Chlorophyll and cell concentration from water samples and vertical migration using sediment traps. The ADCP and drifter data agree and show noticeable current shear within the first meters of the surface where temperature stratification and high cell densities of L. polyedrum were found during the day. Drifters with 1m depth drogue moved towards the shore, whereas drifters at 3 and 5 m depth showed trajectories parallel or away from shore. A small part of the surface population migrated down to the sea floor during night thus reducing horizontal dispersion. The persistent transport of the surface bloom population towards shore should help maintain the bloom in favorable environmental conditions with high nutrients, but also increasing the potential socioeconomic impact of the blooms. The coast wise transport is not limited to blooms but includes all dissolved and particulate constituents in surface waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Carmen Ruiz-de la Torre
- Biological Oceanography Department, Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico.
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